CHAPTER 1

STUDY OF V-n DIAGRAM

1. INTRODUCTION:
The V-n diagram is a graphical representation of an aircrafts flight envelope. This plot gives
us a clear indication of the structural and aerodynamic limitations of an aircraft. The V-n
diagram is basically a plot of velocity (equivalent air speed) to the load factor.
The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually come from the generation of lift during high-g
maneuvers. Even the fuselage is always structurally sized by the lift of the wing rather than the
air pressures produced directly on the fuselage. Aircraft load factor expresses the maneuvering of
an aircraft as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity. At lower speeds, the highest
load factor that an aircraft may experience is limited by the maximum lift available. At higher
speeds, the maximum load factor is limited to some arbitrary value based upon the expected use
of the aircraft.
Using the V-n diagram two important load factor values can be plotted, which are
1) Limit load factor- Value of load factor corresponding to which there is Permanent
structural deformation.
2) Ultimate Load factor Value of load factor corresponding to which there is outright
structural failure.
A chart of Velocity versus load factor (V-n diagram) is another way of showing limits
of aircraft performance. It shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different
airspeeds.
The maneuverability of the aircraft is also dictated by the loads falling on the structures
during the maneuvers. Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for a given airplane are
illustrated in the V-n diagram, a plot of load factor versus flight velocity. A V-n diagram is type
of flight envelope for the aircraft establishing the maneuver boundaries.

The V-n diagram for the aircraft is drawn for the two cases namely,
1. Intentional maneuver (pilot induced maneuver).
2. Unintentional maneuver (gusts).

1.1 VELOCITY - LOAD FACTOR (V-n) DIAGRAM:

The various external loads on the airplane are usually represented on a graph of the limited
load factor and plotted against the indicated air speed (IAS). This diagram is known better as the
V-n diagram. The indicated air speed used since all air loads are proportional to q or v2/2.

The value of q is the same density for air and actual air speed at altitude, as it is for the
standard sea level density and IAS. Then V-n diagram is therefore the same for all altitudes of
indicated air speeds are used. However in this design case, corrections involving compressibility
have to be taken in to consideration while calculating the time true air speeds from indicated air
speeds. Therefore calculations involving high speeds have been performed with respect to sea
level conditions only n = V2SCL/ W The load factor is basically the ratio of wing lift
produced to the weight of the aircraft and Hence, represents the amount of acceleration produced
along Z axis of the plane for fighter aircraft. The ultimate positive load factor ranges from 3.1 to
4.4 and negative load factor between -1.25 and -2.3. The positive and negative load factors are
arbitrarily chosen as 3.1 and -1.25 respectively. For level flight a unit load factor the value of V
corresponding to CL max would be the stability speed of the airplane. In accelerated flight the
maximum lift coefficient can be achieved at higher speeds. The wing is usually analyzed for a
coefficient of 1.25 CL max and various values of n are obtained by varying the velocity, until the
ultimate positive load factor is reached. It can be made out from this boundary that it is
impossible to maneuver at speeds and load factors corresponding to points above or to the left of
line because this would represent positive high angle of attack (+HAA). This load factor is
usually arrived at by considering both aerodynamics and structural design capabilities. The
structural design diving speed is usually specified as 1.2 times the cruise velocity, or is limited
by compressibility effects. Here never exceed Mach no (Mne) of 2.5 and the design diving speed
were considered and were found to be of the same order. The line of the V-n diagram represents
this speed and is also known as the buffering boundary. The velocity at this boundary is 1090.8

km/hr. In a similar manner, the maneuver boundary can be carried to the negative load factor
region which is indicative of inverted flight. The negative maneuver boundary is seldom made
use of in transport aircraft. However the gust load in the negative region is indispensable and can
be more severe than the maneuver load factor itself. Thus, In order to establish the safe flight
envelope of the aircraft we have plotted as per FAR-25 norms. There are the two types of v-n
diagram for military airplanes,

V-n Maneuver diagram

V-n Gust diagram.

1.3. V-n MANEUVER DIAGRAM:

These are four important speeds used in V-n diagram;

+1-g Stall speed (VS).

Design maneuvering speed (VA).

Design cruise speed (VC).

Design diving speed (VD).

Fig 1.1: Gust envelope

Rules for determining these speeds are given below for purpose of constructing a V-n
diagram the +1g stall speed VS may be computed from VS ={ 2WFDWG /CN max
(controllable)S}.

Where WFDWG is the flight design gross weight. For most aircraft WFDW equals to
maximum design takeoff weight.

Rules for determining these speeds are given below for purpose of constructing a V-n
diagram the +1g stall speed VS may be computed from VS ={ 2WFDWG /CN max
(controllable)S}.

Where WFDWG is the flight design gross weight. For most aircraft WFDW equals to
maximum design takeoff weight.

RESULT:

Thus the study of V-n diagram has been carries out successfully.

CHAPTER 2
GUST AND MANEUVER ENVELOPES
Load Factor:

The ratio of the average or actual amount of some quantity and the maximum possible or
permissible.
n=L/W

L=Lift
W=Weight

For maneuver:
1. +1g stall speed (VS)
2. Design cruise speed (VC)
3. Design diving speed (VD)
4. Design maneuvering speed (VA)
5. Design speed for maximum gust intensity (VB)

2.1 Determination of +1g stall speed (VS):

For Positive:
VS1= [2(W/S)/CN

max]

CN max=1.1 CL max
W/S=920.07 kg/m3
For an altitude 4000ft
VS1= [2(W/S)/CN max]
CL max = 1.5
CN max = 1.65
Sub all values in the VS1,
VS1=36.90m/s
6

For Sea level,

VS1=30.17m/s
For Negative:
VS2= [2(W/S)/ CN max]
CN max =0.75CL max

CL max = 1.5
CN max = 1.125
Sub these values in VS2,
VS2=44.68 m/s
For sea level,
VS2=36.54 m/s

2.2 Design cruise speed (VC):

Cruise is the level portion of aircraft travel where flight is most fuel efficient. It occurs
between ascent and descent phases and is usually the majority of a journey.
VC KC (W/S) 1/2
KC=33 for W/S 20 psf
KC=33 to 28.6 for W/S=20-60 psf
KC=36 for aerobatic aircrafts KC =33
W/S=10
VC 29(10)1/2
VC = 91.70 m/s

2.3 Design diving speed (VD):

VD 1.25VC
VC=91.70 m/s
VD 1.25 x 91.70
VD 114.63 m/s

2.4 Design maneuvering speed (VA):

In aviation, the manoeuvring speed of an aircraft is an airspeed limitation selected by the
designer of the aircraft. At speeds close to, and faster than, the manoeuvring speed, full
deflection of any flight control surface should not be attempted because of the risk of damage to
the aircraft structure.
VA VS (n lim)1/2

nlim =Limit maneuver load factor

nlimpos 2.1+ [24000/(W+10000)]
nlimneg o.4 nlimpos
nlimpos=2.50
nlimneg =-1.00
Sub n limpos and n limneg in VA
VApos=58.34 m/s
VAneg=44.68 m/s

2.5 Design speed for Maximum Gust Intensity (VB):

VB is the design speed for maximum gust intensity. It is defined in one of two ways. Basically, it
is the airspeed at which the required vertical gust produces maximum CL on the aircraft.
However, VB need not be greater than Vs1 * sqrt(ng) where ng is the gust load factor at Vc and
Vs is the stalling speed with flaps retracted. VB also need not be more than Vc.
VB VC 43 knots
VB 91.70-43(0.514)
VB = 69.59 m/s

2.6 For Gust Diagram:

nlim = 1+ [KgUde VCL/498(W/S)]
Kg Gust alleviation
Kg = 0.88g/5.3+g
g = 2 W/S /cgcL
CL = Steady level (CL)
=Mean Aerodynamic chord
= 2.32 m
g = 290.35
Kg = 0.864

2.6.1 For gust line marked (VC):

Ude = 50ft/sec for 0 - 20000 ft altitude
Ude = 66.67 ft/sec 0.000833h for 20000 - 50000 ft altitude
Ude= 50ft/sec

2.6.2 For gust line marked (VD)

Ude= 25 ft/sec for 0 - 20000 ft altitude
Ude= 16.67 0.000417h for 20000 - 50000 ft.altitude
Ude= 25 ft. /sec

2.6.3 For gust line mark (VB):

Ude = 60 ft/sec for 0 - 20000 ft altitude
Ude = 47.33 0.000933h for 20000 - 50000 ft altitude
Ude= 60 ft/sec

2.7 Design Speed for Maximum Gust Intensity

nlim= 1+[KgUde VCL/498(W/S)]
For Gust line marked (VC)
nlim=1.0065
For Gust line marked (VD) \
nlim =1.0032
For Gust line marked (VB)
nlim=1.0078

Fig: 1.2 V-n diagram

10

RESULT

Thus the V-n diagram for Gust and maneuver envelope has been constructed
successfully.

11

CHAPTER 3
CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND FINAL V-n
GRAPH CALCULATON
3.1 INTERCEPT PHASE:

Where,
q= dynamic pressure.
K=1/ Ae
q=1.2 (1.225) (69.44)
=2953.42
W/S= 920.11 kg CDO=1.412*10-3
K=0.0510
n=0.533

3.2 INSTANTANEOUS TURN RATE:

Instantaneous turn rate-where a plane pulls max Gs near 6 before blackout to turn
quickly for a short period of time, turn rate varies with speed, usually bested at the corner
speed/corner velocity of a given aircraft.

Where,
, is the instantaneous turn rate = 2deg/s (assumption)
n=1.0300

12

3.3 SUSTAINED TURN RATE:

Sustained turn rate is that where a plane maximizes its smallest turn radius, g-load, and
speed to acquire the best possible turn rate and continuously sustains the turn for long periods of
time, without giving up alt, speed, or degrees of turn.

A sustained turn is one in which the speed and altitude are same so that thrust will be
equals to drag.
n=1.0663

3.4 HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK.

A high load factor can result from an instantaneous change in the angle of attack during
level flight. The load factor in terms of the dynamic pressure and lift coefficient is,

n=1.0913

3.5 DIVE:
The maximum dynamic pressure is produced in a dive. As a standard the dive velocity is
taken as:
Vdive=1.5Vcruise.

Vdive =104.16
A V-n diagram shows the flight load factors that are used for the structural design as a
function of the air speed. These represent the maximum expected loads that the aircraft will
experience. These load factors are called as limit load factors.

13

RESULT:

Thus the critical loading performance and final v-n diagram calculation has been
successfully performed.

14

CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY
4.1 DESIGN OF WING COMPONENTS
4.1.1 WING:
Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through the air, create lift. They are built in
many shapes and sizes. Wing design can vary to provide certain desirable flight
characteristics. Control at various operating speeds, the amount of lift generated, balance, and
stability all changes as the shape of the wing is altered.

WING CLASSIFICATION:
Fixed wing aircraft can be classified based on the number of wings.

Monoplane

Biplane

Triplane

MONOPLANE:

A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with one main set of wing surface.

The monoplane design has been universally adopted over multi plane configuration
because of airflow interference between adjacent wings reduces efficiency.

15

ADVANTAGES:

Fixed wing configuration.

The drag is less.

Weight is less.

Smooth flow of air.

Cost effective.

DISADVANTAGES:

Presence of only one set of wings makes the lift be comparatively less.

BIPLANE:
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other.

ADVANTAGES:

Approximately more than 20% lift generation is achieved by the biplane as compared
with that of the monoplane.

Low induced drag.

TRIPLANE:
A Trip lane is a fixed-wing aircraft equipped with three vertically stacked wing planes.

16

DISADVANTAGES:

Drag is more.

Weight is more.

Maneuverability is less.

Pressure distribution is comparatively less and pressure interaction is more.

4.1.2 BASED ON THE POSITION OF THE WING:

HIGH WING:

ADVANTAGES:

Eases and facilitates the loading and unloading of loads and cargo into and out of cargo
aircraft. For instance, truck and other lifter vehicles can easily move around aircraft and
under the wing without anxiety of hitting and breaking the wing.

Facilitates the installation of engine of the wing, since the engine clearance is higher and
safer, compared with low wing configuration.

DISADVANTAGES:

The aircraft tend to have more frontal area. This will increase drag.

A high wing is structurally about 20% heavier than a low wing.

The retraction of the landing gear inside the wing is not usually an option, due to the
required high length of the landing gear.

17

MID WING:

The aircraft structure is heavier, due to the necessity of reinforcing wing root at the
intersection with the fuselage.

It is aerodynamically streamliner compared with two other configurations.

The strut is not usually used to reinforce the wing structure.

LOW WING:

ADVANTAGES:

The aircraft takeoff performance is better; compared with high wing configuration; due to
the ground effect.

The pilot has a better higher-than-horizon view, since the pilot is above the wing.

DISADVANTAGES:

The wing generates less lift; compared with a high wing configuration; since the wing has
two separate sections.

The aircraft has lower airworthiness due to a higher stall speed.

18

PARASOL WING:

This wing configuration is usually employed in hang gliders plus amphibian aircraft. In
several areas, the features are similar to a high wing configuration.

Since the wing is utilizing longer struts, it is heavier and has more drag, compared with a
high wing configuration.

RECTANGULAR WING:

General purpose wing. It can carry a reasonable load and fly at a reasonable speed.

Easy to control

It is ideal for personal aircraft as it is easy to control in the air as well as inexpensive to
build and maintain.

High drag.

ADVANTAGES:

Economical to build

DISADVANTAGES:

High weight and drag.

19

ELLIPTICAL WING:

An elliptical wing is a wing platform shape that minimizes induced drag.

Elliptical taper shortens the chord near the wingtips in such a way that all parts of the
wing experience equivalent downwash, and lift at the wing is essentially zero, improving
aerodynamic efficiency due to a greater Oswald efficiency number in the induced drag
equation.

ADVANTAGES:

Low weight and drag.

DISADVANTAGES:

Expensive and complicated to build.

4.1.3 WING SWEEP:

Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forward, for a variety of reasons.

A small degree of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the Centre of lift when the wing
cannot be attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as pilots visibility from
the cockpit.

STRAIGHT:
Extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally effective wing.
SWEEP BACK:
The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the tip. At transonic
speeds swept wings have lower drag, but can handle badly in or near a stall and require high
stiffness to avoid aero elasticity at high speeds.

FORWARD SWEPT:

The wing angles forward from the root. It avoids the stall problems and has
reduced tip losses allowing a smaller wing.

20

4.1.4 WING SPAR:

Fig.4.1: A plate web wing spar with vertical stiffeners.

Spars are the principal structural members of the wing. They correspond to the longerons
of the fuselage.

They run parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, from the fuselage toward the tip of the
wing, and are usually attached to the fuselage by wing fittings, plain beams, or a truss.

Spars may be made of metal, wood. Or composite materials depending on the design
criteria of a specific aircraft.

Wooden spars are usually made from spruce. They can be generally classified into four
different types by their cross sectional configuration

They maybe (A) solid, (B) box shaped, (C) partly hollow, or (D) in the form of an Ibeam.

A wing has two spars. One spar is usually located near the front of the wing, and the
other about two-thirds of the distance toward the wings trailing edge. Regardless of type,
the spar is the most important part of the wing. When other structural members of the
wing are placed under load, most of the resulting stress is passed on to the wing spar.

I-SPAR:

In an Ibeam spar, the top and bottom of the Ibeam are called the caps and the vertical
section is called the web.

The entire spar can be extruded from one piece of metal but often it is built up from
multiple extrusions or formed angles. The web forms the principal depth portion of the
spar and the cap strips (extrusions, formed angles, or milled sections) are attached to it.
Together, these members carry the loads caused by wing bending, with the caps
providing a foundation for attaching the skin.
21

4.1.5 RIBS:

Ribs are the structural crosspieces that combine with spars and stringers to make up the
framework of the wing.

They usually extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the trailing edge of
the wing.

The ribs give the wing its cambered shape and transmit the load from the skin and
stringers to the spars. Similar ribs are also used in ailerons, elevators, rudders, and
stabilizers.

4.1.6 STRINGERS:

Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing in to the smaller length section.

React axial bending loads.

4.1.7 WING SKIN:

Often, the skin on a wing is designed to carry part of the flight and ground loads in
combination with the spars and ribs. This is known as a stressed-skin design.

The lack of extra internal or external bracing requires that the skin share some of the
load.

The wing skin on an aircraft may be made from wide varietyof materials such as fabric,
wood, or aluminium. But a single thin sheet of material is not always employed.
Chemically milled aluminium skin can provide skin of varied thicknesses.

On aircraft with stressed-skin wing design, honeycomb structured wing panels are often
used as skin. A honeycomb structure is built up from a core material resembling a
beehives honeycomb which is laminated or sandwiched between thin outer skin sheets.

A honeycomb panel can be made from a wide variety of materials. Aluminium core
honeycomb with an outer skin of aluminium is common.

22

4.1.8 NACELLES:

Nacelles sometimes called pods are streamlined enclosures used primarily to house
the engine and its components. They usually present a round or elliptical profile to the
wind thus reducing aerodynamic drag.

Fig.4.2: Basic wood wing structure and components.

23

4.2DESIGN OF FUSELAGE COMPONENTS

FUSELAGE
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for cargo,
controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment. The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and
landing gear are attached to it.

4.2.1 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS:

BULKHEADS:

Upright wall within the fuselage of the aero plane. Bulkheads are used to increase the
structural rigidity.

On an aircraft bulkheads divide the cabin into multiple areas. On passenger aircraft a
common application is for physically dividing cabins used for different classes of service.
(e.g.: economy and business)

On combination cargo or passenger or combo a/c bulkhead walls are inserted to divide
areas intended for passenger seating and cargo storage.

LONGERONS:

In aircraft construction a longeron is a longitudinal thin strip of material to which the skin
of the aircraft is fastened.

Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help the skin support
primary bending loads.

They are typically made of aluminium alloy either of a single piece or a built-up
construction.

Stringers have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of
the skin. Stringers and Longerons together prevent tension and compression from
bending the fuselage.
24

STIFFNERS:

Stiffeners are additional lengths of metal between frames, riveted to the skin to provide
additional support.

FRAMES:

Airframe of an aircraft is a mechanical structure. It is typically considered to include

fuselage, wings and undercarriage and exclude the propulsion system.

Airframe design is field of aerospace engineering that combines aerodynamics, materials

technology and manufacturing methods to achieve balances of performance, reliability
and cost.

DOUBLERS:

Doublers are additional thickness of metal around apertures cut into the structure. (E.g.:
doors, windows etc...)

FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION:
There are two major types of fuselage construction. They are:

Truss type.

Monocoque type.

4.3.1 BEAMS:

A beam is a laterally loaded member whose cross sectional dimensions are small as
compared to its length

A beam is something simply a bar which is subjected to forces or couples that lie in an
airplane containing the longitudinal axis of the bar.

The forces are understood to act perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar. A bar
working under bending is generally termed as beam.
25

STRINGERS:

These longitudinal members are typically more numerous and lighter in weight than the
Longerons.

They come in a variety of shapes and are usually made from single piece aluminium alloy
extrusions or formed aluminium.

4.3.2 TRUSS CONSTRUCTION:

Fig.4.3: A truss-type fuselage. A Warren truss uses mostly Diagonal bracing.

A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams, struts, and bars to
resist deformation by applied loads.

The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric.

A truss-type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded together in such
a manner that all members of the truss can carry both tension and compression loads.

In some aircrafts, principally the light, single engine models, truss fuselage frames may
be constructed of aluminium alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece with crossbracing achieved by using rods or tubes.

Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers,
allowing the fabric covering to form a more aerodynamic shape.

26

TRUSS TYPE:

Pratt truss

Warren truss

MONOCOQUE TYPE:

Fig.4.4: An airframe using Monocoque construction.

The Monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the skin or
covering to carry the primary loads.

Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of the two classes, but most
modern aircraft are considered to be of Semimonocoque type construction.

The true Monocoque construction uses formers, frames assemblies, and bulkheads to give
shape to the fuselage.

The heaviest of these structural members are located at intervals to carry concentrated
loads and points where fittings are used to attach other units such as wings, power plants,
and stabilizers.

Since no other bracing members are present the skin must carry the primary stresses and
keep the fuselage rigid.

Thus the biggest problem involved in Monocoque construction is maintaining enough

strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits.
27

DISADVANTAGES:

Unwieldy and heavy

Extra strength needs to be built in around windows, undercarriage, and tail and wing cut
outs.

Can deform under load due to lack of support between frames.

Only suitable for small aircrafts.

SEMIMONOCOQUE:

Fig.4.5: The most common airframe construction is semimonocoque.

To overcome the strength / weight problem of Monocoque construction. A modification

called Semimonocoque construction was developed.

It consists of frames assemblies, bulkheads. And formers as used in the Monocoque

design but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called longerons.
Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help the skin support
primary bending loads. They are typically made of aluminium alloy either of a single
piece or a built-up construction.

28

Stringers are also used in the Semimonocoque fuselage. These longitudinal members are
typically more numerous and lighter in weight than the longerons.

Stringers have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of
the skin.

Stringer and longerons together prevent tension and compression from bending the
fuselage.

In this the strong. Heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these in turn
hold the stringers, braces, web members, etc... All are designed to be attached together
and the skin to achieve the full strength benefits of Semimonocoque design.

It is important to recognize that the metal skin or covering carries part of the load. The
fuselage skin thickness can vary with the load carried and the stresses sustained at a
particular location.

ADVANTAGES:

The bulkheads, frames, stringers and longerons aid in the design and construction of a
streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity of the structure.

Because of its stressed skin construction, a Semimonocoque fuselage can withstand

damage and still be strong enough to hold together.

4.4 METALLIC MATERIALS:

The most common metals used in aircraft construction are aluminium, magnesium,
titanium, steel, and their alloys.

ALLOYS:

An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in the largest
amount is called the base metal.

29

All other metals added to the base metal are called alloying elements. Adding the
alloying elements may result in a change in the properties of the base metal. For example,
pure aluminium is relatively soft and weak.

However, adding small amounts or copper, manganese, and magnesium will increase
aluminiums strength many times.

Heat treatment can increase or decrease an alloy's strength and hardness.

Alloys are important to the aircraft industry. They provide materials with properties that
pure metals do not possess.

ALUMINIUM:

Aluminium alloys are widely used in modern aircraft construction.

Aluminium alloys are valuable because they have a high strength-to-weight ratio.

Aluminium alloys are corrosion resistant and comparatively easy to fabricate.

The outstanding characteristic of aluminium is its lightweight.

MAGNESIUM:

Magnesium is the world's lightest structural metal.

It is a silvery-white material that weighs two-thirds as much as aluminium.

Magnesium is used to make helicopters. Magnesium's low resistance to corrosion has

limited its use in conventional aircraft.

TITANIUM:

Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion resistant metal. Recent developments make

titanium ideal for applications where aluminium alloys are too weak and stainless steel is
too heavy. Additionally, titanium is unaffected by long exposure to seawater and marine
atmosphere.

STEEL ALLOYS:

Alloy steels used in aircraft construction have great strength, more so than other fields of
engineering would require. These materials must withstand the forces that occur on
today's modern aircraft. These steels contain small percentages of carbon, nickel,
30

chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum. High-tensile steels will stand stress of 50 to 150
tons per square inch without failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods, and wires.

4.5 NONMETALLIC MATERIALS:

In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are found in aircraft construction.
Some of these plastics include transparent plastic, reinforced plastic, composite, and
carbon-fibre materials.

Transparent Plastic

Transparent plastic is used in canopies, Windshields, and other transparent enclosures.

You need to handle transparent plastic surfaces carefully because they are relatively soft
and scratch easily. At approximately 225F, transparent plastic becomes soft and pliable.

Reinforced Plastic

Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of radomes, wingtips, stabilizer tips,

antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio
and is resistant to mildew and rot. Because it is easy to fabricate, it is equally suitable for
other parts of the aircraft .Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material. It is made up of
two outer facings and a centre layer. The facings are made up of several layers of glass
cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. The core material (centre layer) consists of a
honeycomb

31

RESULT:
Thus the study of structural design has been carried out successfully.

32

CHAPTER-5
LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS
5.1 SPAR CALCULATION
Chord Length= 1.3938 m

5.2 SPAR LOCATIONS:

Front Spar located at 15% of the chord= 0.0508 m
Mid Spar located at 45% of the chord= 0.0208m
Rear Spar located at 70% of the chord= 0.0092 m

5.3 BENDING MOMENT CALCULATIONS:

A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force
or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or simplest
structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam. The example shows a beam
which is simply supported at both ends.

Fig.
5.1: Free body diagram

33

Fig .5.2: Bending moment diagram

Fig. 5.3: shear force diagram

34

Bending moment = Maximum Bending Moment

x Factor Of Safety x nmax

Mmax= 15908 N/m

FOS = 1.5
nmax= 3.8
Sub these values in the above equation
Bending Moment=90675.6 N.m

5.4 TO FIND THE DIMENSIONS FOR EACH SPAR:

5.4.1 FRONT SPAR:

Height = 0.1524 m
Breadth = 0.0508 m
Thickness= 0.00317 m

5.4.2 MID SPAR:

Height = 0.1226 m
Breadth = 0.0208 m
Thickness = 0.0017 m

5.4.3 REAR SPAR:

Height = 0.0926 m
Breadth = 0.0092 m
Thickness= 0.0013 m

35

5.5 CALCULAION OF BENDING STRESS:

5.5.1 FRONT SPAR:

H = 0.1016 m
h = 0.0190 m
B = 0.00317 m
b = 0.0508 m

A = 2*B*H+H(b)
= 0.010644 m2
TO CALCULATE MOMENT OF INERTIA:
Ixx = H3b/12 + 2(h3B/12 + hB(H+h2)
= 2.0132 *10-4 m2
Iyy =b3 * A/12 + 2(B3L/12)
Iyy = 4.1518* 10-7 m4
Sxx = 2Ixx/ (H+2h)
=2.883 * 10-3 m3
Syy = 2Iyy/B
= 1.6345 * 10-5 m3
Xlog = B/2
= 0.0254 m
36

Ylog = H/2 + h
=0.0698 m
RADIUS OF GYRATION
Radius of gyration or gyrations refers to the distribution of the components of an object
around an axis. Most commonly it amounts to the perpendicular distance from the axis of
rotation to the centre of mass of a rotating body.
rxx = (Ixx/A)0.5
= 0.1375 m
ryy = (Iyy/A)0.5
= 6.24 * 10-3 m

POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

Polar moment of inertia is a measure of a circular beam's ability to resist torsion. It is
required to calculate the twist of an beam subjected to a torque. It is analogous to the
area moment of inertia, which characterizes a beam's ability to resist bending and is required to
calculate displacement.
Ixx + Iyy = 6.164 * 10-4

POINTS

0.0763

6029109.875

0.0508

4014138.685

0.0508

4014138.685

-0.0508

-4014138.685

-0.0508

-4014138.684

-0.0763

-6029109.875

Table.5.1: Bending stress values for front spar

z = (Mx/Ixx) y
=79018478.04

37

5.5.2 MID SPAR:

H = 0.0208 m
h = 0.016 m
B = 0.0208 m
b = 0.0017 m
A = 2*B*H+H(b)
= 3.10022* 10-3 m2

TO CALCULATE MOMENT OF INERTIA:

Ixx = H3b/12 + 2(h3B/12 + hB(H+h2)
= 4.847 *10-5m2
Iyy =b3 * A/12 + 2(B3L/12)
Iyy = 2.402* 10-8 m4
Sxx = 2Ixx/ (H+2h)
= 9.401 * 10-4 m3
Syy

2Iyy/B
= 2.309 * 10-6 m3
38

Xlog = B/2
= 0.0104 m
Ylog = H/2 + h
=0.0518 m

RADIUS OF GYRATION
rxx = (Ixx/A)0.5
= 0.1250 m
ryy = (Iyy/A)0.5
= 2.783 * 10-3 m

POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

Ixx + Iyy = 4.8494 * 10-5
POINTS

0.0613

20118844.65

0.0453

14867596.45

0.0453

14867596.45

-0.0453

-14867596.45

-0.0453

-14867596.45

-0.0613

-20118844.65

Table.5.2: Bending stress values for mid spar.

z = (Mx/Ixx) y
=79018478.04

39

5.5.3 REAR SPAR:

H = 0.0416 m
h = 0.013m
B = 0.0092 m
b = 0.0013 m
A = 2*B*H+H(b)
= 8.195* 10-4 m2

TO CALCULATE MOMENT OF INERTIA:

Ixx = H3b/12 + 2(h3B/12 + hB(H+h2)
= 2.392 *10-4 m2
Iyy =b3 * A/12 + 2(B3L/12)
= 1.694* 10-9 m4
Sxx = 2Ixx/ (H+2h)
= 7.076 * 10-3 m3
Syy = 2Iyy/B
= 3.684 * 10-7 m3
40

Xlog= B/2
= 0.0004 m
Ylog = H/2 + h
=0.0338 m
RADIUS OF GYRATION
rxx = (Ixx/A)0.5
= 0.54025 m
ryy = (Iyy/A)0.5
= 1.438*10-4 m

POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

Ixx + Iyy = 2.3920* 10-4

POINTS

0.0463

3079182.274

0.0333

102536.769

0.0333

102536.769

-0.0333

-102536.769

-0.0333

-102536.769

-0.0463

-3079182.274

Table.5.3: Bending stress values for rear spar.

z=

(Mx/Ixx) y
2

=66505016.72 N/m

41

RESULT:
Thus the stress acting on each spar of the wing has been determined.

42

CHAPTER-6
LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE
6.1 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS
Fuselage diameter= 2 m

The fuselage has a circular cross section as shown in figure. The vertical distances given
in the figure are measured from the mid-line of the section wall at the corresponding stringer
position
B1 = tD b/ 6 (2+2/1)+ tDb/6 (2+16/ 1)
B1 = Area of boom = 100 m2
TD = Thickness of skin panel = 0.65
B= circumferential distance between two stringers (1.3 * 106/b)
For boom 1
B1 = 100+ (0.65 * 1.32 * 106/6) (2+(4110/5500)+ (0.65*1.37* 106/6) (2+(4100/5500)
B1 = 81558.12 mm2
B2 = B3 = B4 = B6 = same; B5,13 = 0 (neutral axis)
Ixx = By2
Stress action on each string = Mxy / Ixx
43

Ixx1 = By12 = 81558.12 m4

Ixx2 = Ixx16 = 45876.4 m4
Ixx3 =Ixx15= 20389.53 m4
Ixx4 = Ixx14 = 5097.38 m4
Ixx5= Ixx13= 0
Ixx6 = Ixx12 = -5097.38 m4
Ixx7 = Ixx11 = -20389.53 m4
Ixx8 = Ixx10 = -45876.4 m4
Ixx9 = -81558.12 m4
Maximum bending moment =15908
Stress = M =Maximum bending moment * n * FOS
Stress = 90675.6 Nm

Stress action on first string = Mxy / Ixx1

= 90675.6/81558.12
Stress = 1.1117

STRINGERS/ BOOM

y(m)

STRESS * 106 N/m

1.1117

2,16

0.75

1.9765

3,15

0.5

4.4471

4,14

0.25

17.7886

5,13

6,12

-0.25

-17.7886

7,11

-0.5

-4.4471

8,10

-0.75

-1.9765

-1

-1.1117

Table.6.1: Stress values at each points on the stringers.

44

RESULT:
Thus the stress acting on each string on the fuselage has been determined.

45

CHAPTER-7
MANEUVERING LOADS ON AIRCRAFT AND CONTROL
SURFACES
Aircraft load estimation combines aerodynamics, structures, and weights. Load
Es t i m a t i o n r e m a i n s a c r i t i c a l a r e a b e c a u s e a n e r r o r o r f a u l t y a s s u m p t i o n
w i l l make the aircraft too heavy or will result in structural failure when real loads are
encountered in flight. Loads acting on the aircraft can be classified according to the
following load categories:
AIRLOADS

LANDING

INERTIA LOADS

POWER PLANTS OTHER LOADS

LOADS

Maneuver

Acceleration

Torque

Towing

Gust

Spin up

Rotation

Thrust

Jacking

Control

Spring back

Dynamic

Gyroscope

Pressurization

Crabbed

Vibration

Vibration

Bird strike

One wheel

Flutter

Duct pressure

Crash

deflection
Component
interaction
Buffet

MANEUVERABILITY LOADS ON ELEVATOR

Operation of the control surfaces produces air loads in several ways. The greatest
impact is in the effect of the elevator on angle of attack and hence the load factor.
Deflection of control surfaces produces additional loads directly upon the wing. Maneuver speed
or pull up speed (Vp), is the maximum speed at which the pilot can fully deflect the controls
without damaging either the airframe or the control themselves. T h e f i g u r e s h o w s t h e
l o a d i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a h o r i z o n t a l t a i l c o n s i s t i n g o f a fixed stabilizer and a
moving elevator. Under some combinations of angle of attack and elevator position the
stabilizer and elevator will actually have loads in the opposite directions .F o r d e s i g n
p u r p o s e s , t h e e l e v a t o r l o a d i s a s s u m e d t o e q u a l 4 0 % o f t h e t o t a l required
46

tail load but in the opposite direction. The normal stall entered from straight level
flight or an un-accelerated straight climb, will not produce added load factors beyond the IG
of s t r a i g h t a n d l e v e l f l i g h t . I n t h i s e v e n t r e c o v e r y i s a f f e c t e d b y s n a p p i n g
t h e elevator control forward, negative load factors, those which impose a down load o n t h e
wings. A recovery from stall is made by dividing only to cruising or
design maneuvering airspeed, with a gradual pull up as soon as the airspeed is safely
above stalling, can be affected with load factor not to exceed 2 or 2.5

7.1 MANEUVERING LOADS ON THE AILERON

In the level turning flight, the lift of the wing is canted so that the horizontal component
of the lift exerts the centripetal force required to turn the total lift on the wing is n times the
aircraft weight W.

Instantaneous turn rate

If the aircraft is allowed to slow down during the turn which is k n o w n a s
i n s t a n t a n e o u s t u r n , t h e l o a d f a c t o r n w i l l b e l i m i t e d o n l y b y t h e maximum
lift coefficient or structural strength of the aircraft.

Sustained turn rate

In a sustained turn rate, the aircraft is not permitted to slow down or lose altitude during
the turn. In a sustained turn the thrust must equal the drag and the lift must equal load factor n
times the weight. Thus the maximum load factor for sustained turn can be expressed as the
product of the thrust to weight and lift to drag ratios, assuming that the thrust axis is
approximately aligned with the flight directions.

Maneuvering loads on rudder

In flight yaw control is provided by the rudder and the directional stability by vertical
stabilizer moments and the resulting sideslip angles place significant aerodynamic
loads on the rudder and on the vertical stabilizer. Both are designed to sustain in several lateral
loading conditions leading to the required level of structural strength. With the aircraft in unaccelerated and stabilized straight flight, the rudder is suddenly displaced to the
maximum available deflection at the current airspeed.
47

RESULT:

Thus the balancing and maneuvering loads on tail plane, aileron and rudder has been
studied.

48

CHAPTER-8
DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUTS
8.1LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT
The landing gear supports the aircraft during landing and while it is on the ground.
Simple aircraft that fly at low speeds generally have fixed gear. This means the gear is stationary
and does not retract for flight. Faster, more complex aircraft have retractable landing gear. After
takeoff, the landing gear is retracted into the fuselage or wings and out of the airstream. This is
important because extended gear create significant parasite drag which reduces performance.
Parasite drag is caused by the friction of the air flowing over the gear. It increases with speed.
On very light, slow aircraft, the extra weight that accompanies a retractable landing gear is
more of a detriment than the drag caused by the fixed gear.
Lightweight fairings and wheel pants can be used to keep drag to a minimum.
Landing gear must be strong enough to withstand the forces of landing when the aircraft is fully
loaded. In addition to strength, a major design goal is to have the gear assembly be as light as
possible. To accomplish this, landing gear are made from a wide range of materials including
steel, aluminum, and magnesium. Wheels and tires are designed specifically for aviation use and
have unique operating characteristics. Main wheel assemblies usually have a braking system. To
aid with the potentially high impact of landing, most landing gear have a means of either
absorbing or accepting hock and distributing it so that the structure is not damaged

8.2TRICYCLE LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT:

Tricycle gear is the most prevalent landing gear configuration in aviation. In addition to
the main wheels, a shock absorbing nose wheel is at the forward end of the fuselage. Thus, the
center of gravity is then forward of the main wheels. The tail of the aircraft is suspended off the
ground and clear view straight ahead from the cockpit is given. Ground looping is nearly
eliminated since the center of gravity follows the directional nose wheel and remains between the
mains. Light aircraft use tricycle gear, as well as heavy aircraft. The tricycle-type landing gear
arrangement consists of many parts and assemblies.

49

FIG.8.1: Nomenclature of a main landing gear bogie truck.

These include air/oil shock struts, gear alignment units, support units, retraction and safety
devices, steering systems, wheel and brake assemblies, etc.. The most commonly used landing
gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing gear. It is comprised of main gear and nose gear.
Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft with the following benefits:
1. Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which
enables higher landing speeds. Provide better visibility from the flight deck, especially during
landing and ground maneuvering.
3. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is forward of the
main gear,
Forces acting on the center of gravity tend to keep the aircraft moving forward rather than
looping, such as with a tail wheel-type landing gear
50

8.3 NOSE LANDING GEAR:

Fig.8.2: Nose landing gear.

The nose gear of a few aircraft with tricycle-type landing gear is not controllable. It simply
casters as steering is accomplished with differential braking during taxi. However, nearly all
aircraft have steerable nose gear. On light aircraft, the nose gear is directed through
mechanical linkage to the rudder pedals. Nose wheel airplanes have the "third" wheel in front
of the main landing gear (i.e., under the nose) as pictured below. Nose-wheel airplanes have
much better handling (due to less airplane behind the pivot point) and visibility characteristics
while taxiing. Almost all new airplanes are nose-wheel design. It is most important that the pilot
does not land the aircraft on the nose wheel. This is called a ' wheelbarrow ' and often results in
serious damage. The nose wheel is usually dampened with a shock absorber or friction ring to
prevent shimmy.
A torque link is also fitted to maintain correct nose-wheel alignment. Braking is usually
controlled from the tops of the rudder pedals, and a separate parking brake is often fitted.
Most light aircraft have steering nose wheels. When on the ground a linkage is actuated between
the rudder pedals and the nose wheel. This disconnects automatically once that aircraft leaves the
ground. A small number of aircraft are fitted with castoring nose wheels. Steering is effected
below rudder authority by the use of the differential brakes on the main wheels. An example of
an aircraft with a castoring nose wheel is the Grumman Tiger series. Many homebuilt aircraft are
also similarly equipped.
51

SHOCK STRUTS

FIG.8.3: A landing gear shock strut with a metering pin to control the flow of hydraulic
fluid from the lower chamber to the upper chamber during compression.

Nose gear shock struts are provided with a locating cam assembly to keep the gear aligned. A
cam protrusion is attached to the lower cylinder, and a mating lower cam recess is attached to the
upper cylinder. These cams line up the wheel and axle assembly in the straight-ahead position
when the shock strut is fully extended. This allows the nose wheel to enter the wheel well when
the nose gear is retracted and prevents structural damage to the aircraft. It also aligns the wheels
with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft prior to landing when the strut is fully extended. Many
nose gear shock struts also have attachments for the installation of an external shimmy damper.
Nose gear struts are often equipped with a locking or disconnect pin to enable quick turning of
the aircraft while towing or positioning the aircraft when on the ramp or in a hangar.
52

Disengagement of this pin allows the wheel fork spindle on some aircraft to rotate 360, thus
enabling the aircraft to be turned in a tight radius. At no time should the nose wheel of any
aircraft be rotated beyond limit lines marked on the airframe.
Nose and main gear shock struts on many aircraft are also equipped with jacking points and
towing lugs. Jacks should always be placed under the prescribed points. When towing lugs are
provided, the towing bar should be attached only to these lugs.

FIG.8.4: A shimmy damper helps control oscillations of thenose gear.

53

RESULT:
Thus the structural layouts of the landing gear have been studied in detail.

54

CHAPTER- 9
DESIGN OF SOME COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND
FUSELAGE
9.1 WING PLANFORM
In aviation, a planform is the shape and layout of fixed-wing aircrafts fuselage and
wing. The planform may also refer to the projected area of the wing. From a top view
perspective, one can extend the lines from the leading and trailing edges on the left and right side
of the fuselage until they meet at the centerline of the aircraft. The area of the wing along with
this projected area is commonly referred to as the planform area,

. It is used as a non-

dimensionalization parameter.
Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are factors in planform design that are very
important to the overall aerodynamic characteristic of a wing Taper ratio can be either in
planform or thickness, or both. In its simplest terms, it is a decrease from wing root to wingtip in
wing chord or wing thickness. Sweepback is the rearward slant of a wing, horizontal tail, or other
airfoil surface. There are two general means by which the designer can change the planform of a
wing, either of which will affect aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. The first is to effect a
change in the aspect ratio.

Aspect ratio is the primary factor in determining the three dimensional characteristics of
the ordinary wing and its lift/drag ratio. An increase in aspect ratio with constant velocity will
decrease the drag, especially at high angles of attack, improving the performance of the wing
when in a climbing attitude.

A decrease in aspect ratio will give a corresponding increase in drag. It should be noted,
however, that with an increase in aspect ratio there is an increase in the length of span, with a
corresponding increase in the weight of the wing structure, which means the wing must be
heavier to carry the same load. For this reason, part of the gain (due to a decrease in drag) is lost
because of the increased weight, and a compromise in design is necessary to obtain the best
results from these two conflicting conditions. The second means of changing the planform is by
55

"tapering" (decreasing the length of chord from the root to the tip of the wing). In general,
tapering will cause a decrease in drag (most effective at high speeds) and an increase in lift.
There is also a structural benefit due to a saving in weight of the wing.
Most training and general aviation type airplanes are operated at high lift coefficients,
and therefore require comparatively high aspect ratios. Airplanes which are developed to operate
at very high speeds demand greater aerodynamic cleanness, and greater strength - therefore low
aspect ratios. Very low aspect ratios result in high wing loadings and high stall speeds. When
sweepback is combined with low aspect ratio, it results in flying qualities very different from a
more "conventional" high aspect ratio airplane configuration. Such airplanes require very precise
and professional flying techniques, especially at slow speeds, while airplanes with a high aspect
ratio are usually more forgiving of improper pilot techniques.
The elliptical wing is the ideal subsonic planform since it provides for a minimum of
induced drag for a given aspect ratio, though as we shall see, its stall characteristics in some
respects are inferior to the rectangular wing. It is also comparatively difficult to construct. The
tapered airfoil is desirable from the standpoint of weight and stiffness, but again is not as
efficient aerodynamically as the elliptical wing. In order to preserve the aerodynamic efficiency
of the elliptical wing, rectangular and tapered wings are sometimes "tailored" through use of
wing twist and variation in airfoil sections until they provide as nearly as possible the elliptical
wing's lift distribution.
While it is true that the elliptical wing provides the best lift coefficients before reaching
an incipient stall, it gives little advance warning of a complete stall, and lateral control may be
difficult because of poor aileron effectiveness.
In comparison, the rectangular wing has a tendency to stall first at the wing root and
provides adequate stall warning, adequate aileron effectiveness, and is usually quite stable. It is,
therefore, favored in the design of low cost, low speed airplanes.
Stall progression patterns for various wing planform are graphically depicted in Figure
17-13. Note that it is possible for the trailing edge of the inboard portion of the rectangular wing
to be stalled while the rest of the wing is developing lift. This is a very desirable characteristic,
56

and along with simplicity of construction is the reason why this type of wing is so popular in
light airplanes, despite certain structural and aerodynamic inefficiencies.

Fig: 9.1 Wing planform types.

Fig: 9.2 Wing planform types.

57

FIG: 9.3

9.2 FLIGHT CONTROLS

FIG: 9.4: Flight control surfaces move the aircraft around the three axes of flight.

58

The directional control of a fixed-wing aircraft takes place around the lateral,
longitudinal, and vertical axes by means of flight control surfaces designed to create movement
about these axes. These control devices are hinged or movable surfaces through which the
attitude of an aircraft is controlled during takeoff, flight, and landing.
They are usually divided into two major groups:
1) Primary or main flight control surfaces and
2) Secondary or auxiliary control surfaces.
The primary flight control surfaces on a fixed-wing aircraft include: ailerons, elevators,
and the rudder. The ailerons are attached to the trailing edge of both wings and when moved,
rotate the aircraft around the longitudinal axis. The elevator is attached to the trailing edge of the
horizontal stabilizer. When it is moved, it alters aircraft pitch, which is the attitude about the
horizontal or lateral axis. The rudder is hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. When
the rudder changes position, the aircraft rotates about the vertical axis (yaw).

9.2.1 AILERONS
Ailerons are the primary flight control surfaces that move the aircraft about the
longitudinal axis. In other words, movement of the ailerons in flight causes the aircraft to roll.
Ailerons are usually located on the outboard trailing edge of each of the wings. They are built
into the wing and are calculated as part of the wings surface area.
Ailerons are controlled by a side-to-side motion of the control stick in the cockpit or a rotation of
the control yoke. When the aileron on one wing deflects down, the aileron on the opposite wing
deflects upward. This amplifies the movement of the aircraft around the longitudinal axis. On the
wing on which the aileron trailing edge moves downward, camber is increased and lift is
increased. Conversely, on the other wing, the raised aileron decreases lift. The result is a
sensitive response to the control input to roll the aircraft. Simple, light aircraft usually do not
have hydraulic or electric fly-by-wire aileron control. These are found on heavy and highperformance aircraft. At low speeds, the ailerons may be augmented by the use of flaps and
spoilers.

59

9.2.2 ELEVATOR
The elevator is the primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the
horizontal or lateral axis. This causes the nose of the aircraft to pitch up or down. The elevator is
hinged to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer and typically spans most or all of its width.
It is controlled in the cockpit by pushing or pulling the control yoke forward or aft.
Light aircraft use a system of control cables and pulleys or push pull tubes to transfer cockpit
inputs to the movement of the elevator.

9.2.3 RUDDER
The rudder is the primary control surface that causes an aircraft to yaw or move about the
vertical axis. This provides directional control and thus points the nose of the aircraft in the
direction desired. Most aircraft have a single rudder hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical
stabilizer. It is controlled by a pair of foot-operated rudder pedals in the cockpit. When the right
pedal is pushed forward, it deflects the rudder to the right which moves the nose of the aircraft to
the right. The left pedal is rigged to simultaneously move aft. When the left pedal is pushed
forward, the nose of the aircraft moves to the left. As with the other primary flight controls, the
transfer of the movement of the cockpit controls to the rudder varies with the complexity of the
aircraft. Many aircraft incorporate the directional movement of the nose or tail wheel into the
rudder control system for ground operation. This allows the operator to steer the aircraft with the
rudder pedals during taxi when the airspeed is not high enough for the control surfaces to be
effective. Some large aircraft have a split rudder arrangement. This is actually two rudders, one
above the other. At low speeds, both rudders deflect in the same direction when the pedals are
pushed.

9.3SECONDARY OR AUXILLARY CONTROL SURFACES

There are several secondary or auxiliary flight control surfaces.

60

9.3.1 FLAPS
Flaps are found on most aircraft. They are usually inboard on the wings trailing edges
adjacent to the fuselage. Leading edge flaps are also common. They extend forward and down
from the inboard wing leading edge. The flaps are lowered to increase the camber of the wings
and provide greater lift and control at slow speeds. They enable landing at slower speeds and
shorten the amount of runway required for takeoff and landing. The amount that the flaps extend
and the angle they form with the wing can be selected from the cockpit. Typically, flaps can
extend up to 4550.

9.3.2 SLATS
Another leading-edge device which extends wing camber is a slat. Slats can be operated
independently of the flaps with their own switch in the cockpit. Slats not only extend out of the
leading edge of the wing increasing camber and lift, but most often, when fully deployed leave a
slot between their trailing edges and the leading edge of the wing.

9.3.3SPOILERS AND SPEED BRAKES

A spoiler is a device found on the upper surface of many heavy and high-performance
aircraft. It is stowed flush to the wings upper surface. When deployed, it rises up into the
airstream and disrupts the laminar airflow of the wing, thus reducing lift.
At low speeds, spoilers are rigged to operate when the ailerons operate to assist with the
lateral movement and stability of the aircraft.
A simple light aircraft may have a stationary metal plate attached to the trailing
edge of a primary flight Control usually the rudder.

61

RESULT:
Thus the components of wing and fuselage have been designed and studied.

62

CHAPTER-10
DESIGN REPORT WITH DRAWINGS
3-D VIEW OF LIGHT UTILITY AIRCRAFT

63

CONCLUSION

Thus a single engine light plane is designed with increase in efficiency and performance
by decreasing the weight of the plane by the usage of composite materials primarily for
structures with more efficiency. It is designed with efficient landing gear unit which can perform
even bush flying.

64

REFERENCES:

BOOKS REFERED:
Janes all the worlds aircraft by Paul Jackson.
Aircraft design: A conceptual approach.

WEBSITES REFERED:
www.scribd.com
www.faa.gov
www.airliners.net

65

66

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