Volume 4 Issue 3 IJAIEM - Repaired - PDF

International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management (IJAIEM)
Web Site: www.ijaiem.org Email: editor@ijaiem.org

Volume 4, Issue 3, March 2015
ISSN 2319 - 4847
Denial-Of -Service Attack Detection Using KDD

Prof. Pankaj Salunkhe1 ,Mayur Shishupal2
1
Head of Department (Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering), YTIET, Bhivpuri [MH], India
Pursuing Master of Engineering in Electronics & Telecommunication, YTIET, Bhivpuri [MH], India
ABSTRACT
Denial-Of-Service (DOS) is one of the most important attacks that a hacker can make in a computer network and
exposes the vulnerability in the same. In Denial-Of-Service attack the attacker makes the resources unavailable to
the legitimate users in the computer network by making the resources busy. So, even after being a legitimate user in
the network, one cannot use that specific service which has been allotted to him by the network administrator. This
type of attack can be stopped by using a device or software application called as Intrusion Detection System
(IDS).IDS is a device that monitors network or system for malicious activities and produces reports to a
management system regarding the same.There are generally two categories of IDS: misuse detection and anomaly
detection.In this project we will be using a Genetic Algorithm (GA) based approach which will generate rules to
detect DOS attacks. The GA will be trained on KDD (Knowledge discovery and data mining) cup 99 dataset to
generate a rule set that can detect DOS attacks. The rule is applied on IDS system which has a function of data
encryption for protecting packets from intruders.
Keywords: Denial of Service, Intrusion Detection System, Genetic Algorithm, KDD.
1.INTRODUCTION
Internet is growing at a remarkable rate in recent years, not just in the terms of size, but also in the term of the services
provided. While we are benefiting from the ease that new technology has brought us, computer systems are exposed to
complex security threats. With the rapid expansion of Internet in recent years, computer systems are facing increased
number of security threats. Regardless of numerous technological innovations for computer security, it is nearly
impossible to have a completely secured system. Hence it has become necessary to use an Intrusion Detection System
(IDS) which monitors network traffic and identifies network intrusions such as anomalous network behaviors,
unauthorized network access and malicious attacks to computer systems. IDS is a tool that monitors events occurring in
a computer system or network and analyzes them for signs of security threats. Intruders can be divided into two groups,
external and internal. The external intruders are those who do not have any authorization for accessing the system and
who attack by using different attack techniques. The internal intruder refers to those who have access permissions and
wish to perform unauthorized activities. There are generally two categories of IDSs: misuse detection and anomaly
detection. The misuse detection system performs the detection of intrusions through a matching with known patterns,
and the anomaly detection system detects systems identify deviations from normal network behaviors and alert for
potential unknown attacks.
2. EXISTING SYSTEM FOR DETECTING DOS ATTACKS

Presently there are number of systems used for detecting DOS attacks. All of them have certan drawbacks compared to
our proposed system. They are as followsi)OSSIM:OSSIM (Open Source Security Information Management) is an open source security information and event
management system, integrating a selection of tools designed to aid network administrators in computer
security. OSSIM is intended to give security analysts and administrators a view of all the security-related aspects of
their system, by combining log management and asset management and discovery with information from dedicated
information security controls and detection systems. This information is then correlated together to create contexts to
the information not visible from one piece alone.
ii) OSSEC: OSSEC is a free, open-source host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS). It performs log analysis,
integrity checking, Windows registry monitoring, rootkit detection, time-based alerting, and active response. It provides
intrusion detection for most operating systems, including Linux, Mac OS, Solaris and Windows. OSSEC has a
centralized, cross-platform architecture allowing multiple systems to be easily monitored and managed. It was written
by Daniel B. Cid and made public in 2004.
iii) Snort: Snort is a free and open source network intrusion prevention system (NIPS) and network intrusion detection
system (NIDS) created by Martin Roesch in 1998.Snort is now developed by Source fire, of which Roesch is the
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founder. In 2009, Snort entered InfoWorld's Open Source Hall of Fame as one of the greatest open source software of
all time". Through protocol analysis, content searching, and various pre-processors, Snort detects thousands of worms,
vulnerability exploit attempts, port scans, and other suspicious behaviour.
iv)Bro: An open-source, Unix-based network intrusion detection system. Bro detects intrusions by first parsing network
traffic to extract its application-level semantics and then executing event-oriented analyzers that compare the activity
with patterns deemed troublesome.
v) Suricata: An open source-based intrusion detection system was developed by the Open Information Security
Foundation (OISF).
3.DRAWBACKS OF THE EXISTING SYSTEM

i) Resource usage: The intrusion detection system is made to monitor the networks and systems continuously. So,
even if there is no intrusion happening the intrusion detection will still use its resources to monitor the network
and system .This drawback is called as resource usage problem.
ii) Reliability: The intrusion detection system is configured on different systems of a network which is to be
protected. The hacker or intruder can easily target a single system and can easily tamper or change the
programmes running on the system. This drawback is called as reliability problem.
iii) Fidelity: Data in a network flows in the form of packets. So, the information to the IDS is reached in the form of
packets. Sometimes packets might need to travel a distance to reach the IDS. During that time a hacker or intruder
can easily track the packets and can tamper with it or may even destroy it making it impossible to reach to the IDS.
This drawback is called as fidelity problem.
4. KDD CUP 99 DATASET

The 1998 DARPA Intrusion Detection Evaluation Program was prepared and managed by MIT Lincoln Labs. The
objective was to survey and evaluate research in intrusion detection. A standard set of data to be audited, which
includes a wide variety of intrusions simulated in a military network environment, was provided. The 1999 KDD
intrusion detection contest uses a version of this dataset.Lincoln Labs set up an environment to acquire nine weeks of
raw TCP dump data for a local-area network (LAN) simulating a typical U.S. Air Force LAN. They operated the LAN
as if it were a true Air Force environment, but peppered it with multiple attacks.The raw training data was about four
gigabytes of compressed binary TCP dump data from seven weeks of network traffic. This was processed into about
five million connection records. Similarly, the two weeks of test data yielded around two million connection records.A
connection is a sequence of TCP packets starting and ending at some well defined times, between which data flows to
and from a source IP address to a target IP address under some well defined protocol. Each connection is labelled as
either normal, or as an attack, with exactly one specific attack type. Each connection record consists of about 100
bytes.The KDD cup 99 corrected dataset is 97.6Mlarge and test data unlabeled dataset is 461M large. 65535 records are
selected from the each dataset. For this idea, it is decided to use 10% of the training set which contains 494,021
connections. The testing set is the entire set of labelled connections consisting of around 4.9 million connections. Thus,
entire data set could be used to test the system on unknown attacks. A connection is a sequence of TCP packets starting
and ending at some well defined times, between which data flows to and from a source IP address to a target IP address
under some well defined protocol. Each connection is labelled as either normal, or as an attack, with exactly one
specific attack type.
4.1 SOME OF THE DOS ATTACKS MENTIONED IN KDD CUP 99 DATASET
i) backDoS: Denial of service attack against apache web server where a client requests a URL containing many
backslashes. As the server tries to process these requests it will slow down and be unable to process other requests.
ii)landDoS: An attacker can send a specifically formatted packet that can cause a remote server to crash, causing a
DoS. Some implementations of TCP/IP are vulnerable to packets that are crafted in a particular way (a SYN packet
in which the source address and port are the same as the destination--i.e., spoofed). Land is a widely available
attack tool that exploits this vulnerability.
iii)neptuneDoS: For each half-open connection made to a machine the tcpd server adds a record to a data structure
describing all pending connections. This data structure is of finite size, and it can be made to overflow by
intentionally creating too many partially-open connections. The half-open connections data structure on the victim
server system will eventually fill; then the system will be unable to accept any new incoming connections until the
table is emptied out. Normally there is a timeout associated with a pending connection, so the half-open
connections will eventually expire and the victim server system will recover. However, the attacking system can
simply continue sending IP-spoofed packets requesting new connections faster than the victim system can expire
the pending connections. In some cases, the system may exhaust memory, crash, or be rendered otherwise
inoperative.
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iv)podDoS: Some systems will react in an unpredictable fashion when receiving oversized IP packets. Possible
reactions include crashing, freezing, and rebooting.
v)smurfDoS: In this attack, the perpetrator sends an IP ping (or "echo my message back to me") request to a
receiving site The ping packet specifies that it be broadcast to a number of hosts within the receiving site's local
network. The packet also indicates that the request is from another site, the target site that is to receive the denial
of service. (Sending a packet with someone else's return address in it is called spoofing the return address.) The
result will be lots of ping replies flooding back to the innocent, spoofed host. If the flood is great enough, the
spoofed host will no longer be able to receive or distinguish real traffic.
vi) teardropDoS:This type of denial of service attack exploits the way that the Internet Protocol (IP) requires a
packet that is too large for the next router to handle be divided into fragments. The fragment packet identifies an
offset to the beginning of the first packet that enables the entire packet to be reassembled by the receiving system.
In the teardrop attack, the attacker's IP puts a confusing offset value in the second or later fragment. If the
receiving operating system does not have a plan for this situation, it can cause the system to crash.
4.2 IN THE DATASET,THE ATTRIBUTE/VALUES ARE
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5. GENETIC ALGORITHM USED IN RULE SET CREATION

A Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a programming technique that mimics biological evolution as aproblem solving strategy
[7]. It is based on Darwinians principle of evolution and survival of fittest to optimize a population of candidate
solutions towards a predefined fitness [6].GA uses an evolution and natural selection that uses a chromosome-like data
structure and evolve the chromosomes using selection, recombination and mutation operators [6]. The process usually
begins with randomly generated population of chromosomes, which represent all possible solution of a problem that are
considered candidate solutions. From each chromosome different positions are encoded as bits, characters or numbers.
These positions could be referred to as genes. An evaluation function is used to calculate the goodness of each
chromosome according to the desired solution; this function is known as Fitness Function. During the process of
evaluation Crossover is used to simulate natural reproduction and Mutation is used to mutation of species [6]. For
survival and combination the selection of chromosomes is biased towards the fittest chromosomes. When we use GA for
solving various problems three factors will have vital impact on the effectiveness of the algorithm and also of the
applications [9]. They are: i) the fitness function ii) the representation of individuals; and iii) the GA parameters. The
determination of these factors often depends on applications and/or implementation [7][13][14].
Basic working of a genetic algorithm is shown below:
6. CONCLUSION
This paper mainly focuses on stopping DOS attack in a network using rules set created by Genetic algorithm on KDD
CUP 99 dataset. The rules set are then applied on IDS. If an intruder or hacker tries to enter the network ,the IDS
checks for the rule set created .And if the rule set gets matched the attack is detected.
REFERENCES
[1] Mostaque Md. Morshedur Hassan Network Intrusion Detection System Using Genetic Algorithm and Fuzzy
Logic, International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer and Communication Engineering September
2013
[2] KDD-CUP, Task Description, http://kdd.ics.uci.edu/databases/kddcup99/task.html, 1999.
[3] KDDCup, Tasks, http://www.kdd.org/kddcup/index.php?section=1999&method=task, 1999.
[4] KDD Cup, Data, http://www.kdd.org/kddcup/index.php?section=1999&method=data, 1999.
[5] AnupGoyal, Chetan Kumar, GA-NIDS: A Genetic Algorithm based Network Intrusion Detection System, 2008.
[6] Vivek K. Kshirsagar, Sonali M. Tidke& Swati Vishnu Intrusion Detection System using Genetic Algorithm and
Data Mining: An Overview, International Journal of Computer Science and Informatics
[7] Mohammad SazzadulHoque, Md. Abdul Mukit, Md. Abu NaserBikas AN IMPLEMENTATION OF INTRUSION
DETECTION SYSTEM USING GENETIC ALGORITHM, International Journal of Network Security & Its
Applications (IJNSA), Vol.4, No.2, March 2012
[8] SecTools.Org: Top 125 Network Security Tools; http://sectools.org/tag/ids/
[9] Snort (software); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snort_%28software%29
[10] Suricata (software); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suricata_(software)
[11] The Bro Network Security Monitor; http://bro-ids.org/
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[12] CERT. Denial of Service Attacks. http://www.cert.org/tech tips/denial of service.html

[13] Emma Ireland Intrusion Detection with Genetic Algorithms and Fuzzy Logic
[14] Mr. AnuragAndhare, Prof. Arvind BhagatPatil Denial-of-Service Attack Detection Using Genetic-Based
Algorithm
[15] A.A. Ojugo, 2A.O. Eboka, 3O.E. Okonta, R.E Yoro, F.O. Aghware Genetic Algorithm Rule-Based Intrusion
Detection System (GAIDS)
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Company Attributes and the Timeliness of

Interim Financial Reporting In Jordan
Saqer Sulaiman Yousef AL-Tahat
Jerash University, 26150 Jerash, Jerash, Jordan
ABSTRACT
This study examines the timeliness of half-yearly financial reports published by companies listed on the Amman Stock
Exchange (ASE). In addition, this study determining the association between timeliness and attributes of companies (namely
size, profitability, growth, age, leverage, audit firm size, and market listing status). An analysis of 193 half-yearly financial
reports ended on 30 June 2013 reveals that all, except seven companies reported within an allowable reporting lag of one
month. However, a large number of companies were making the most of the time given to announce their half-yearly reports.
The study also provides evidence that there is a significant association between profitability, growth, age, and market listing
status and timeliness. No significant association was evidenced between size, leverage, and audit firm size and timeliness.
Plausible explanations for these findings are provided. The findings may provide some implications for research regarding the
timeliness of financial reporting in Jordan.
Keywords: Timeliness, reporting lag, interim financial reports, half-yearly financial reporting.
1.INTRODUCTION
The accounting disclosure is defined as efforts to provide accounting information, and this professional job is normally
performed by accountants. The accounting disclosure is very important for all stakeholders as it provides them with the
necessary information to reduce the uncertainty and helps them to make suitability economic and financial decisions.
Informed data of corporate report for example is vital for economic stability and the promotion of sustained levels of
high quality investment by corporation. This is achieved through the preparation of financial reports.
The annual financial reports published by companies are considered one of the most important sources of information
due to the diversity of information contained in these reports. Though, the financial reports are generally able to
provide important information, sometimes the data provided may not be useful enough to meet the needs of some
beneficiaries like investors and creditors who need continually updated information regarding activities of companies at
the appropriate time of the fiscal financial year.
As a result of various developments taking place within the economic activities, and the increasing importance of
relevance as being a major characteristic of accounting information, the demand for developing methods of preparing
and displaying financial reports that are relevant are on the rise (Turkey, 1993). Namely, the examples of these
methods are: segment financial reports, multi-purpose financial reports, interim financial reports, and employee
financial reports.
In order for financial statements to be relevant, they should have a number of characteristics. One of the most important
characteristics is timeliness. In a dynamic business environment, financial information must be available on a timely
basis so that sound and effective investment decisions can be made Error! Bookmark not defined.. The need for
timeliness in financial reporting is recognized by both the accounting profession and the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) statement NO.4 of the Accounting Principles Board 1970 which specifies timeliness as one of the
objectives of accounting (Givoly & Palmon, 1982).
To satisfy the need for timely financial information, and to improve the timeliness of financial information, interim
financial reports (IFRs) are normally issued. Interim financial reports are prepared for periods less than a year: for
example this could be on a semi-annual (half-yearly), quarterly, or a monthly. In some countries like the United States
of America (USA), Canada, Brazil, Mexico, China, Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, and Saudi Arabia, companies prepare
interim financial reports quarterly. Meanwhile in countries like the UK, Japan, and Australia companies are required to
prepare interim financial reports half-yearly (Ku Ismail, 2003).
Disclosure of information from the interim financial reports (IFRs) has been mentioned briefly above is an important
source of information to investors and creditors. IFR provides them with updated information on the well-being of the
respective companies continuously. Therefore, evidently today, various stock exchanges around the world require
companies to prepare interim financial reports, with the objective to providing important stakeholders (employees,
shareholders, investors, the public, etc.) with timely and high quality financial information to help them in making
informed financing and investing decisions (Ku Ismail, 2003).
Since Oct 2004, companies listed on the Amman Stock Exchange (ASE) in Jordan are required to prepare interim
reports. However, the frequency of reporting is different between the listed companies on the First-market, and those on
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the Second-market. The First-market companies are required to prepare interim financial reports quarterly, and the
second-market companies are required to prepare interim financial reports semiannually, or half-yearly. This study will
examine interim reporting (half-yearly) of Jordanian companies listed on both markets.
2.HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INTERIM FINANCIAL REPORTS IN JORDAN

In Jordan, the requirement for interim financial reporting was contained in the Securities law No. 23 of the year 1997.
The application of this law began on 15 May 1997, which required every issuer company to provide reports that should
include the balance sheet, the profit and loss account, the cash flow statement, and the required explanatory notes.
Details regarding the interim reports came in the "Disclosure Instructions for Issuing Companies, Accounting
Standards and Auditing Standards No. (1) of the year 1998," issued by the Jordan Securities Commission Paragraph
(A) of this article states that the companies should prepare interim reports on a semi-annual base. Applied as of 1
September 1998. This report includes:
the balance sheet;
the profit and loss account;
changes in shareholders equity;
the cash flow statement;
the required explanatory notes;
the Company auditors report which shall include an affirmation that the records and financial statements have
been audited consistently with the audit standards adopted by these Instructions; and
a brief summary comparison of the results of the Companys activities for the period with earlier set plans.
In 2002, Jordan Securities Commission issued the Securities Law No. 76 of 2002 which did not include any change to
the previous law with respect to the interim financial reports No. 23 of the year 1997. In 2002 the "Instructions of
Issuing Companies Disclosure, Accounting and Auditing Standards for the year 2004", was also issued by virtue of
article (12/Q) of the Securities Law No.76 for the year 2002, which is currently applied and contained the same
provisions with respect to the interim reports.
In 2004 the Amman Stock Exchange issued the "Directives for Listing Securities on the Amman Stock Exchange for
the year 2004" regulations, issued by virtue of the provisions of Article 72 of the Securities Law No. 76 of 2002. In
paragraph 15 of these regulations, it specified the type of information that the companies listed in the ASE must
provide, the periods of providing this information, and the deadlines for providing it. A notable change that these
regulation states is the requirement for the First Market companies to provide a quarterly reports in addition to the
annual and bi-annual reports required for all companies. These regulations were applied since 1 July 2004. Article (15)
A. Companies listed on the ASE shall undertake to provide the ASE with the reports, statements and information stated
hereunder:
1) The Company's annual report which includes the board report, the financial statements and the auditors' report,
within three months at the most of the end of its fiscal year.
2) Half-yearly report with a comparison with the same period of the previous fiscal year, including the financial
statements reviewed by the Company auditors, within one month of the end of its bi-annual fiscal year.
B. A Company listed on the First Market must provide the ASE with a quarterly report reviewed by its auditors and
compared with the same period of the previous fiscal year, within one month of the end of the relevant quarter.
The preparation of interim financial reports is mandatory for Jordanian listed companies. Companies that do not issue
IFRs would face the penalty imposed on violators of the Securities Low No.76 of 2002. Article (110) states that; Any
person who violates the provisions of this Law or the regulations, instructions or decisions issued pursuant thereto shall
be subject to a fine of not more than one hundred thousand (100,000) Dinars, in addition to a fine of not less than twice
the amount, and not more than five times the amount, of profit made or loss avoided by the person committing the
violation.
3.LITERATURE REVIEW
One of the earliest studies in the US was undertaken by Zeghal (1984). The researcher conducted a study in the US to
determine the effect of timeliness on the informational content of interim and annual financial reports. The analysis
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was chiefly motivated by the characteristics of the two types of information and the differences in the regulations, and
the rules which govern their disclosure.
According to the study results, accounting reports with shorter delay have a higher informational content than those
with longer delay. At the time of release to the capital market, the effect of delay on the information content seems to be
more significant in the case of the interim rather than the annual financial reports. This may be explained by the major
characteristics which differentiate the information contained in the interim financial reports from that contained in the
annual financial reports, and the differences in their role in the investor's decision process.
Bowen, Johnson, Shevlin, and Shores (1992) documented that US firms with bad news announced earnings later than
expected while firms with good news announced earnings earlier than expected. They argued that managers have an
incentive to minimize the adverse reaction of stakeholders to bad news, thus delaying the announcement of bad news.
The 'unexpected' time lag was measured as the time lag of the same quarter of last year minus time lag of this year's
quarter. As far as the content is concerned, the news is considered bad when the unexpected return is negative and good
when the unexpected return is positive.
Butler et al. (2007) examined how the frequency of interim financial reporting affects earnings timeliness, the speed
with which accounting information is impounded into price based on a sample of 28,824 reporting-frequency
observations from 1950 to 1973.
They found little evidence of a difference in either intra period, or long-horizon timeliness, between firms reporting
quarterly and those reporting semiannually, even after controlling for self-selection. They found that the increase in
reporting frequency had no statistically significant effect on long-horizon timeliness for mandatory increases. Results
indicate that, after the switch, voluntary increasers tend to recognize bad news more quickly, but experience no change
in the timeliness of good-news recognition.
In the UK, Hussey and Woolfe (1998) compared various features of the interim financial reports of the companies
prepared between the years of 1992 and 1997. By examining the changes in the content and timing of issue of the
interim financial report, the study elicited that more companies in the UK were issuing their interim financial reports
within 90 days in 1997 than in 1992. The average time lag improved from 68.7 days in 1992 to 62.4 days in 1997. The
average financial reporting lags are however longer than that reported by the working committee of Coopers and
Lybrand (1992). The difference in results is due to the different samples used in the studies. However, the average
number of days reported by Hussey and Woolfe is close enough to the 60 days as recommended by the ASB guidelines
issued in 1997.
In Malaysia Ku Ismail and Chandler (2004) examined the timeliness of quarterly financial reports published by
companies listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE). This study also extended prior research by
determining the association between timeliness and each of the following company attributes size, profitability,
growth, and capital structure. An analysis of 117 quarterly financial reports ended on 30 September 2001 was run.
Of the 117 companies, they found only one company (0.9%) reported after the due date, and the financial reporting lag
being 64 days. This means that the overall compliance rate was very high (99.1%). Evidently, the financial reporting
lag of companies in this study was between 32 and 64 days with a mean and median of 55.7 days and 58 days,
respectively. This implies that, on average, companies reported about 5 days before the due date. The study also
provides evidence that there is a significant association between timeliness and each of the four company attributes, and
the association supported the hypothesis of the study.
Ibrahim, Ayoub, and Che Ahmad (2004) examined the issue of timeliness of interim financial reporting. The objectives
of this research are to examine the timeliness of interim financial reports and to analyze the level of compliance as
required by KLSE Listing Requirements. In addition, this research also investigated whether listed companies
voluntarily purchase audit services for the interim financial reports as they might add value to the information. Other
factors, such as, the industry and ownership structure are also examined. Finally, this study investigated the
enforcement actions by KLSE for late submission of quarterly financial reports and provides evidence on the practice of
interim financial reporting among listed companies in Malaysia.
The sample was selected from the KLSE main board companies with financial year end in 2002. Only companies with
four interim financial reports during the accounting period were included in the sample. An analysis of 217 interim
financial reports was run
The result of this research shows that majority of the companies comply with the two month requirement by KLSE.
Most of the companies submitted their interim financial reports within 54 to 57 days. However there are a small
number of companies (only 0.96%) which did not comply with this requirement. The results also show that there are
interim financial reports that have been audited even though it is not required and most of them are from quarter four
reports. The study shows that companies with Big Five auditors seem to be more efficient in term of timeliness of their
interim financial reports. Companies which have their interim financial reports audited are companies with Big Five
auditors and they also submit their interim financial report earlier. This shows that international reputable auditors
have a positive effect on the timeliness of interim financial reporting. Further, more comparisons between submission
lag and ethnic majority of companies' board of directors expose that there are difference between foreign controlled
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companies and local companies. Similarly, different industries may also affect the timeliness of interim financial
reporting. This could be due to the complex nature of certain industries over the others.
Boritz and Liu (2006) examined the determinants of the timeliness of quarterly financial reporting in Canada. They
hypothesized that interim financial statements were released more promptly by companies with a high transparency of
information environment than firms with a low transparency of information environment. They also hypothesized that
firms with significant agency problems were more likely to delay the disclosure of their interim financial statements
than firms with less agency problems.
The sample consisted of 400 randomly selected Canadian companies that publicly released their 2005 Q1 financial
statements on SEDAR. They then merged the original sample of 400 companies with the electronic database, Canadian
portion of Compustat North American, and generate the final sample of 266 companies after deleting companies which
have missing data in Compustat for the calculation of variables used in the analysis.
The study provided evidence that firms information environment and agency problems were related to the timeliness of
quarterly financial reporting. More interestingly, they found that firms that do not have their interim financial
statements reviewed by their auditors are less timely in releasing their interim financial statements than firms having
their interim financial statements reviewed. The findings suggest that firms may perceive the disclosure of no audit
review as a negative signal to market participants and thus intentionally delay that disclosure.
IKA and REGINA (2011) the researchers analyzed timeliness of financial reporting in Indonesia. In this study
timelines of financial reporting are measured by audit lag and reporting lag. This study utilized an unbalanced panel of
700 firm-years of companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange during the period 2007-2009. The mean of audit
lag is 74 days and the mean of reporting lag is 94 days. It is found that corporate governance and audit opinion
negatively affect both audit lag and reporting lag, whereas firm size positively affects audit lag and reporting lag. Debt
ratio only negatively affects reporting lag. Auditors firm, profitability, price earnings ratio and dividend payout ratio
do not significantly affect either audit lag or reporting lag. Inter-industry analysis of audit lag and reporting lag
reported that the financial industry has the shortest audit lag and reporting lag. The trade, service and investment
industries have the longest audit lag whereas the property, real estate and building construction industries have the
longest reporting lag.
Iyoha (2012) examined the impact of company attributes on the timeliness of financial reports in Nigeria based on a
sample of 61 companies annual reports for the years 1999-2008. The data were analyzed and results estimated using
Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression which was complimented with the panel data estimation technique. The
findings reveal that the age of company is the major company attribute that influences the overall quality of timeliness
of financial reports in Nigeria. It was also observed that there is a significant difference in the timeliness of financial
reporting among industrial sectors in Nigeria. The banking sector is found to be timelier in financial reporting. Though
the results suggest that regulations are not enough to ensure that the quality of financial reports are timely in Nigeria,
reporting lag may however be reduced by the existence and strict enforcement of rules and regulations of regulatory
bodies.
4.HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
This section discusses the association between timeliness and company attributes; size, profitability, growth, age,
leverage, audit firm size and market listing status.
Some of the researchers studied the relationship between timeliness of a financial report and specific attributes of a
company. The majority of studies concentrated on annual financial reports, and a few of them on interim financial
reports. By reviewing previous studies, the most frequently examined characteristics have been company size,
profitability, growth, capital structure, and age of company.
This study hypothesizes that timeliness is associated with size, profitability, growth, age, leverage, audit firm size, and
market listing status. Following is the discussion on each of the independent variables that are hypothesized to be
associated with the timeliness.
Size of Company
One of the characteristics that are often associated with the financial reporting lag of a financial report (annual or
interim report) is the size of a company. Ku Ismail & Chandler (2004, p.8) assert that:
Large companies are often argued to be early reporters for several reasons. First, large companies are often associated
with having more resources, more accounting staff, and more advanced accounting information systems compared to
their smaller counterparts. All of these attributes should aid companies in faster reporting. Secondly, larger companies
are more in the eyes of the public. Specifically, large companies are likely to be followed by a large number of analysts
who usually expect timely information to confirm and revise their expectations. Large companies are thus under greater
pressure to announce their reports on a timely basis to avoid speculative trading of their shares.
Size has been found to be, in most studies, a very significant variable, with an inverse relationship between size of
company and timeliness in annual financial reports (Al-Ajmi, 2008; Al Jabr, 2006; Davies & Whittred, 1980; Dogan,
Coskun, & elik, 2007; Dyer & McHugh, 1975; Iyoha, F.O 2012; IKA Merdekawati & Regina 2011; Karim, Ahmed, &
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Islam, 2006; Mahajan & Chander, 2008; Owusu-Ansah, 2000) and in interim financial reports (Ku Ismail & Chandler,
2004).
Based on the above findings, this study hypothesizes that:
H1: Larger companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports compared with smaller
companies.
Company Profitability
Profitability is expected to influence a companys timely reporting behavior. Companies with successful results will
report more quickly than those with failing operations or that has sustained losses. This is because profitability
measures a companys efficiency of operations (Owusu-Ansah, 2000). Therefore, the profitability of a company has
been hypothesized to be a significant associated with time lag.
Based on signaling theory, by delaying the bad news, management is giving its shareholders a silent signal and the
opportunity to divest themselves of the firms shares before the information reaches the market. Similarly, announcing
good news early will ensure that it is not pre-empted by other sources. The stakeholder theory also suggests that in the
absence of an opportunity to hide bad news because of mandatory disclosure requirements, managers have the incentive
to delay its release (Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004).
A majority of studies have shown a negative and significant association between profitability of company and financial
reporting lag in annual financial reports (Abdullah, 2006; Al-Ajmi, 2008; Al Jabr, 2006; Bowen et al., 1992; Conover,
Miller, & Szakmary; 2008; Dogan et al., 2007; Haw, Qi, & Wu, 2000; Iyoha, F.O 2012; Owusu-Ansah, 2000), and in
interim financial reports (Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004). On the other hand, only a few studies have documented
insignificant association between profitability of company and timeliness in annual financial reports. (e.g. Davies &
Whittred, 1980; Dyer & McHugh, 1975; IKA Merdekawati & Regina 2011; Mahajan & Chander, 2008).
Based on the above theoretical and empirical argument, this study hypothesizes that:
H2: Higher profitability companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial than lower profitability
companies.
Company Growth
Growth of company, like profitability is expected to influence a company's timely reporting behavior. In this case, the
theoretical arguments to suggest that company profitability is able to help companies publish their financial reports in a
timely manner are compatible here (see for example, Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004). Indeed, previous studies have
shown a significant relationship between growth of company and time lag in interim financial reports (Ku Ismail &
Chandler, 2004). Hence, this study offers the following hypothesis:
H3: Higher growth companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than lower growth
companies.
Age of Company
Owusu-Ansah (2000) proposed that promptness in financial reporting by a company is influenced by its age (i.e. its
development and growth). This proposition is based on the learning curve theory. The theory suggests that a reduction
in reporting time would occur as the number of annual financial reports produced is increased. As a company continues
and its accountants learn more, the 'teething problems' which would cause unusual delays are minimized. As a result,
an older, well-established company is likely to be more proficient in gathering, processing and releasing information
when needed because of learning experience gained over many years of existence. In short, older firms might have
improved their financial reporting practices over time. Consequently, Owusu-Ansah (2000) managed to document a
significant negative relationship between age of company and time lag (financial report lag).
However, a few other studies (e.g. Al Jabr, 2006; Mahajan & Chander, 2008) found no association between age of
company and timeliness in annual financial reports.
But despite some evidence that company age did not influence timeliness, the present study however argues that the
contrary is true, based on the theoretical arguments posed above. Hence, based on this argument the hypothesis is
formulated:
H4: Older companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than younger companies. Leverage
of Company
The leverage of a company is also expected to have an influence on timeliness as iterated by Ku Ismail and Chandler
(2004), who noted that:
there are two competing views in the literature concerning the association. One view suggests that highly leveraged
firms report faster than the lowly leveraged firms. Based on agency theory, this view contends that higher monitoring
costs would be incurred by firms that are highly leveraged. Because high-leveraged firms have the incentive to invest
sub-optimally, debt holders normally include clauses in debt contracts to constrain the activities of management (Jensen
and Meckling, 1976). Another view holds that highly leveraged firms report more slowly than the lowly leveraged
firms (p. 11).
The majority of previous studies have shown a negative and significant association relationship between leverage of
company and timeliness in annual financial reports (Al-Ajmi, 2008; Al Jabr, 2006), and in interim financial reports
(Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004). Abdullah (2006) found a positive association between timeliness of reporting and
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leverage, in annual financial reports. Mahajan and Chander (2008), however, found that leverage did not significantly
influence the financial reporting lag.
Based on the theoretical argument and the majority of previous research, this study hypothesizes that:
H5: Lower leverage companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than higher leverage
companies.
Audit Firm Size
In general, audit firm rotation is expected to reduce the timeliness of audit completion as the successive audit firms are
forced to build up client-specific knowledge from scratch. Therefore, those audit firms are bounded to incur significant
start-up time and costs to become adequately acquainted themselves with clients businesses and operations (Lai &
Cheuk, 2005).
Bamber, Bamber, & Schoderbek (1993) investigated the determinants of the length of time auditors require to complete
the audit or audit report lag (ARL). They found that regarding audit structure, the results showed that greater structure
generally led to longer audit report lags, but that accounting firms with greater structure also reacted more quickly to
unanticipated events. Some of studies (IKA Merdekawati & Regina 2011; Iyoha, F.O 2012; Mahajan and Chander
2008) found audit firm size to show negative and significant relationship to financial reporting lag in annual financial
reports. Being audited by big six audit firms, companies would take less time in releasing information. Turel, Asli
(2010) found a positive association between timeliness of reporting and leverage, in annual financial reports. On the
other hand, Al-Ajmi (2008) found no evidence to support the effect of accounting complexity or auditor type (Big Four
or non-Big Four) on timeliness.
Hence based on the above theoretical and empirical evidence, this study hypothesizes that:
H6: Larger audit firms take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than smaller audit firms. Market
Listing Status
As explain earlier, the Amman Stock Exchange has two separate tiers of stocks that are traded. They are the first
market and the second market. However, the frequency of financial reporting is different between companies listed on
the first-market, and those on the second-market. The first-market companies are required to prepare interim financial
reports quarterly and the second-market companies are required to prepare interim financial reports half-yearly.
Because first market firms are required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the reporting of a half-yearly financial
report is expected to be faster. This is because a lesser information is to be gathered since the preparation of the first
quarterly financial report. Further, since the first market is required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the
preparation of the interim financial reporting (quarterly or half-yearly) is a routine to them. Thus the first market
companies are expected to publish the reports faster.
Furthermore, since shares of the First Market firms are more likely to be actively traded than those of the Second
Market, it is expected that the first market firms will issue the interim financial reports faster. Based on ASE listed
requirements, first market companies are bigger in size, more profitable, and have a larger number of shareholders.
Hence, they are expected take a shorter time to issue the half-yearly financial reports.
As cited by Owusu-Ansah (2000) found a statistically significant difference in timely reporting between companies
listed on either the New York Stock Exchange or the Over-the-Counter market, and those listed on the American Stock
Exchange. Ashton, Willingham, and Elliott (1987) examined the association between audit delay and fourteen client
specific variables. They found that listing status is one of the variables that are significantly associated with audit report
lag.
Based on the above discussion and the findings of previous studies, this study hypothesized the following:
H7: First market companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than the second market
companies.
The Model
Based on the above discussion, the following model is developed to predict timeliness:
TIML = + 1 LNSIZE + 2 PROF + 3 GRO + 4 AGE + 5 LGLEVE + 6 AFSIZE + 7 MLS +
Where:
TIML =
timeliness, measured by financial reporting lag; the time interval between the end of the
reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued;
LNSIZE =
company size, measured by natural log of total assets;
PROF =
company profitability, measured by return on equity (i.e. net income to owners' equity);
GRO =
company growth, measured by the percentage change in net sales;
AGE =
age of a company;
LGLEVE =
leverage of a company, measured by log of ratio of debt to total assets;
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AFSIZE =
audit firm size, classified as big firm (big 4 or local firms with international affiliations) and
small firms (local firms without international affiliations), where "1" big firm, "0" small firm;
MLS =
Market listing status, measured by company listed in the first market or second market, where
"1" first market, "0" second market;
and =
constant; and
disturbance term.
5.RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.1 Sampling of Quarterly Reports
The companies are divided in to three sectors: industrial, services, and financial sector. The number of listed companies
are 235 Companies where industrial sector companies comprise of 69 companies with the percentage of (29%), 124
services sector companies (including diversified financial services and real estate) which represent 53% from the entire
companies participated in the study,, and 42 companies represented the financial sector (banks and insurance
companies) with the percentage of 18%.
This study will be applied on these two of sectors, namely, the industrial and services sectors. Together, these two
sectors make 82% of the Jordan listed companies which represent the largest share in the financial investment, and
achieve the largest contribution to the economic development. In addition to, the financial sector has special
regulations.
5.2 Measuring Timeliness
There are two aspects of timeliness where interim financial reporting is concerned: the frequency of the reports and the
financial reporting lag (time lag). In this study, timeliness was measured by the financial reporting lag, that is the time
interval between the end of the reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued. This study determined
the actual number of days a company takes to announce the half-yearly financial report; relatively, the higher the
number of days a company takes to make the announcement, the lower the quality of reporting is deemed to be. The
announcement date for each company's half-yearly financial report is available from the half-yearly financial reports or
on the JSC website.
5.3 Data Analysis
5.3.1 The Timeliness in the Half-Yearly Financial Reports
In this study, timeliness of a half-yearly report refers to the reporting lag; the time interval between the end of the
reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued. The maximum allowable reporting lag for companies
in Jordan is one month. This study determines whether companies adhered to the reporting lag requirement. Out of the
193 companies, twenty companies (10.4 percent) reported after the due date. This means that the compliance rate was
high, where 89.6 percent of the companies complied with the regulation. Where, the financial year end on 31/12, the
half-yearly period ends on 30/6 for all companies.
The reporting lags of companies in this study lie between 17 and 120 days with a mean and median of 30 days and 29
days respectively. This implies that on average companies reported about one day before the due date. The distribution
of the reporting lags of companies can be observed in Table 1.
Table 1: Distribution of reporting lags
Frequency
percentage
Within 3 weeks (21 days)
2.6
22 28 days
74
38.3
29 - 30 days
62
32.1
One month or 31 days ( due date)
32
16.6
More than one month
20
10.4
Total
193
100
Although most companies reported by the due date, quite a large number of companies took as long as they are allowed
to submit their reports. Whether these companies could have published the reports earlier but tend to delay them, or
they really need such time interval to issue the reports is unknown. As shown in Table 1, 32 companies (16.6 percent)
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reported exactly on the due date (31 July 2013) where the other 20 (10.4 percent) had a reporting lag more than one
month. Majority of the companies (73 percent) reported within last ten days of the due date. Only about 2.6 percent of
the companies reported within first 3 weeks of allowable period. Comparing the mean reporting lag of half-yearly
reporting in this study (30 days or 4 weeks) to others such as in UK, same maximum allowable period reporting lag is
one month (62.4 days) (Hussey & Weiss 1998), it is concluded that the lag is better for companies in Jordan.
5.3.2 Association between Timeliness and the Independent Variables
The findings on the association between timeliness and company attributes; size, profitability, growth, age, leverage of
a company, audit firm size and market listing status.
In this study, timeliness is measured by the reporting lag that is the time interval between the end of the reporting
period and the date the financial statements are issued. This study determines the actual number of days a company
takes to announce the half-yearly report (used ordinary least squares regression analysis).
5.3.3 Ordinary Least Squares Regression Analysis
Results of the ordinary least squares regression analysis, using the ENTER method are depicted in Table 2. The
adjusted R of 0.376 and F value of 15.929 (Sig. = 0.000) shows that the model describes 37.6 percent of the variation
in timeliness and it is significant at the 1 percent level. There is not sufficient evidence to support the hypotheses that
the timeliness is directly related to size, leverage and audit firm size. Thus, the alternative hypotheses (H1, H5 and H6)
are rejected at a 5 percent significance level and at a 10 percent significance level.
Company age, profitability, growth and market listing status are the variables that are significantly associated with
timeliness of half-yearly financial reporting. The and p values suggest that the relationships between company age
and growth are positive, and are significant at the 5 percent level and 10 percent level respectively. The and p values
suggest that the relationships between profitability and market listing status are negative and are significant at the 5
percent level and 10 percent level respectively.
Results were consistent with previous studies; (Al Jabr, 2006; Bowen et al., 1992; Conover, Miller, & Szakmary; 2008;
Dogan et al., 2007; Haw, Qi, & Wu, 2000; Iyoha, F.O 2012; Owusu-Ansah, 2000) found a significant association
relationship between profitability of company and timeliness in annual reports, and in interim financial reports (Ku
Ismail, 2003; Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004) found that. (Iyoha, 2012; Owusu-Ansah, 2000) showed a significant
association relationship between age of company and time lag. (Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004) found a significant
association relationship between growth of company and timeliness in interim financial reports. (Owusu-Ansah, 2000)
found a statistically significant difference in timely reporting between companies listed on either the New York Stock
Exchange or the Over-the-Counter market, and those listed on the American Stock Exchange. (Ashton, Willingham,
and Elliott, 1987) found that listing status is one of the variables that are significantly associated with audit report lag.
This implies that companies with higher company profitability and first market companies take shorter time to publish
their half-yearly financial reports. The findings support the hypotheses that the amount of timeliness of interim
financial report is directly related to the higher company profitability higher company profitability and first market
companies. The alternative hypotheses (H2) the higher profitability companies take shorter times to publish their halfyearly financial reports (H7) First market companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than
the second market companies are accepted at a 5 percent significance level. As discussed before, the companies with
successful results will report more quickly than those with failing operations or that has sustained losses. This is
because profitability measures a companys efficiency of operations (Owusu-Ansah, 2000). Therefore, the profitability
of a company has been hypothesized to be a significant associated with time lag.
Listing status is one of the variables that are significantly associated with audit report lag. Because in Jordan, first
market firms are required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the reporting of a half-yearly financial report is
expected to be faster. This is because a lesser information is to be gathered since the preparation of the first quarterly
financial report. Further, since the first market is required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the preparation of
the interim financial reporting (quarterly or half-yearly) is a routine to them. Thus the first market companies are
expected to publish the reports faster.
Also, about company age and growth found appositive relationship between company age and growth of company and
time lag in interim financial reports, results were inconsistent with Ku Ismail & Chandler (2004) and Owusu-Ansah
(2000), they found a significant negative relationship between growth of company and time lag. However, a few other
studies (e.g. Al Jabr, 2006; Mahajan & Chander, 2008) found no association between age of company and timeliness in
annual financial reports.
This implies that companies with higher company growth and older companies take longer time to publish their halfyearly financial reports. The findings provide evidence that there is a significant association between timeliness and
company growth and age, and the association is not in the hypothesized direction. The alternative hypotheses (H3) the
higher company growth take longer times to publish their half-yearly financial reports (H4) the older companies take
longer times to publish their half-yearly financial reports are accepted at a 5 percent significance level.
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Constant
SIZE
PROF
GRO
AGE
LEVE
AFSIZE
MLS
* Significant at 0.05
** Significant at 0.10
Where:
TIML =
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Table 2: Regression results of timeliness against independent variables

Adjusted R = 0.376
F value = 15.929
Sig. = 0.000
Coefficient
t
32.239
12.730
-0.000
-0.140
-0.483
-9.955
0.217
2.249
0.092
2.008
0.009
0.642
-1.077
-0.761
-2.367
-1.912
p-value
0.000
0.889
0.000
0.026
0.046
0.522
0.447
0.057
THE TIMELINESS, MEASURED BY REPORTING LAG; THE ACTUAL NUMBER OF DAYS A COMPANY TAKES TO
ANNOUNCE THE HALF-YEARLY REPORT .
SIZE =
COMPANY SIZE, MEASURED BY TOTAL ASSETS;
PROF =
COMPANY PROFITABILITY, MEASURED BY PROFIT MARGIN (I.E. NET PROFIT TO NET SALES);
GRO =
COMPANY GROWTH, MEASURED BY THE PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN NET SALES;
AGE =
AGE OF A COMPANY;
LEVE =
LEVERAGE OF A COMPANY, MEASURED BY RATIO OF DEBT TO TOTAL ASSETS;
AFSIZE =
AUDIT
FIRM SIZE, CLASSIFIED BIG FIRM (BIG
OR LOCAL FIRMS WITH INTERNATIONAL AFFILIATIONS) AND
SMALL FIRMS (LOCAL FIRMS WITHOUT INTERNATIONAL AFFILIATIONS).
MLS =
MARKET LISTING STATUS, MEASURED BY COMPANY

WHERE "1" FIRST MARKET, "0" SECOND MARKET ;
LISTED IN THE FIRST MARKET OR SECOND MARKET ,
6.CONCLUSION
In this study, timeliness of a half-yearly financial report refers to the financial reporting lag, that is the time interval
between the end of the reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued. The maximum allowable
financial reporting lag for companies in Jordan is one month. Out of the 193 companies, 20 companies (10.4%)
reported after the due date. This means that the compliance rate was high, where 89.6 percent of the companies
complied with the regulation. The financial reporting lags of companies in this study lie between 17 and 120 days with
a mean and median of 30.95 days and 29 days, respectively. This implies that on average companies reported about one
day before the due date.
Although most companies reported by the due date, quite a large number of companies took as long as they are allowed
to submit their reports. Whether these companies could have published the reports earlier but tend to delay them, or
they really need such time interval to issue the reports is unknown. A majority of the companies (87%) reported within
the last ten days of the due date.
Consistent with the literature, based on the results of ordinary least squares regression analysis, this study provides
evidence that profitability of a company, growth of a company, age of a company, and market listing status of company
influence the timeliness of interim financial reporting. Companies with higher company profitability and the first
market companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports. Companies with higher company
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growth and older companies take longer time to publish their half-yearly financial reports. However, there appears to be
no evidence that timeliness is influenced by size of company, leverage of company and audit firm size.
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AUTHOR
Saqer Al-Tahat received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in Accounting from Al al-Bayt University- Jordan
in 1999 and 2005, respectively. He obtained his PhD in Financial Accounting from University Utara
Malaysia Malaysia in 2010. He got twelve years of work experience out of which; seven years he
worked an Auditor at Jordanian Audit Bureau, and five years an Assistance .Prof in Fahad Bin Sultan
University and Jerash University.
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Forward and inverse Kinematics Solution for

Six DOF with the help of Robotics tool box in
matlab
Er. Harpreet Singh1 , Dr. Naveen Dhillon2 , and Er. Imran Ansari3
1
Er. Harpreet Singh, Student RIET, Phagwara

2
Dr. Naveen Dhillon, HOD ECE, Phagwara

3
Er. Imran Ansari, GEU, Dehradun
ABSTRACT
Robot is the main part of flexible manufacturing system. Robotics is the vast field in which we can easily calculate the joint
angles and position vectors of robot up to 3 degree of freedom. But in case of 6-arm robot to find joint angles and position
vectors we need robotics toolbox in matlab. In this paper we find the position vectors of robot by forward kinematics and joint
angles by inverse kinematics in matlab with the help of robotic toolbox.
Keywords: Forward kinematics, Inverse kinematics, Degree of freedom, Robotics.
1. INTRODUCTION
Robotics tool box is developed by Peter I. Corke CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology Pullenvale,
AUSTRALIA, 4069 in year 2002. Robotics toolbox released in mat lab 7.1 provides many functions which are useful in
robotics including kinematics, dynamics, and trajectory generation etc [7]. The Toolbox is useful for simulation as well
as for analysing the results of experiments with real robots. The Toolbox is representing the kinematics and dynamics
of robot manipulators [14]. Robot objects can be created by the user for any robot manipulator and a number of
examples are provided for learning like Puma 560 and Stanford arm. The Toolbox also provides homogeneous
transformations and unit-quaternions which are necessary to represent 3-dimensional positions and orientation of robot.
With the help of robotics toolbox in matlab we can find out our data in which we have given the different angels and
for which we get the different position vectors [19].
The inverse kinematics (IK) problem for a robot manipulator is to nd the values of the joint angles given in the
position and orientation of the end-effector relative to the base. There are many solutions to solve the inverse
kinematics problem, such as geometric, algebraic, and numerical hit and trial, iterative, FABRIC methods [20]. The
inverse kinematics solution is a major problem in robotic research area.
Figure 1 Relationship between Forward and Inverse kinematics

The conversion of the position and orientation of the robot manipulator end-effector from Cartesian space to joint space
is called inverse kinematics problem. This relationship between forward and inverse kinematics is illustrated in Fig. 1.
There are traditional methods to find inverse and forward such as algebraic solutions, geometric solutions and iterative
solutions. However, these methods are time-consuming and suffer from numerical problems. Furthermore, if the joint
structure of robot manipulator is more complex, inverse kinematics solution also is more difficult [13].
D-H parameters given by Denavit Hartenberg in 1955 who give as position vectors of robot manipulator at various joint
angles [19]. Serdar Kucuk and Zafer Bingul gives the introduction of Forward and Inverse Kinematics of robot
manipulator December 2006 in this paper he introduce D-H parameter [1]. On the basis of DH parameter in 2008
Sreenivas Tegomurtula, Subhas Kak gives Inverse kinematics of robotics by using neural network at same time
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Srinivasan Alavandar, M.J. Nigam gives Nero fuzzy based approach for inverse kinematics solution of industrial robot
manipulator Inverse kinematics solution for robot manipulator based on neural network joint subspace given by Y
Feng, W.Yao-Nan & Y. Yi-min in 2012. Artificial neural network solution for planer parallel manipulator passing
through the similar configuration given by Ammar H Elsheikh, Ezzat A Shoaib and Elwahed M Asar in 2013.
2. FORWARD AND INVERSE KINEMATICS OF SIX ARM ROBOT

In this paper we are using six link robot shown in fig. 2. In order to find relation between first link and last link we
fixed the base (first link). This can be obtained from the description of the coordinate transformations between the
coordinate frames attached to all the links and forming the overall description in a recursive manner. For this purpose,
the position and orientation of the rigid body is useful for obtaining the composition of coordinate transformations
between the consecutive frames. As a first step, this method is to be derived to define the relative position and
orientation of two successive links. The problem is to define two frames attached to two successive links and make the
coordinate transformation between them. It is convenient to set some rules for the definition of the link frames
[3,6,8,12].
Figure 2 A six arm Robot

The DH parameters corresponding to this six arm robot manipulator are shown in Table 1. Here i is the joint angle, di
is joint offset, ai is link length, and i is the twist angle. The limits of each of the joint angles have also been given in
the table and these limits are also used in the matlab programming. The Denavit- Hartenberg (DH) convention and
methodology is used to derive its forward kinematics [1,17].
Table 1: D-H Parameters
The process of calculating the position and orientation of the end effectors with given joint angles is called Forward
Kinematics analysis. Forward Kinematics equations are generated from the Transformation matrixes and the forward
kinematics solution of the arm is the product of these six matrices identified as 0T6 with respect to base as shown in
equation no.1. The first three columns in the matrices represent the orientation of the end effectors, whereas the last
column represents the position of the end effectors normal orientation and approach matrix [7, 15].
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(1)
Compare the normal orientation and approach matrix with homogenous transformation matrix. The manual solution of
this matrix is difficult and the chances of increment of error is high. Same method is used on matlab in the term of
programming with the help of robotics tool box, which is developed by Peter I. Corke CSIRO Manufacturing Science
and Technology Pullenvale, AUSTRALIA, 4069 in year 2002 [7].
3.FORWARD AND INVERSE KINEMATICS OF SIX ARM ROBOT WITH THE HELP OF
ROBOTICS TOOLBOX IN MATLAB
Forward and inverse of robot can be done with the help of robotics tool box which has been made by Peter I. Corke
CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology Pullenvale, AUSTRALIA, 4069 in year 2002. First write start up_rvc
on the screen of matlab toolbox and start the robotics toolbox [7,17]. Make a program according to your motion and DH parameter showing above table no.1.The Toolbox provides functions for manipulating and converting the data types
such as in Table no. 2. Given below the ten joint angle matrix and their corresponding ten position vectors for each
input are shown [1].
Table 2: Input Joint Angles
Joint angle of any robot shows the current position of a robot at any certain position according to the DH parameter and
every robot joint have fixed joint limits. We can change the joint angle and corresponding output will change according
to the given input. If your given input crosses the limit forward kinematics is possible but inverse kinematics is not
possible. It means the output is not real. Some positions of robot are shown in Fig. 3 according to given angle.
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Figure 3 (a-j) Different Positions of Robot in 3-D

The output or position vectors of the robot according to the given joint angles are given in Table no. 3
Table 3: Output or position vectors of the robot corresponding to ten joint angles
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Similarly if we use position vectors as input then similar joint angles can be obtained as output in inverse kinematics
and we get again same joint angle show in table no. 4.
Table 4: Output or position vectors of the robot corresponding to ten joint angles
4. RESULT AND CONCLUSION

In this paper, we considered the forward and inverse kinematics in six arm robot manipulator. We have presented
different methods for finding multiple solutions for a given end-effector position (as in the example like algebraic,
geometrical FABRIC etc). All methods show end effector position but it is limited to 2 or 3 degree of freedom system of
robot. But forward and inverse kinematics of robot with the help of robotics tool box in mat lab is able to find end
effector positions of large number of degree of freedom system of robot. In this we find end effector positions of six arm
or six degree of freedom robot.by this method we can also find the position of intermediate links position vectors as
well as joint angles at any position of robot. By using this method we can also make three dimensional view of robot,
and also control the time, movement of robot of initial position to end position of end effector.
5. FUTURE SCOPE
Robotics tool box in mat lab is not only limited to forward and inverse kinematics of robot by which we can make
controller of robot, can calculate link length and link weight, link momentum, link velocity, maximum limits of robot
etc the data come from robotics tool box you can validate in different tools of mat lab like artificial neural network
(ANN), articulated neuro fuzzy interference system(ANFIS) etc.
REFERENCES
[1] Serdar Kucuk and Zafer Bingul Forward and Inverse Kinematics December 2006.
[2] Joan Q Gan, Eimei Oyama, Eric M Rosales & Huoheng hu a complete analytical solution to the inverse kinematics
of the pioneer 2r robotic am Cambridge journals 7 may 2004.
[3] LORENZO SCIAVICCO & BRUNO SCILIANO a solution algorithm to the inverse kinematics problem for
redundant manipulator IEEE Journal of Robotics and Automation,Vol. 4 no.4 august 1998.
[4] Li Chun Tommy Wang & Chi Cheng Chen a combined optimization method for solving the inverse kinematics
problem for mechanical manipulator IEEE Transaction on Robotics and Automation Vol. 7 No. 4 august 1991.
[5] Kesheng Wang Efficient inverse position transformation for TR400S robot manipulator Modeling identification
and Control,1989,Vol.10 No. 2 101-113 9 feb. 1989.
[6] Ziauddin ahmad & Allon Guez On the solution of inverse kinematics problem IEEE 1990.
[7] http://www.petercorke.com/robot Robotics toolbox for Mat lab Release 9.0
[8] Jianxin XU, Wei Wang & Yuanguang SUN two optimization algorithms for solving inverse kinematics with
redundancy South China University of Technology and Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, CAS and
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010.
[9] B Purmus, H. Temurtas & A. Gan An inverse kinematics solution using practical swarm optimization 6th
International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS11), 16-18 May 2011, Elaz, Turkey.
[10] Ali T hasan & M.A.A.Al Assadi Performance prediction network for serial manipulator inverse kinematics
solution passing through singular configuration Advanced Robotics System International 2010.
[11] Adrew A. Goldenberg, B. Benhabib, & Robert G. Fenton a Complete Generalized Solution to the Inverse
Kinematics of Robots IEEE JOURNAL OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. RA-1, NO. 1, march 1985.
[12] Himanshu Chaudhary and Rajendra Prasad Intelegent Inverse kinematics control of scorbot- ER plus robot
manipulator International Journal of Advances in Engineering & Technology, Nov 2011.
[13] Mustafa Jabbar Hayawi analytical inverse kinematics algorithm Of A 5-DOF robot arm Journal of education of
college no.4 vol.1 march./2011.
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[14] S. V. Shah ,S.K Saha, J.K Dutt Denavit-Hartenberg Parameterization of Euler Angles Journal of Computational
and Nonlinear Dynamics 2012.
[15] Harvey Lipkin a note on D-H notation on robotics ASME 2005.
[16] Dr. Anurg Verma1, Mehul Gor2 forward and inverse kinematics of 6DOF arc welding robot International Journal
of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 2(9), 2010, 4682-4686.
[17] Tadeusz szkodny Forward and inverse kinematics of IRb-6 manipulator Pergamon 1995.
[18] Federico Thomas solved problem of robot kinematics by using robotics toolbox Barcelona, April 2nd, 2012.
[19] www.robotshop.ca www.robotshop.us history of robotics.
[20] Andeas Aristidou & joan Lasenby FABRIC :- A fast iterative solver for the inverse kinematic problem ELSEVIER
9 may 2011.
AUTHOR
Er. Harpreet Singh received the B.Tech degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from SBBSIET,
Jalandhar and pursuing M.Tech degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from RIET, Phagwara.
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Effect of copper doping on the some physical

properties of Nio thin films prepared by
chemical spray pyrolysis
1.
Dr. Anwar H. Ali, 2.Raania R . Kadhim
1.
Department of Physics College of science, Al- Mustansiriyah University
2.
Department of Physics College of science, Al- Mustansiriyah University
ABSTRACT
A simple and inexpensive spray pyrolysis technique (SPT) was employed to deposit Nickel Oxide (NiO) thin films from Nickel
nitrate salt solution on preheated glass substrates(Ts =400)c, at thickness (250nm), Effect of copper doping on the structural
and optical properties in NiO thin films has been done using X-ray diffraction , Scanning Electron Microscope and UV-visible
spectroscopy.The structural propertie of Nio and Nio:cu films showed polycrystalline nature with cubic structure,the variations
of the microstructural parameters such as crystallite size , dislocation density ,strain with doping rate were investigated .The
optical transmittance and band gap values of films decreased with increasing cu concentrations.
Key words: Nickel oxide films , spray pyrolysis, Cu doped, structural and optical properties
1.INTRODUCTION
Nickel oxide(NiO)has attached considerable attention for applications, such as catalysts, electrochromic film, gas
sensors,fuel cell, anode of organic light-emitting diodes, magnetic materials and thermoelectric materials[1], owing to
its p-type conductivity,wide band gap ranging from3.6eV to 4.0 eV[2] .Most attracting features of NiO are: (1)
excellent durability and electrochemical stability, (2) low material cost, (3) promising ion storage material in terms of
cyclic stability, (4) large span optical density, and (5) possibility of manufacturing by variety of techniques[3-7]. Nickel
oxide thin films have been prepared by various techniques that involve: vacuum evaporation, electron beam evaporation
, rf-magnetron sputtering , anodic oxidation ,chemical deposition, atomic layer epitaxy, solgel and spray pyrolysis
technique (SPT) [8-11]. Although SPT has been employed in the past to deposit NiO films through acetylacetonate and
nitrate routes, their characterization have sparsely been carried out. Aqueous solutions are commonly used in SP
system to deposit thin films due to ease of handling, safety, low cost and availability of a wide range of water-soluble
metal salts[12]. The solute must have high solubility to increase the yield of the process, Metal chlorides have highest
water solubility relative to other metal salts and are used for the industrial production of several oxides and ferrites.
Other metal salts such as nitrates, acetates and sulfates can also introduce impurities, which may adversely affect
subsequent processing or properties and phase development[13].
This paper introduces a simple, fast and versatile method to synthesize NiO:cu thin films. The effects of the cu doping
concentration on the structural and optical properties Nio:cu films were examined.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
Material preparation and deposition of films:
Chemical techniques for the preparation of thin films have been studied extensively because such processes facilitate
the designing of materials on a molecular level. Spray pyrolysis one of the chemical techniques applied to form a
variety of thin films, results in good productivity from a simple apparatus. In the current research, Nickel oxide thin
films are deposited on glass substrates employing locally made spray pyrolysis deposition chamber whose main
components set up is illustrated in the schematic diagram of fig. (1).
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Nickel oxide thin films have been deposited from 0.04 M aqueous solution of solute quantity of Ni(No3)2 in distilled
water (the solvent).A magnetic stirrer is incorporated for this purpose for about (1015) minutes to facilitate the
complete dissolution of the solute in the solvent. A microscopic glass substrates were chemically and ultrasonically
cleaned are employing , during the film deposition the substrate temperature was kept constant at 400 C. This
temperature was found to be optimum to obtain good adherent NiO films. The spray rate was maintained at2.3 ml/min
due to the (N2) pressure of gas. and distance between top of nozzle and the substrate was kept 30 cm. The overall
reaction process can be expressed as heat decomposition of Nickel nitrate to clusters of Nickel oxide in the presence of
water and air. The following chemical reaction took place on heated substrates[14].
Table (1): Optimum thermal spray pyrolysis deposition conditions for the preparation of NiO thin films.
For copper doping(Cu(NO3)2 ) was dissolved in precursor solution of Ni(No3)2 with different weight percentage and
sprayed onto preheated glass substrate. The Cu doped films were prepared for 1%, 3%, 5%,and7% of copper
concentrations with the same deposition temperature and spray rate.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Structural Properties
The crystalline structure of the thin films, obtained at different doping concentrations were examined by Philips
instrument system at room temperature, X-ray diffractometer using CuK radiation with wavelength,
=154056Ao.The crystalline size of Nickel oxide thin film samples were calculated by using Scherrer's equation [15],
and there values are listed in table(2).
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(Scherrer's equation)
where D is the crystalline size
: the peak FWHM.
: the diffraction peak position, it means Bragg`s angle
XRD pattern of NiO thin film prepared by spray pyrolysis technique at substrate temperature of (400oC) have been
shown in Figure (2 (a) ).The presence of diffraction peaks indicates that the Nio film is polycrystalline with a cubic type
crystal structure as compared with standard (ASTM) NiO card . Generally the peaks of the Nio and NiO:Cu thin films
were observed at diffraction angles in the range at (37and 43),the results show amajor diffraction peak along
(111)plane at 2=37.3for pure Nio and different copper concentrations.besides this other low intensity peak was
observed along (200)plane. No diffraction peak related to other secondary phases was observed ,the crystalline size
shows a variation in different copper doping as listed in table (2).
Fig.(2): X-ray diffraction patterns of (a) NiO (b) Nio:cu1% (c)Nio:cu3% (d)Nio:cu 5% (f)Nio:cu 7%
Table (2): Structural properties of pure Nio and Nio:cu at different concentration
3.2 Optical properties

The transmittance of Nio and doped NiO films, deposited on glass substrates, prepared at various doping rates are
presented in Fig. (3) of pure NiO and film show a transmittance (< 60%). The transmittance of pure Nio was nearly
60% and it decreased to be 40% at Nio:cu 1% is added.By futher increasing Cu contents to 3%,5%, and 7% the
transmittances of Nio films are decreased to 38%,37%,28% recpactibly . this results may be ascribed to the light being
scattered by large amounts of grain boundaries as well as The Cu clusters also reflecting the incident light ,therefore the
transmittance of Nio:Cu films decreases with the increase in Cu content.
The optical band gap (Eg) of the thin films could be obtained as shown in Fig.(4) by plotting (h)2 vs h curve () is
the absorption coefficient and h the photon energy and extrapolating the straight-line portion of this plot to the energy
axis.The absorption coefficient () has been calculated using the following eqution for directly allowed transition for
simple parabolic scheme as a function of incident photon energy.
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Lamberts formula (Mishra et al. 2009)

[16]
where, t is a thickness of the film (250nm), T is a transmittance of the film.
The optical band gap of NiO: cu films gradually decreases from 3.9 ev to 2.8 eV with increasing Cu concentration as
illustrated in Fig.(4) . This shift is due to the increase in carrier concentration which results in filling prevents the
transition of the photo generate carriers into the filled levels according to quantum rules and hence leads so far
transition with larger photo energy.
Fig.(5) show the change of the absorption coefficient of undoped and doped films as a function of incident photon
energy, It is observed that the absorption coefficient () increases gradually with the incident photon energy, and that
value is greater than 179350.4 (cm-1) for Nio:cu 7% , which indicates the strong possibility of direct electronic
transitions, we can see the absorption coefficient () increase with increasing the copper concentration this mean
decreasing in energy gap , this result is attributed to form levels nearby conductive band.
Fig.(3): Transmittance spectra of pure NiO , Nio:cu 1%,Nio :cu 3%,Nio :cu 5% and Nio:cu 7% thin films.
Fig. (4): Variation of ( h
)2
vs. photon energy ( h ) for pure Nio, Nio:cu 1%,Nio :cu 3%,
Nio:cu 7% thin films
Nio :cu 5% and
Fig (5): Absorption Coefficient versus photon energy of NiO and Nio:cu 1%, Nio :cu 3%,Nio :cu 5% and Nio:cu 7%
thin films
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2.3 Surface morphology

Surface morphologies for pure NiO and all Nio:cu Thin films have been studied. Fig.(6) shows that the surface
micrograph of NiO(pure) film have a homogenous surface which consists of a uniform distribution of structured grains
with average grain size about ( 0.6808 Mm ). This structure repeats throughout the materials with closely packed to
each other indicating good adhesiveness of film with the substrate. The image of Nio:cu 1% shows that the some
particales were meet together to form a cluster, the surface was Less homogeneity and the effect of doping was clearly,
with average grain size about ( 0.7234 Mm ).The SEM image of Nio :cu 3% is indicative of the formation of larger
aggregation while the formation of relatively small grains is visible in SEM image corresponding to NiO:cu 1% thin
films and the effect of doping was more clearly , the average grain size increase to (0.8255 Mm),it can be seen that the
grain size of particales increase with decreasing Cu doping, this is attributed to the replacement of relatively smaller
Ni ions by the relatively smaller Cuions during the formation of the Nio:cu films.
The image of Nio:cu 5% appears the shapes of aggregation of particales -like worms with average grain size
about(0.7231 Mm) and homogenous surface.from the image of Nio:cu 7% It can be seen that the small grains made a
smooth and best homogeneous thin films with uniform distribution and have a Spherical shap and the average grain
size about( 0.4255 Mm),this result is in a good agreement with (XRD).
Fig. (6) SEM micrographs Nio:Cu thin at different doping rates at two magnification.
4.CONCLUSION
We have found that good adherent and smooth films of copper doped NiO having different percentage of copper
concentration canbe obtained by using low cost spray pyrolysis technique. From the X-ray diffraction investigation, the
crystalline structure of thin films was
a polycrystalline with a cubic structure , the increasing of cu doping
concentration increased the grain size, The SEM results reveal that the grain size increases with the increase in copper
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concentration and then decreased and this affects the physical properties of the films The value of The transmittance
and the optical energy gap (Eg)were found decrease with increase cu doping concentration. Value addition to this
study is the observation of higher absorption in the visible region,thereby a tendency towards tunability for applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Wu SY, Ch WF, Fe YF. The electrochromic properties of nickel oxide by chemical deposition and oxidization.
Mater Lett60:7905 2006.
[2] Bo JA,Ij,DM,IV PG,Er RW,Lee SH,etal.Polarized neutron diffractionstudiesofexchange-coupledFe3O4/NiO
superlattices.
[3] H.M. Al-doon, Phys. Stat. Solidi (a) (1988).
[4] S. Ma, A. Akl, H. Kamal and K. Ab-Hady, Physica, (2002) 366375.
[5] LiuZG,ZuYG,FuYJ,ZhangYL,LiangHL.Growthoftheoxidizednickel nanoparticles
onaDNAtemplateinaqueoussolution.MaterLett2008;62: 23152307.
[6] Cast-HurtadoI,HerranJ,PerezN,OlaizolaSM,MandayoGG,CastanoE. Toxic
gasesdetectionbyNiOsputteredthinfilms.SensLett2011;9:6468.
[7] DuY,WangWN,LiXW,ZhaoJ,MaJM,LiuYP,etal.PreparationofNiO nanoparticles
inmicroemulsionanditsgassensingperformance.MaterLett 2012;68:168170.
[8] LiY,XieYS,GongJH,ChenYF,ZhangZT.PreparationofNi/YSZmaterialsfor SOFC anodesbybuffersolutionmethod.MaterSciEng,2001;86:119122.
[9] BorchersJA,IjiriY,LindDM,IvanovPG,ErwinRW,LeeSH,etal.Polarized
neutron
diffractionstudiesofexchangecoupledFe3O4/NiO superlattices. J ApplPhys1999;85:58835885.
[10] HuY,Qian HS,MeiT,Guo J,WhiteT.Facile synthesis of magnetic metal(Mn, Co, Fe,and
Ni)oxidenanosheets.MaterLett2010;64:10951098.
[11] BijuV.Antiferromagneticresonanceinnanocrystallinenickeloxidestudied using
fouriertransforminfraredspectroscopy.MaterLett2008;62:29042906.
[12] Gandhi AC,Huang CY,Yang CC,ChanTS,ChengCL,MaYR,etal.Growth mechanism and magnonexcitation in NiO
nanowalls.Nanoscale Res Lett 2011.
[13] ShinW,MurayamaN.High performancep-type thermo electric oxide based on NiO.MaterLett2000;45:302306.
[14] Bogoroditsky N.P., V.V. Pasnkov & B.M. Tareev, Electrical Engineering Materials, (1979 ).
[15] B.D.Cullity, "Elements of X-ray diffraction",(USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.) 1956.
[16] Mishra RL, Mishra SK, Prakash SG Optical and gas sensing characteristics of tin oxide nano-crystalline thin film.
J Ovonic Res(2009) 5(4):7785.
AUTHOR
Raania R. kadhim
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Artificial Neural Networks based heart disease

predictive Approach
1.
Tanu Verma,
1
2.
Dr R. K. Srivastava
.Research Scholar Mewar University
2.Associate Professor & Head, Department of Computer Science, Bareilly College Bareilly, U.P.,INDIA
ABSTRACT
Predictive algorithm based on neural networks are available and it proves superior to empirical methods of clinical staying.
The aim of this research is to apply artificial neural network to heart disease prediction research. Neural Network has played
an important role in intelligent medical diagnosis. The Artificial Neural Network have been trained and tested on different
input variables describing the patients history. A network trained with a moderately high artificial mortality rate can improve
the sensitivity of the model. Artificial Neural Network are currently a hot research area in medical diagnosis and it is
believed that it receive extensive application to biomedical system in future. The ANN has been trained to exposing if to sets of
existing data where the history of heart or patient is known.
1. INTRODUCTION
ANN based models for medical parameters such as mortality and morbidity and created and effect of heart disease into
total males and females mortality indicators are studied. The aim of this research is to apply ANN and their
associated analysis techniques to heart care, specifically to the management of hypertensive, diabetic and heart patient.
The problem has been posed by the medical researcher and heart specialist that represents classical cases where the
solution to the medical problem appears to lie in the information technology. The ANN has been trained by exposing it
to sets of existing data where the desired i.e. output following history of heart patients in known ANN have varying
complexity
an
d types which is used in research diagnosis of heart disease. ANN have been shown to be more accurate in predicting
heart disease and results obtained from neural network from one diagnosis center to another diagnosis centre, the
project should lead to an better standard of treatment for heart disease. Patients will be benefited by getting the right
treatment. An Improved Constructive Neural Network Ensemble Approach to Medical Diagnoses, introduced by
Zhenyu Wang,Xin Yao of School of Computer Science, the University of Birmingham U.K. presents the study about
role of Neural Network in intelligent medical diagnoses. Usually Medical diagnosis system is used to prevent and
diagnose the disease. Different types of disease have their physical symptoms. These symptoms vary according to the
disease we have used a Neural Network technique of soft computing as feed forward part of back propagation
algorithm. In this paper we apply ANN and analyze their ability to simulate complex processes. Some ANN based data
for heart disease and its parameters such as blood pressure, sugar, breathing rate etc were used and influence of
different heart patients (male & female) was studied.
2. METHODOLOGY AND DATA PROCESSING

2.1 ANN Model
In 1962 Reosenblatt described a perceptions and its computational ability in single layer feed forward network. Later
Rumelhart and Willians introduced the generalized delta rule for learning by back propagation, which is the most
commonly used training algorithm for multi layer network.
More complex network types, alternative training algorithms involving network growth and now a days state of this
area of science. In our work we used:
Multi-layer ANNs which were learnt with back propagation, rule with momentum.
Multi-layer ANNs which were learnt with genetic algorithm.
We use multi-layer ANN as the most common type of network and the type which shows good results in function
approximation and gives a possibility to make sensitivity analysis of inputs. We choose genetics optimization of ANN
weights as it is a technique of directed stochastic search and can simultaneously possesses a large amount of candidate
solutions to a problem, called population.
In genetic approach, candidate solutions are perceived as individuals often called chromosomes. Initial solution
population could be generated randomly. Selecting individuals playing the role of parents and creating children from
the parents by genetic operators change the population: mutation and crossover. Selecting the survivors is again done
using a fitness-based random mechanism, which is a survival-of-the-fittest principle. The genetic operators: mutation,
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crossover and selection continue until meet the stopping criterion (minimal of an error function or given number of
epoch.
2.2 ANN structure: Artificial neural networks provide a robust approach to approximate real-valued, discrete valued
and vector-valued target functions from some very complex (input, output) data pairs. Many attributes valued pairs
represent input data.
The most common neural network architecture is a fully connected node web. Every edge on the web has a weight
associated with it. Each input node accepts an input data X={X1,X2,XN}. All other nodes on hidden layers and output
layer compute the linear combinations of the inputs from their immediate backward layers apply a threshold on the
result and send the outputs to their immediate forward layers. Often the threshold is a sigmoid function.
2.3 Computation of ANN forecasted value: Data sets are two parts training and testing. In our testing data there are
43 input sets and one output of 5 patients .Considering the patient pathological and other test reports related to heart
disease as input x(k) and particular S. No. of patient data set to be predicted as desired output d(k) after applying the
BPA, the calculated output is treated as predicted value of cor. Angiogram. The steps adapted for calculation of
predicted cor. Angiogram value i.e. output through BPA is as follows:
Step 1: Data set of patient S. No. 1 to 39 as input set and Coronary Angiogram value of patient S. No. 39 as desired
output.
output.
output.
output.
output.
The algorithm has been implemented through C programming language, considering two hidden layers and
computations have been made by an optimized ANN with 43 hidden nodes and after 500and 1000 epochs. Out of these,
the best suitable forecasted values have been obtained by model with 1000 epochs. The result so obtained has been
illustrated in Table 1 as follows:
Table-1
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3.RESULT & CONCLUSION

The proposed artificial neural network technique has been implemented to have diagnosis of heart disease. We have
considered the indirect relation of various parameters for time series data and presume that their relations are time
invariant. The motivation of the study is to diagnose the heart disease, data are collected through various sampling
techniques having different age groups of patients which shows the nonlinearity in data sets and obtained the diagnostic
result through ANN using back propagation algorithm. A network requires information only on the input variable for
diagnostic system. As values on test data are comparatively less the diagnostic model is reliable. The availability of data
have tremendous amount of imprecision and uncertainty due to test reports of the patients are based on involvement of
different electronic and mechanical equipments. Network performance could have been further improved by providing
more training data. Moreover the considered connectionist models are robust, capable of handling the approximate data
and therefore should be more reliable in worse situation. Optimal result will depend on the selection of parameters
which is based on test results and symptoms of the patients. It is evident through the study that neural network model is
even suitable over human diagnostic system. The motivation of the study is that the pathological test data are collected
through various sampling and based on the reading of electronic machines, involving vagueness. Comparison of
forecasted coronary angiogram test value of the patient obtained through ANN using back propagation algorithm with
actual coronary angiogram value of the patients are listed in table-2.
Table-2
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Fig.- Actual Cor.Angio. Vs Forecasted Cor.Angio. Values

In the study the target patient S.NO. 39 to 43 for the prediction of coronary angiogram value computed through the
ANN method. Preliminary results shows that this system can be useful in daily routine practice of medical researchers
and hospital clinicians and the best performance is 99.31% success of correct diagnosis has achieved , could be
interesting that allows the best result provides forecast of higher accuracy. Further the trends in forecast by proposed
method have been compared with the forecast by other available methods like linear model, moving average method,
fitting the polynomial of degree three method and fuzzy sets, our ANN model shows better results than other methods.
REFERENCES
[1] Chou-An Chen[2007], Neuro Fuzzy Technology as a Predictor of Parathyroid Harmonse Level in Hemodialysis
Patients,Tohku J,Exp.Med.,211,81-87
[2] Ferdous Ahemad Sohel, A new Neural Network with Fuzzy Technique, Disease diagnosis, A Case study,Dept. of
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[3] Holmstr,M. L. Koinstinen P, [1992],using Additive Noise in Backpropagation Training,IEEE Transaction on
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[7] V.S. Kodogiannis,MBoulougoura[2007], An Adaptive NeuroFuzzy Approach for the Diagnosis in Wireless
Capsule endoscopy Imaging,International Journal of Information Technology,Vol. 13 No. 1
[8] Werbos Paul J. [1990], Back propagation through time: what it does and how to do
it,Proceeding of the
IEEE,78,1550-1559.
[9] Yang CC[1998],The use of back propagation neural network for the sim. & analysis of time series data
,Transcations of the ASAE,41,1181-1187
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VLSI Designing of High Speed Parallel

Multiplier Accumulator Based On Radix4
Booths Multiplier
Gaurav Pohane 1, Sourabh Sharma2
1
M.Tech Scholars TITR, Bhopal (EC DEPARTMENT)T.I.T.R, (R.G.P.V.)

Bhopal (M.P.), India Bhopal (M.P.), India
2
Assistant Professor (EC DEPARTMENT)T.I.T.R, (R.G.P.V.)

Bhopal (M.P.), India Bhopal (M.P.), India
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we proposed a new architecture of multiplier-and-accumulator (MAC) for high-speed arithmetic. By combining
multiplication with accumulation and devising a hybrid type of ripple carry adder (RCA), the performance was improved. Since
the accumulator that has the largest delay in MAC was merged into RCA, the overall performance was elevated. Radix 4
modified Booth algorithms can be utilized for reduction of the partial products. The parallel multiplier like radix 4 modified
booth multiplier accomplishes the computations utilizing fewer adders and less iterative steps. Based on the simplification of
addition operation and power reduction property in ripple carry adder (RCA),a low power radix 4 modified booth multiplier is
proposed, compared with the radix 4 modified booth multiplier using carry look ahead adder(CLA),the experimental result
shows that our propose design has reduce the Delay of circuit to 6.21 % using RCA, Area has estimated as 947 which was 1141
when designed with CLA Adder.
Keywords: Booth multiplier, Low power, Modified Booth Multiplier, Multiplication, Partial Product Generation
(PPG), RCA, VHDL.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the recent rapid advances in multimedia and communication systems, real-time signal processing like audio
signal processing, video/image processing, or large-capacity data processing are increasingly being demanded. The
multiplier and multiplier-and-accumulator (MAC) [1] are the essential elements of the digital signal processing such as
filtering, convolution, and inner products. The energy efficient digital signal processing (DSP) modules are becoming
increasingly important in wireless sensor networks, where from tens to thousands of battery-operated micro sensor
nodes are deployed remotely and used to relay sensing data to the end-user in these application/systems, a multiplier is
a fundamental arithmetic unit and widely used in circuits. The speed of multiply operation is of great importance in
digital signal processing as well as in the general purpose processors today, especially since the media processing took
off. In the past multiplication was generally implemented via a sequence of addition, subtraction, and shift operations.
Multiplication can be considered as a series of repeated additions. The number to be added is the multiplicand, the
number of times that it is added is the multiplier, and the result is the product. Each step of addition generates a partial
product. In most computers, the operand usually contains the same number of bits. When the operands are interpreted
as integers, the product is generally twice the length of operands in order to preserve the information content. This
repeated addition method that is suggested by the arithmetic definition is slow that it is almost always replaced by an
algorithm that makes use of positional representation. It is possible to decompose multipliers into two parts. The first
part is dedicated to the generation of partial products, and the second one collects and adds them. Booth multiplication
is used greatly to increase the speed of the multiplier by encoding the numbers that are multiplied.
This is a standard technique used in chip design and provides significant improvements over the long multiplication
technique. In the conventional multiplier, the number of partial products to be added are determined by the number of
bits the multiplier or multiplicand being used. The bigger the number of bits the multiplicand or the multiplier contain,
the longer time it takes to produce the product. The delay of multiplier is determined largely by the number of partial
products to be added. One of the most popular algorithms used to reduce the number of partial products is Booth
Encoding multiplier. Booth Encoding multiplication is able to reduce the number of partial products being encoded to
increase the speed of the binary multiplications. Radix-4 Booth Encoding multiplier reduces the number of partial
products by half, N/2. [2] This is able to increase the time of compression and contribute to an increase in speed. [3] It
was then taken a step further in this analysis by designing and synthesizing Radix-8 Booth Encoding multiplier, Radix16 Booth Encoding multiplier and Radix-32 Booth Encoding multiplier to determine if the speed reduces or the area
increases as the higher the radix-based multiplier designs are. The number of partial products reduces as the Radixbased Booth Encoding multipliers increase higher. Radix-8 Booth Encoding multiplier will encounter a reduction of
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N/3 in the partial products while Radix-16 Booth Encoding multiplier reduces its number of partial product by N/4.
Radix-32 Booth Encoding multiplier reduces the number of partial products even more by a reduction of N/5. The
algorithm to produce the partial products gets a lot more complicated as the higher the Radix-based Booth Encoding
multiplier.
In booth multiplier the number of summands is reduced by recording the multiplier bit into groups that select multiplies
of multiplicand. From the basics of Booth Multiplication it can be proved that the addition/subtraction operation can be
skipped if the successive bits in the multiplicand are same. To achieve high performance, the modified Booth encoding
which reduces the number of partial products by a factor of two through performing the multiplier recoding has been
widely adopted in parallel multipliers. The multiplication operations have the fixed-width property. That is, their input
data and output results have the same bit width. For example, the (2W - 1)-bit product obtained from W-bit
multiplicand and W-bit multiplier is quantized to W-bits by eliminating the (W - 1 ) least-significant bits (LSBs). In
typical fixed-width multipliers, the adder cells required for the computation of the (W - 1) LSBs are omitted and
appropriate biases are introduced to the retained adder cells. The hardware complexity reduction and power saving can
be achieved by directly removing the adder cells of standard multiplier. Due to this a huge truncation error will be
introduced. To effectively reduce the truncation error, various error compensation methods, which add estimated
compensation value to the carry inputs of the reserved adder cells. The error compensation value can be produced by
the constant scheme or the adaptive scheme. The adaptive error compensation approaches are developed only for fixedwidth array multipliers and cannot be applied to significantly reduce the truncation error of fixed-width modified Booth
multipliers directly. To overcome this problem, several error compensation approaches have been proposed to
effectively reduce the truncation error of fixed-width modified Booth multipliers. To obtain better error performance
with a simple error compensation circuit, Booth encoded outputs are utilized to generate the error compensation value.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Young-Ho Seo and Dong-Wook Kim has designed proposed a new architecture of multiplier-and-accumulator (MAC)
for high-speed arithmetic. By combining multiplication with accumulation and devising a hybrid type of carry save
adder (CSA), the performance was improved. Since the accumulator that has the largest delay in MAC was merged into
CSA, the overall performance was elevated.
Now, this paper, a new architecture for a high-speed MAC is proposed. In this MAC, the computations of
multiplication and accumulation are combined and a hybrid-type CSA structure is proposed to reduce the critical path
and improve the output rate. It uses MBA algorithm based on 1s complement number system. A modified array
structure for the sign bits is used to increase the density of the operands. A carry look-ahead adder (CLA) is inserted in
the CSA tree to reduce the number of bits in the final adder. In addition, in order to increase the output rate by
optimizing the pipeline efficiency, intermediate calculation results are accumulated in the form of sum and carry
instead of the final adder outputs. Zn = -2* Bn+1 + Bn + Bn-1, PPG is the combination circuit of the product generator
and the 5 to 1 MUX circuit. Product generator is designed to produce the product by multiplying the multiplicand A by
0, 1, - 1, 2 or -2. A 5 to 1 MUX is designed to determine which product is chosen depending on the M, 2M, 3M control
signal which is generated from the MBE. Now, for product generator, multiply by zero means the multiplicand is
multiplied by 0.Multiply by 1 means the product still remains the same as the multiplicand value. Multiply by -1
means that the product is the two's complement form of the number. Multiply by -2 is to be shifted left one bit the
two's complement of the multiplicand value and multiply by 2 means just shift left the multiplicand by only one
place. In this paper, a new MAC architecture to execute the multiplication- accumulation operation, which is the key
operation, for digital signal processing and multimedia information processing efficiently, was proposed. By removing
the independent accumulation process that has the largest delay and merging it to the compression process of the
partial products, the overall MAC performance has been improved almost twice as much as in the previous work.
Shaikh Kalisha Baba and D.Rajaramesh has design and implementation of Advanced Modified Booth Encoding
(AMBE) multiplier for both signed and unsigned 32 - bit numbers multiplication. The already existed Modified Booth
Encoding multiplier and the Baugh-Wooley multiplier perform multiplication operation on signed numbers only.
Whereas the array multiplier and Braun array multipliers perform multiplication operation on unsigned numbers only.
Thus, the requirement of the modern computer system is a dedicated and very high speed unique multiplier unit for
signed and unsigned numbers. Therefore, this paper presents the design and implementation of AMBE multiplier. The
modified Booth Encoder circuit generates half the partial products in parallel. By extending sign bit of the operands
and generating an additional partial product the AMBE multiplier is obtained. The Carry Save Adder (CSA) tree and
the final Carry Look ahead (CLA) adder used to speed up the multiplier operation. Since signed and unsigned
multiplication operation is performed by the same multiplier unit the required hardware and the chip area reduces and
this in turn reduces power dissipation and cost of a system. The high speed Booth multipliers and pipelined Booth
multipliers are used for digital signal processing (DSP) applications such as for multimedia and communication
systems. High speed DSP computation applications such as Fast Fourier transform (FFT) require additions and
multiplications. The conventional modified Booth encoding (MBE) generates an irregular partial product array because
of the extra partial product bit at the least significant bit position of each partial product row. The requirement of the
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modern computer system is a dedicated and very high speed multiplier unit that can perform multiplication operation
on signed as well as unsigned numbers. In this paper they designed and implemented a dedicated multiplier unit that
can perform multiplication operation on both signed and unsigned numbers, and this multiplier is called as AMBE
multiplier. The main goal of this paper is to design and implement 3232 multiplier for signed and unsigned numbers
using MBE technique. Using the MBE logic and considering other conditions the Boolean expression for one bit partial
product generator. The SUMBE multiplier does not separately consider the encoder and the decoder logic, but instead
implemented as a single unit called partial product generator. The negative partial products are converted into 2 s
complement by adding a negate (Ni) bit. The required signed extension to convert 2s complement signed multiplier
into both signed-unsigned multipliers.
In this paper, they present a 32-bit32-bit advanced multiplier capable of carrying out both signed and unsigned
operations. The proposed novel unified signed/unsigned multiplier was optimized in terms of speed, power
consumption and silicon area by exploiting more regular partial product array, developing more efficient compression
methods and combining several types of fast adders.
3. METHODOLOGY
Multipliers are important operands and utilize in high-speed low-power systems where a large amount of information is
to be calculated. The modified Booth algorithm reduces the number of partial products by half. The modified Booth
encoding (MBE) scheme is known as the most efficient Booth encoding and decoding scheme. To multiply,
multiplicand X by multiplier Y using the modified Booth algorithm. First group the multiplier bits Y by three
bits and encoding into one of {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}. Prior to convert the multiplier, a zero is appended into the Least
Significant Bit (LSB) of the multiplier. Table I shows the rules to generate the encoded signals by MBE scheme and
Fig. 1 shows the corresponding logic diagram. The Booth decoder generates the partial products using the encoded
signals as shown in Fig. 2.
Table1: Truth table for modified booth encoder.
In an n-bit modified Booth multiplier, the number of Booth encoders is n/2 and the number of partial product generator
(PPG) circuits is approximately n2, hence power consumption and die area in the Booth section is dominated by PPG.
So, integration of PPG (Booth Decoder) section is more important than Booth encoder (BE) block. The conventionally
used modified Booth selector computes the partial product of jth bit and ith row by using the equation1.
PPij = (Xj. X1_2+Xj-1.X1_1) XOR Neg
(1)
Where Xj and Xj-1 are the multiplicand inputs of weight 2j and 2j-1 respectively, X1_2 and X1_1 determine whether
the multiplicand should be doubled or not and Neg is a digit which determines if the multiplicand should be inverted or
not. Booth recoding is fully parallel and carry free. It can be applied to design a tree and array multiplier, where all the
multiples are needed at once. Radix-4 Booth recoding system works perfectly for both signed and unsigned operations.
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Proposed Methodology:
As it has been found that, Booth Wallace multiplier is most efficient among all, giving optimum delay, with lesser
power and small chip area for multiplication. Therefore the proposed design for low power high speed Booth multiplier
and its implementation on reconfigurable hardware will utilize the carry ripple adder along with the booth s
algorithm to accomplish the goal.
Fig 3. Block diagram of Block Diagram of Modified Booth Multiplier.
4. RESULT
Xilinx 13.1i ISE Simulator has been used to simulate the proposed methodology of multiplication of two 8 bit numbers
using Radix-4 modified Booths algorithm. The device used by the simulator is XC3S50 of Spartan3 family with the
speed of -5 which is shown in Fig. 4
Fig. 4. Properties of Xilinx 13.1i module

The Result Can be analyze by following table
Table 2. Multiplication of a and b
The comparison of the synthesis report of the former results from radix 2 booth multiplier using carry look ahead adder
(CLA) and the proposed delay radix 4 booth multiplier using on chip ripple carry adder (RCA) are summarized in the
table below:
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Table 3.Comparision of CLA & RCA properties
The multiplication operation is performed in many fragments of a digital system or digital computer. Radix_4 modified
Booth algorithm can be utilized for reduction of the partial products. The parallel multiplier like radix 4 modified booth
multiplier accomplishes the computations utilizing fewer adders and less iterative steps.
Based on the simplification of addition operation and power reduction property in ripple carry adder(RCA),a minimum
delay radix 4 modified booth multiplier is proposed, compared with the radix 4 modified booth multiplier using carry
look ahead adder(CLA),the experimental result shows that our propose design has reduce the delay to 6.21 % using
RCA, Area has estimated as 947 which was 1141 when designed with CLA Adder.
Fig. 5: Simulation results of modified booths multiplication of two 8-bit
Fig.6: Simulation results of Classical booths multiplication of two 8-bit
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Figure below shows the RTL schematic of the multiplier using the on chip ripple carry adder for the radix 4 booth
multiplier.
Fig.7: RTL Schematic of Classical Booth Multipliers
Fig.8: RTL Schematic of Modified Booth Multipliers
5. CONCLUSION
The radix 4 modified booth multipliers using RCA is realized in the VHDL. The analysis shows that time delay
proposed by modified Booths multipliers using RCA is 6.21 ns as compared to the radix 2 Booths multiplier using
CLA which is 28.6 ns. The power occurred is also less as compared to the conventional Booths multiplier.
Table 4.Comparision of CLA & RCA properties
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REFERENCES
[1] J.J.F. Cavanagh, Digital Computer Arithmetic. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.
[2] Behrooz Parhami, Computer Arithmetic: Algorithms and Hardware Designs, Oxford New York, Oxford
University Press, New York, 2000.
[3] C. N.Marimuthu, P. Thangaraj, Anna University, India, Low Power High Performance Multiplier, ICGSTPDCS International Conference on Computer Science and Engineering, 2008.
[4] William J. Dally and Steve Lac, "VLSI Architecture: Past, Present, and Future", 20th International Conference on
VLSI Design, IEEE, 2005.
[5] Power Simulation and Estimation in VLSI Circuits .University of Southern California Department of EE Systems
Los Angeles CA.
[6] Dhireesha Kudithipudi and Eugene John, "Implementation of Low Power Digital Multipliers Using 10 Transistor
Adder Blocks", IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits, Volume 32 , no 12, November 1997.
[7] Poornimam, Shivrajkumar Patil, Shivukumar, Shridhar K. P., Sanjay H., "Implementation of Multiplier using
Vedic Algorithm" IJITEE, volume 2 ,issue 6,may 2013.
[8] Kripa Mathew, S. Asha Latha, T. Ravi, E. Logashanmugam, "Design and Analysis of an Array Multiplier Using
an Area Efficient Full Adder Cell in 32nm CMOS Technology", The International Journal Of Engineering And
Science (Ijes), Volume2, Issue 3,Pages 8-16,2013.
[9] Mr.M.V. Sathish, Mrs. Sailaja, "Vlsi architecture of parallel multiplier accumulator based on radix-2 modified
booth algorithm", International Conference on Field Programmable Logic and Application, 2005.
[10] S. Kiruthika1, R.Nirmal Kumar, Dr S.Valarmathy," Comparative Analysis of 4-Bit Multipliers Using Low Power
8-Transistor Full Adder Cells", International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering ,
Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013.
[11] Ankit Jairath, Puneet Namdeo ,"Low Power VLSI Techniques Using Booth Algorithm for Digital Filter for
Hearing aid Applications" International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT) Volume 1,
Issue 2, February 2011 .
[12] Vasudev G. and Rajendra Hegadi," Design and Development of 8-Bits Fast Multiplier for LowPower
Applications", Member, IACSITIACSIT International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 6,
December 2012.
[13] Lakhvinder Kaur, Parminder Singh Jassal," Synthesis And Simulation Of 8x8-Bit Modified Booth s Multiplier",
International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) Vol. 1 Issue 8, October - 2012.
[14] Young-Ho Seo, Dong-Wook Kim, A New VLSI Architecture of Parallel MultiplierAccumulator Based on Radix2 Modified Booth Algorithm IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI)
SYSTEMS, VOL. 18, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2010.
[15] Shaik.Kalisha Baba, D.Rajaramesh , "Design and Implementation of Advanced Modified Booth Encoding
Multiplier", International Journal of Engineering Science Invention Volume 2 Issue 8 ,August. 2013 , PP.60-68.
[16] Kavita , Jasbir Kaur, "Design and Implementation of an Efficient Modified Booth Multiplier using VHDL",
Special Issue: Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Management,
ICETEM 2013.
AUTHOR
Gaurav Pohane received the B.E. degrees in Electrical and Tele Communication Engineering From
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University in 2006, respectively. Pursuing M.Tech in VLSI.
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POTENTIAL ENERGY EVALUATION FOR

AL-SHEHABI LOCATION IN IRAQ
(CASE STUDY)
Ali K. Resen1, Dr. Firas A. Hadi2, Khaled S. Heni3
1.
Wind Energy Department/ Renewable Energy Directorate/ Ministry of Science and Technology, Iraq
2.
3.
ABSTRACT
The development and sitting of wind energy conversion systems for electrical power generation and other applications
in any site demands proper wind resource assessment of the project sites. This paper presents an assessment of wind resource
for wind energy utilization in Al-Shehabi location. The wind data were obtained from weather station installed atthe location.
Then, Mathematical equationisused to get logarithmic profile at different heights. A contour map is drawn in 3D shape mode to
get deep insite and general thought about the topographic shape surface. Weibull probability distribution function is
calculated and plotted in order to assess mean wind speed, annual energy and Weibull parameters. Also,wind rose, speed rose
and energy rose are included in this calculations.Finally, a wind resource map of 1km x 1km for interested areais drawn
atGamesa G114wind turbine with hub heights of 120m and114m rotor diameter is chosen determine the output energy.Wind
data analysis is performed for the proposed site using WAsP software, for data recorded at 10m height. The results show that
the mean power density about 168 W/m2, as a class-3 and satisfactory wind resource.
Keywords:wind speed,power density,WAsP,Weibull Distribution
1. INTRODUCTION
The most important factor in wind energy project is a wind turbine site and predicting the economic success ofthe
project. Understanding the wind resource is especially critical as the energy available in the wind varies as the cube of
the wind speed. The wind is highly variable, both geographically and locally. Wind resource assessment is the most
important step in planning a community wind project because it is the basis for determining initial feasibility and cash
flow projections, and is ultimately vital for acquiring financing. Initial assessment of the site is fairly simple in most
states with publicly available high resolution wind resource data. Recent advances in computer modeling and the
internet have made public wind data sources easily accessible.
Wind Atlas Analysis and Application (WAsP) is the most-commonly used modeling software for predicting wind
climates and power productions from wind turbines. This model based on the wind atlas methodology; it calculates a
wind atlas or regional wind climate based on measured wind data. The regional wind climate represents the raw
wind data as a wind climate over an ideal terrain (perfectly flat with uniform surface roughness) to remove local
terraineffects.This process can be reversed to determine the wind climate at anothersite usingthe wind atlas[1]. Wind
assessment software packages use statistical methods to represent the wind speed and direction, as a Weibull
distribution and wind rose, respectively[2].
Ten minutes interval records for one year had been studied at different heights (10,25,50,100,200). The WAsP has been
used to determine the Weibull Parameters, which are estimating the wind speed and wind potential. The wind power
(P) is proportional to the third power of the wind speed (U), or[3]-[4]:
(1)
where is the air density, Ar is the swept area. Then, it is necessary to determine the value of the wind speed for power
density calculations. Weibull distribution functions where used to simulate the frequency wind speed which is
represented by the equation below[5]:
(2)
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Where, A, is the scale parameter has the same wind speed unit and K is the dimensionless shape parameter. These
parameters are estimated by different mathematical approaches. One of the simplest techniques needs to know U and ,
where U , is the mean value of wind speed, and is the standard deviation, then K and A parameter can be represented
by the following equation as[6]-[7]:
, represents a general Gamma function, and K can be evaluated explicitly as:
2. AREA OF STUDY
The feasibility and applicability of wind energy development depends on the physical characteristics of the study area
and the wind resource. The region is located in the area between Maysan and Wasit. It is 112 km from Maysan, 85
km from Wasit, and about 220 km from Baghdad at position 32.77N 46.70 E; Figure. 1 shows the location of
chosen site in eastern region near the border between Iraq and Iran.
Figure 1 Iraq satellite image to indicat the area of study
3.METHODOLOGY
For any wind resource assessment, the wind speed and direction must be measured, andthis often involves erecting a
metrological mast (met mast) at a desired location, with instruments located at least one year for continuous wind
measurements at the site. Datawas obtained by cup anemometer at (10m) height throughout the year 2013. The first
step in analyzing a site with WAsP is to create an observed wind climate file (OWC). A separate tool, the OWC
Wizard, can create a statistical summary to a sites wind climate based on a time-series of wind measurements. Using
description of the topography and surface roughnesswhichround the place measurement siteto convert the OWC into a
wind atlas. This data is site-independent in a limited region surrounding the observation site.The wind atlas data set
can be usedthen to deduce the wind climate at a specific site, using the descriptions of the terrain at the new site. The
respective topography/roughness map was inserted, as well as a new wind atlas.The OWC then added to this wind
atlas. After calculations, it was then possible to export a wind atlas. With the wind atlases and maps created, it was
then possible to start the WAsP wind speedpredictions. The wind turbine selected for this study was a GamesaG114
with 2MW of installed power with rotor diameter of 114 m, cut-in wind speed of 3 m/s, and cut-out wind speed of 25
m/s and swept area 10.207 m2. The methodology of this research is summarized in the diagram that has been shown in
figure2.
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Figure 2 Diagram Represent research methodology
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The first step is creating the vector mapthat presents in figure 3, which shows the low roughness of the terrain. Vector
map was established using Surfer and WAsP Map Editor Softwares.
Figure 3Vector map of topographic terrain for study area

The measured and Weibull distribution for wind speed is plotted for the actual measured data and presented in Figure4.
Figure4Weibull distribution
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Figure 5 shows the frequency rosefor the measured wind speed data,velocity rose and energy rose.
Figure 5Represent frequency rose (left), velocity rose (middle), energy rose (right)
The mean wind speed estimation for the studied area at 120 m hub height can be shown in figure 6, for the 12 sector,
which is varies between 7.83 to 8.00m/s.
Figure 7 presents the power density P (W/m2) of the wind for all 12 sector and it is vary between 633 to 592 W/m2 and
the mean value U is 614 W/m2 at 120 m hub height.Scale parameter A is 9 m/s and shape parameter K is 1.90. The
Annual Energy Production (AEP) was calculated and present in figure 8,which varies between 9.890 to 9.715GWh
with the mean value 9.805GWh.
Figure 6Mean wind speed
Figure7Power density
Figure8AEP
Sector-wise Weibull distributions for roughness length 0.03 mare calculated at five heights (10,25,50,100,200) m for
each sector.
Table1: Present the statistics for each sector included mean wind speed (U), power density (P), Scale parameter (A)
and shape parameter (K) at five heights and 0.03 surface roughness
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5.CONCLUSION
The data presently available from ongoing measurements in Al-Shehabi stationhave been analyzed and evaluation
made with the wind resourceestimation program WAsP. Wind speed is the most critical variable in determining the
plant output, but no single wind speed can adequately represent the wind conditions for the entire wind plant.
Measurements of a station have been used for the evaluation. It was found that the output power from Al-Shehabi site is
considered as satisfactory -class 3. Thus, this location could be ideal for generating wind power because of reliable
speed of the wind. At the hub height of120 m, the estimated average wind speed is determinedto be 7.96 m/s, and the
maximum amount of wind power density iscalculated to be 624 W/m2.
REFERENCES
[1] Mortensen NG, Heathfield DN, Myllerup L, Landberg L, Rathmann (2004). Wind AtlasAnalysis and Application
Program: Getting Started with WAsP. Ris National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark.
[2] Saleh M. Ali, Auday H. Shaban, Ali K. Resen(2014), Wind Power Estimation for Al-Hay (Iraq), Iraqi journal of
Science, Vol 55, No4B, pp1997.
[3] E. Hau and H. von Renouard(2013).Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics:
Springer.
[4] A. D. Sahin, Ed.(2006).Renewable Energies (Lecture Notes of the International Advanced Course on Renewable
Energies, Istanbul, Turkey.
[5] R. O. Fagbenle, et al., "Assessment of wind energy potential of two sites in North-East, Nigeria," Renewable
Energy, vol. 36, pp. 1277-1283, 2011.
[6] K. Sukkiramathi, et al.(2014). "A Study of Weibull Distribution to Analyze the Wind Speed at Jogimatti in India,"
vol. 1.
[7] S. A. Akda and A. Dinler (2009). "A new method to estimate Weibull parameters for wind energy applications,"
Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 50, pp. 1761-1766.
AUTHORS
ALI. K. Resen received the B.Sc. degree in Science of Physics from Al-Mustansriyah University in
2002 and M.Sc. degree in Physics (Remote Sensing and Image Processing) in 2014 from Baghdad
University. During 2003-2015, he stayed in Ministry of Science and Technology , Iraq, to study GIS,
Remote Sensing, Renewable Energy ( Wind and Solar Energy) .
Dr. Firas Abdulrazzaq Hadi received the B.Sc. in Science of Physics and M.Sc. in Astronomy
(Image Processing ), then Ph.D. in Physics from Al-Nahrain University in 2015. During 2003-2015,
he stayed in Ministry of Science and Technology , Iraq, to study GIS, Remote Sensing, also Wind
energy.
Khalid Sami Heni received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Science of Physics from Baghdad University in
1999 and 2002 respectively. During 2002-2015, he stayed in Ministry of Science and Technology ,
Iraq, to study Renewable Energy , Wind energy.
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Evaluation of factor affecting the Quality of

Teaching in Technical Institute
Lohan Naveen, Sharma Ankur
Assistant Professor, HMRITM Hamidpur delhi
ABSTRACT
Teaching Learning process is the heart of the education system. Quality education is an absolute necessity at every level of
society. Teaching methodology is an important aspect for the growth of any technical institute. Quality teaching plays an
important role in achieving Academic Excellence and provides a competitive edge so that the students can qualify for jobs in
the best Companies of the World. It is very challenging and complex task to evaluate the factors affecting the quality of
teaching in Technical Institutes. This paper provides a frame work and a system to the educational policy makers and
performance monitoring committee for designing a standard multiple performance measurement tool for evaluating an
comparing the quality of teaching in Technical Institute. In this paper Analytical hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied to develop
the relationship among performance measurement criteria, driving their respective weights and rank with respect to prescribed
criteria. We focus on four technical institutes, were subjected to five criterions and fifteen sub criterions.
Keywords: Analytical hierarchy Process (AHP), Decision making, Technical education, Performance measurement
criteria.
1.INTRODUCTION
Technical Education plays a vital role in human resource development of the country by creating skilled manpower,
enhancing industrial productivity and improving the quality of life of its people. Education is recognized to be
primarily a process of getting student to absorb new ideas and ways of thinking to prepare an individual for life. Due to
globalization we need more and more technical man power of high quality in industries research centers and
institutions, the number of technical institutions are increasing exponentionally under the govt. efforts of liberalization
and reform of higher technical education to make India the largest English speaking technical man power of the world.
Industry is becoming more competitive locally as well as globally and for that we need higher number of technical man
power at all levels. For this improvement, the quality of teaching in technical institutes is must and is a need of hour.
In this article, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is being studied as simple and useful managerial tool for multicriteria decision-making. In a way it is better than other multi-criteria techniques, as it is designed to incorporate
tangible as well as non-tangible factors especially where the subjective judgments of different individuals constitute an
important part of decision making (Saaty, 1980). Apart from other facts, this is rooted in the special structure of the
AHP, which follows the intuitive way in which managers solve problems, and in its easy handling compared with other
multi criteria decision-making procedures.
AHP uses a five-step process to solve decision problems. They are
Create a decision hierarchy by breaking down the problem into a hierarchy of decision elements.
Collect input by a pair wise comparison of decision elements.
Determine whether the input data satisfies a consistency test. If it does not, go back to Step 2 and redo the pair wise
comparisons.
Calculate the relative weights of the decision elements.
Aggregate the relative weights to obtain scores and hence rankings for the decision alternatives.
Evaluation Framework
Unprecedented growth in engineering education Institutes in India in the last decade led to the complex issues. The
main issues were that of maintaining the Teaching provided by these institutes. Many reasons are pointed out as the
cause of this situation. Education is a service industry, and are placing greater emphasis on meeting the expectation and
need of their participating customer, that is ,students. The Quality of Teaching in any Institute is likely to be influenced
by many factors out of which five were selected, some of are selected by according to AICTE and NBA norms
i) Faculty
ii) Teaching Methodology
iii) Laboratories/Practical Skills
iv) Teaching Resources
v) Supplementary Process
These five criterions are further divided into 15 sub criterion which is investigated further.
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Faculty
The most important component that goes into making a good institution is a good faculty, its qualifications. How many
are Ph.ds. How many are having M.tech. The better the faculty better should be the research output. Doing research
keeps a teacher up-to-date on the area, and makes his/her understanding of the subject better. This can help the quality
of teaching. And Its knowledge benefits to the students. Experience and well qualified faculty play an important role in
development of students and research activities which lead to the development of Technical Institutes.
Teaching Methodology
It includes:
i).Interactive method of teaching (IMT)/ presentation method of teaching (PMT) through Questions and answers,
Discussions, Exchange of thoughts. Teaching through- telling, explaining, describing, numerating, narrating,
showing, demonstrating, dramatizing
ii) Guided Project & Case Study: Introducing Practical Design Experience and Real Life Scenarios into the
classrooms
iii) Co-operative Learning/ Tutorial: It is instruction that involves students working in teams to accomplish an
assigned task and produce a final product (e.g., a problem solution, critical analysis, laboratory report, product
design)
Laboratories/ Practical skills
An important challenge of technical education is to integrate the acquisition of domain specific knowledge and skills
and further to encourage student top apply their knowledge to solve problem and to tackle problems at higher levels
So the qualification and skills of supporting staff help the students to improve the practical knowledge.
Engineering student must have a knowledge of nature that goes beyond mere theory knowledge that is traditionally
gained in educational laboratories so Good institute must have well equipped laboratories with modern facilities and
also to update/maintain equipment in laboratories.
Teaching Resources
An Institution must have Library, Digital library, Journals, well equipped laboratories and workshop, availabilities of
teaching aids like LCD projector, OHP, seminar halls conference room and last but not least advance computing
Facilities. These facilities are initial prerequisite for any technical institution which must be present to ensure proper
functioning of Technical Institution. Journal gives you a space to generate teaching ideas, work out pedagogical
problems, reflect on your successes and struggles in the classroom, and put your past insights to work in planning
future courses. Consequently,
Students rarely get a chance to generate their own meanings as they read and compose from their own thoughts as they
write. Reading journals help the students to discover their own paper topics in the connections that keep appearing in
the right-hand section of these notebooks.
Supplementary Process
Seminars offer you an interactive environment where you can learn from experts, practice with peers, and receive
employer tips. Seminars and workshops provide real learning value for students. The seminar helps you start building
your career plan. Because there is such a wide range of possible jobs, companies and industries to work in, this seminar
helps you search for your own career path.
Industry visits sensitize students to the practical challenges that organizations face in the business world. Industrial
visits also give greater clarity about various management concepts for students as they can practically see how these
concepts are put into action as well as useful information related to the practical aspects of the educational course
which cannot be visualized in lectures.
Research and Development (R&D) is a key element of any organizations. R & D helps building product indigenously
and progressively grows to build an ecosystem and institutional framework for innovation, technology development,
skills, delivery plans, and market orientation in a number of niche areas of national importance and market relevance.
The other importance of R&D is to generate quality manpower and develop skilled professionals
Analytic Hierarchy Process
AHP is a mathematical technique used for multi-criteria decision-making. In a way it is better than other multi-criteria
techniques, as it is designed to incorporate tangible as well as non-tangible factors especially where the subjective
judgments of different individuals constitute an important part of decision making (Saaty, 1980). Apart from other
facts, this is rooted in the special structure of the AHP, which follows the intuitive way in which managers solve
problems, and in its easy handling compared with other multi criteria decision-making procedures. Hence the
intuitively solved decision problems can now be solved as procedure-orientated using AHP. The use of AHP leads to
both, more transparency of the quality of management decisions and an increase in the importance of AHP (Ossadnik
W& Lange O, 1999). The stages of AHP are described below:
A.Structuring the decision hierarchy
Firstly, the decision points are determined. Then, the factors influencing a decision are described. The number of
decision points is shown with m and the factors affecting
the decision points are presented with n.
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B. Establishing a comparison matrix of the factors

The comparison matrix is a square matrix with n x m dimensions. The evaluation factors make up the rows and
columns of the matrix. Using the relative importance scale, as shown in Table 1, makes the comparisons. Since the
values on the diagonal represent the same factor, they become 1. If the preference is used in favour of the factor in the
row when the factor in any row is compared with the factor in the column, fraction (1/importance value) is preferred
[11]
Table: Scale of relative importance
C. Determining percentages for the importance distribution of the factors

The B row vector with n 1 dimensions is established
by using row vectors building the comparison matrix for
importance distribution.
Bi = .bij. n 1 , i = 1, 2,, n , Formula 1
The components of this vector are calculated by using Formula 2, with the utilization of the elements of the comparison
matrix (aij). In other words, the elements of the B row vector are calculated by dividing the elements in the lines of the
comparison matrix with the row sums [7,8].
Then, the obtained n times B row vector is structured in a matrix format and the median values of the elements in every
row are calculated. The n value obtained in this way gives the percentage distribution of value factors, that is,
importance values (W priority vector with n 1 dimensions).
Bij = ______.........................Formula 2
D. Finding the percentage importance distribution in m decision points for every factor
In this stage, the percentage of importance distribution related to every factor is determined as explained in b and c. In
other words, pair-wise comparisons and matrix operations as explained in c are repeated as many times as the number
of factors.
However, in this time the dimensions of comparison matrices to be used in decision points for every factor will become
m m. After every comparison operation, S column vectors with m 1 dimensions and showing percentage
distribution of every evaluated factor to the decision points are obtained [9].
E. Reaching the result distribution in the decision points.
In this stage, n times S column vectors are all brought together. Thus, a matrix with m n dimensions is obtained.
When this matrix is multiplied with the W priority vector the percentage distribution of decision points (alternatives) is
reached.
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Research Methodology and Results

Quality of Teaching is the basic requirement of any Technical Institute. The Quality of Teaching depends upon several
attributes such as faculty, Teaching methods, laboratories and extra facilities. However relative priority of these factors
may vary depending on variation of individual viewpoint. In this paper an attempt has been made to rank these
attributes through a strategic mathematical tool based on data bank containing a number of expert opinion.
In this study AHP method has been used to determine the significant factor influencing overall Quality index of
Teaching of an Institute hat would be helpful in comparing various institute and select the best one having Quality
Teaching. The main purpose of the study is to present consistency and feasibility of AHP in decision process. For this
reason some of figure related to Evaluation criteria are fictitious. The logic integrity of model is however considered.
As AHP has no effect on how criterions are chosen or how hierarchy is created that is the job of decision maker or
decision analyst.
So the decision team has been formed which consist of authors of paper 05 pass out students, 05 Assistant professor and
02 Director of different Institutes. Our study investigates 15 Evaluation Criterion under the 05 main sections and then
makes a semi fictitious chart. In this firstly, available data are collected from websites of different considered Institute
and unavailable data are making fictitious with the help of Faculty and student of considered Institute. Then with the
help of decision team marked Evaluation criterions out of 10 as shown in Table 2.Now the role of AHP arises the
decision team firstly structured the decision hierarchy and compared the decision criteria with each other using Table 1.
In the comparisons, every factor was compared with the others independently. If the predominance was used in favor of
the base factor, the integer was given. If the predominance was employed in favor of the compared factors, the fraction
was given.
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Table 3: Experts opinions on alternative with respect to different criteria
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CI: 0,5374
CR: 0,3402
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: 22,5243
The first step would be to define a set in which we list the elements of the selection the set of alternatives from which
we wish to choose the best one for ourselves. Then we define the criteria we will use to compare those alternatives. It is
clear that you, as the decision maker, determine all of this. That fact alone guarantees that the decision will be based on
your preferences. For the explanation of the following steps we will use mathematical language. If n is the number of
criteria or alternatives whose weight (priority, importance) wi should be defined based on the assessment of the values
of their ratios aij = wi/wj. If we form a matrix A from the ratio of their elevant importance aij, in case of consistent
assessments equaling to aij= aik*akj, it will correspond to the equation Aw=nw Matrix A has special characteristics (all
her rows are proportional to the first row, all are positive and aij=1/aji is accurate resulting in only one of its eigen
values being different from 0 and equal to n. If A matrix has inconsistent changes (in praxis that is always the case) the
importance vector w can be calculated by solving the equation (A- I)w=0 The condition: SUM Awi=1 is true, where
max is the biggest eigenvalue of A matrix. Due to the characteristics of the matrix max n, and the subtraction max n
is used in the measuring of the assessment consistency. With a consistency index CI = (max n)/(n-1) we calculate the
consistency ratio CR=CI/RI where RI is a random index (consistency index for the n row matrixes of randomly
generated comparisons in pairs a table with calculated values applies
Value of the random index RI
If CR 0,1000 is true for matrix A the assessments of the relative importance of the criteria ( alternative priorities) are
considered as acceptable. To the contrary, the reasons why the assessment inconsistency is acceptably high must be
investigated.
It will often happen that the consistency ratio exceeds 0,1000. That should only be taken into account as an indicator of
the inconsistency level of your selection. Despite the inconsistency, you will get a suggestion of the best alternative.
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That is the value of this method. You can always revise the chosen importance intensities and check which alternative
is the best and to what extent compared to the following one.
CI: 0,0386
CR: 0,0433
: 4,1157
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
CI: 0,0246
CR: 0,0276
: 4,0738
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
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CI: 0,0243
CR: 0,0273
: 4,0729
CI: 0,0148
CR: 0,0166
: 4,0443
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
CI: 0,0245
CR: 0,0276
: 4,0736
CI: 0,0144
CR: 0,0162
: 4,0432
CI: 0,0440
CR: 0,0495
: 4,1321
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CI: 0,0245
CR: 0,0275
: 4,0735
CI: 0,0245
CR: 0,0275
: 4,0735
CI: 0,0144
CR: 0,0162
: 4,0432
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
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Table : Results
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consistency ratio (CR): 0,2265
CONCLUSION
The Research effort of this paper is to integrate AHP and factors affecting quality of teaching into the institute driven
course design process. In this paper we have briefly examined the various factors which affect the quality of teaching in
technical education and have categorized them into fifteen sub criteria. A mathematical model has been evolved for the
assessing the effectiveness in terms of these factors. The proposed model can be used to quantify the effectiveness of a
technical institution with very good accuracy. A pair wise comparison method was used to calculate the importance for
each criterion based on semi factious data gather from four technical institutes. Now the experimental results show that
the evaluation for teaching quality based on AHP has excellent results.
REFERENCES
[1] Saaty, T. L., Analytic Hierarchy Process, McGraw Hill, New York, (1980).
[2] Saaty, T. L., Multi-criteria Decision Making: Analytic Hierarchy Process, RWS Publications, Pittsburgh, (1990).
[3] Armacost, R.L., Identification of Determinant Attributes Using The Analytic Hierarchy Process, Journal of
Academy of Marketing Science, 22: 383 (1994).
[4] Namish Mehta Evaluating performance of technical institute using analytic hierarchy process, International
Journal on Emerging Technologies 1(2): 91-99(2010)
[5] Li Qing-jiang Evaluation for Teaching Quality of University Based on AHP 2012 International Conference on
Convergence Information Technology Lecture Notes in Information Technology, Vol.19
[6] http://www.123ahp.com/Medjurezultat.aspx
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Early Detection of Disease in Bitter gourd Leafs

at Flowering Stage
Sam Abraham1, Dr.T.S Balasubramanian2, Dr.Dhanasekaran3
1
Research Scholar, Dept of Computer Science & Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha University, Thandalam,Chennai 602105, India.
2
Dean (Research), Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha University,

Thandalam,Chennai 602105,India.
Professor & Head, Dept of Computer Science & Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha University,Thandalam,Chennai 602105,India.
ABSTRACT
Bitter gourd plant is affected by various diseases at different stages of growth. The aim of this paper is to detect the disease
early by analyzing the color Image of leaves. The images of bitter gourd leaves are taken using high resolution digital
camera.RGB, HSI and HSV values are separated from healthy and disease leaves and stored in database. These stored values
are compared with the values of test leaves .The analysis of these values will help to detect the disease early at that stage.
Keywords: Bittergourd, RGB, HSI,HSV.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bittergourd often known as Morodica Charantia is a vegetable fruit used as food and medicine.It is considered as the
most bitter among all fruits and vegetables.The plant thrives in tropical and subtropical regions.Bitter gourd has
different varieties.Out of all we are using the priyanka variety for our study as it is widely grown in Southern
India.These crops can be grown in areas of low temperature as well as areas with high rainfall.The diseases commonly
affecting bittergourd are Alternaria Blight ,Anthracnose, collor rot, powdery mildew, fusarium wilt, Dowmey mildew
and mosaic[1,3]. Alternaria Blight is widely seen in South India, this study includes its early detection in flowering
stage. In this disease,the leaves developed brown spot over its surface[4]. Figures 1and 2 shows the image of healthy
and diseased leafs. As the disease progress the size, shape and color of the leaf changes continuously, causing decreased
production of bitter gourd in flowering stage. Basic diagnosis of the disease still depends on human expertise, but for
accurate and consistent measurement of disease image processing is needed.This study focuses on early detection of
disease in flowering stage using the images in various stages, thus helping to increase the production of bitter gourd.
2. MATERIALS
AND METHODS
2.1 Data Acquisition

The images of leaves were taken from Agricultural farm which cultivate Bitter gourd (government and private firms) in
Kerala, during the month of Nov & Dec. These images were taken using 20 mega pixel digital camera at 640x480
resolution. To avoid back ground images, each leaf is placed on the white board. Images of front and backside are taken
for each leaves. Disease may appear in front,back or bothsides as shown in fig3. Constant background and uniform
lighting are ensured while taking photographs. Separate images are taken for healthy, diseased and test leaves at
flowering stage. The leaf images are analyzed using image processing tool box in MATLAB.
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Fig.3.shows images of Disease on both side

2.2 Extraction of RGB (Red, Green, Blue)
The disease of the leaf is detected by the variation of the color intensity.Different stages of diseased and Healthy leaf is
taken for analysis.The color characteristic of bittergourd leaf is analyzed using RGB [2].
A color is specified by its trichromatic coefficients
X=x/x+y+z
(1)
Y= y/X+y+Z
(2)
Z=z/X+Y+Z
(3)
From these equation x+y+z =1 The color composition as a function of x(red),y(green)and z(blue).
Z=1-(x+y)
(4)
Y=1-(x+z)
(5)
X=1-(y+z)
(6)
2.3 Extraction of HSI (Hue,Saturation,Intensity)

Hue is a color attribute that describes a pure color (pure yellow, orange or red),where as saturation gives a measure
of the degree to which a pure color is diluted by white light. Intensity is one of the key factors in describing color
sensation.HSI model is an ideal tool for the developing image processing algorithms based on color descriptions that
are natural and intuitive to humans. The RGB to HSI can be carried out through the following formula [2].
The RGB to HSI can be carried out through the following formula.
if B G
H
(1)
360 if B G
R G R B
2
cos
R G 2 ( R B )(G B )
1
2
(2)
Saturation Component in given by

S= 1
3
min( R, G, B)
( R G B)
(3)
Intensity Component given by

1
I (R G B)
3
(4)
2.4 Extraction of HSV (Hue, Saturation,Value)

To convert from RGB to HSV first find the maximum and minimum value from the RGB triplet.
Saturation s then S (max min)
(1)
max
and value V is
max
V = max
(2)
Hue,H is then calculated as follows first calculate R G B
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R1
max R
max min
(3)
G1
max G
max min
(4)
B1
max B
max min
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(5)
If saturation, S,is O (zero) then has is undefined (ie the color has no has therefore it is monochrome) other wise
then, If R = max and G =min
H= 5+B
(6)
H = 1-G
(7)
else if R = max and G min
else if G = max and B = min

H=R+1
(8)
else if G=max and Bmin

H=3-B
(9)
H=3+G
(10)
else if R=max
otherwise
H=5-R
(11)
Hue, H, is then converted to degrees by multiplying by 60 giving HSV with S and V between 0 and 1 and H between 0
and 360.
3. METHODOLOGY TO IDENTIFY THE FLOWERING STAGE DISEASE IN BITTERGOURD LEAVES
3.1.1 Collection & taking of image of leafs

Fruiting stages leaves are categorized into healthy, diseased and test leaves. In each category 50 images are taken.
Diseased leaves are further divided into five groups (10%, 20%, 40%, 80%, and 100%). 15 images of leaves are taken
randomly for testing.
3.1.2 Extraction of RGB, HSI & HSV
RGB, HSI and HSV values are extracted from healthy and diseased leaves. These range of values are stored in
Database.
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3.1.3 Extraction of RGB, HSI & HSV in test leaves

The values of RGB, HSI and HSV are extracted from test leaves.
3.1.4 Comparing and finding affected leaves
The values of test leaves are compared with healthy and diseased leaves which are stored in database. These helps to
find the leaf is affected by disease or not.
4. RESULT
In Normal Leafs RGB color model, the minimum value for R component obtained is 47pixel and the maximum value
is 255 pixel. The minimum value for G component obtained is 51 pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel. The
minimum value for B component obtained is 16 pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel.The minimum value for V
component obtained is 0.26 pixel and the maximum value is 1 pixel.The minimum value for I component obtained is
0.15 pixel and the maximum value is 1 pixel.In Diseased Leave RGB color model, the minimum value for R
component obtained is 26pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel. The minimum value for G component obtained is
30 pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel. The minimum value for B component obtained is 11 pixel and the
maximum value is 255 pixel. The minimum value for V component obtained is 0.20 pixel and the maximum value is 1
pixel. The minimum value for I component obtained is 0.11 pixel and the maximum value is 1 pixel. The values are as
shown in Table 1.
Flowering stage leaves are identified and 15 leaves are randomly selected.The images are extracted using MATLAB as
shown in fig 4 and fig 5. The values of image are extracted as shown in the table2.The values were compared and it
was found that 2 leaves were not affected and remaining all other leaves were affected. The percentage of disease
affected is shown in the diagram 1.
Table 1. The minimum and maximum value of Healthy and Diseased leafs
Fig 4. Extracted image in MATLB
Fig 5. Extracted values of RGB, HSV and HSI in MATLAB
Diagram 1.Percentage of disease affected in flowering stage leafs.
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Table 2. Extracted value of flowering stage leafs
5. LIMITATIONS
The presence of raindrops over leaves can hamper the quality of images also if the atmosphere is cloudy the image
quality differs.A constant image background is needed for quality image.Leaves may acquire different shapes like
wrinkling causing difficulty in straightening and this affects the quality of image.
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6. CONCLUSION
This result shows that the leaves are gradually affected by disease. The percentage of disease affected is different in
each leaf. Five leaves are affected below 50 percentage diseases and nine leaves are above50 percentage.So remedial
measure can be taken at the appropriate time. This system helps the farmer to detect the disease early.
REFERENCE
[1] P.V.Balachandran, chief Editor,Package of Practices Recommendations, Kerala Agricultural University Press,
Mannuthy,pp. 173-174,2011.
[2] Rafael C.Gonazalez, Richard E.Woods,2011,Digital Image Processing,Third Edition,India,pp. 403-411.
[3] SamAbraham,Dr.T.SBalaubramanian,Dr.Dhanasekaran,Literature review for the detection of disease in bitter
gourd leaves,Interntional Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering and Management 3(11),2014,50-53.
[4] Production Technologies and Marketing Strategies og vegetable crops of central India,jnkw-vegsoft.com,20082009.
AUTHOR
Sam Abraham received the MTech degrees in Software Engineering from SRM University in 2012.
During 2012-2013, I was working as Assistant Professor in Computer Science and Engineering in
Gnanamani College of Technology, Tamil Nadu. At present, I am doing full time PhD in Computer
Science and Engineering in Saveetha University.
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CLOUD TESTING- AN ADVANCEMENT IN

SOFTWARE TESTING
Shraddha D. Mungekar1, Dhanashree K. Toradmalle2
1
Shraddha Mungekar
Dhanashree Toradmalle Assistant Professor, Shah and Anchor Kutchhi Engineering College
ABSTRACT
Software testing is an ongoing activity in a Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). Depending on the SDLC method, testing
will be implemented at any stage. Traditional testing requires dedicated infrastructure and resources which will be used
periodically. Cloud computing is the next stage of internet, leads an opportunity in offering cloud-testing for SaaS application.
This paper provides a comprehensive study on objectives of cloud-testing, traditional testing techniques being adapted for
cloud-testing and advantages of cloud-testing.
Keywords: cloud-based application, software testing, cloud testing, functional testing
1. INTRODUCTION
Software testing is one of the significant activities in SDLC. It is performed to validate the functionality of software
package according to the expectation of user/ customer. In general, software testing is performed within the
organization using an internal infrastructure.
Due to the growing complexity of business applications, it is harder to build and maintain in-house testing facilities
that mimic real-time environment [1]. Creation of new test environment for every single project becomes timeconsuming and delay-prone. Another restriction in traditional test environment is, for some application domains, that
extensive resources are required for testing it. Let us consider some realistic scenario. For eg. In online result checking
process, system accepts millions of requests within a short time interval. Creating such test scenarios requires large test
harness with millions of users. Similarly mobile application providers have to deal with various combinations of
platforms. To ensure reliable service, providers have to test their services on all platforms.
Cloud computing has gained significant attention in last few years. Cloud computing is a set of hardware, network,
storage services and interfaces, which combine to deliver aspects of computing as a service. Cloud computing not only
brings new business opportunities but also causes some major impacts on software testing and maintenance. A major
impact is known as Cloud Testing [2]
2. CLOUD TESTING
Cloud testing is a software testing using cloud computing. According to Wikipedia, "cloud testing is a form of software
testing in which Web applications that leverage Cloud computing environments ("cloud") seek to simulate real-world
user traffic as a means of load testing and stress testing web sites. The ability and costs to simulate Web traffic for
software testing purposes has been an inhibitor to overall Web reliability."[3] Cloud testing is a combination of cloud
and Software as a Service (SaaS). It is an application which provides Testing as a Service(TaaS) through the cloud. The
application which is going to be tested can be located either on cloud or on premise.
3. CLOUD TESTING OVERVIEW

3.1 Objectives of Cloud Testing
Cloud testing has following objectives:1. To check if system meets the requirement and be executed successfully in required environment.
2. To assure the quality of cloud-based application. It includes applications functionality, performance as well as
scalability in the cloud.
3. To check if the tested application is fit for the purpose in a cloud environment
4. To check the automatic cloud-based functionality which is also called as auto-provisioned functions.
5. To check the interconnection between application deployed and cloud infrastructure.
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3.2 Cloud-Testing Life Cycle
Figure 1 Cloud-Testing Life Cycle

Cloud-testing life cycle includes following activities. Test manager/ Project manager/Test leader plays the role of Test
admin. Test admin creates the test scenarios and designs test cases. Based on the scenarios and test cases, automated
script will be generated either by test admin or professional tester. Once cloud-service provider is available to test
admin, he creates the users to give an access to testers. Cloud-service provider set-up the infrastructure. Test users/
Testers use the credentials to login into the portal and can use all the assets available. Cloud testing process starts here.
Testers perform the testing. After completion of the process, cloud testing providers delivers the result.
4. CLOUD-TESTING TYPES
According to the reviews gathered,[4] following are the main testing types provided by cloud testing providers:Unit testing:- Unit testing is also known as component, module and program testing. It can be described as testing of a
function, module or object in isolation from rest of the program.
Integration testing:- Integration testing checks the interfaces between components, interactions with different parts of
a system. In cloud testing, additional integration testing required to check the interconnection between
a) Cloud-based connectivity protocols and APIs crossing clouds.
b) End-to-end application integration which is crossing clouds.
System testing:- System testing techniques is used to prove the systems behaviour within its own boundaries.
Acceptance testing:- Acceptance testing is performed to check the validation and verification of the system
Functional Testing: - Functional testing of both internet and non-internet applications can be performed using cloud
testing. The process of verification against specifications or system requirements is carried out in the cloud, instead of
on-site software testing. [5]
Availability testing:- Cloud testing can check for availability of web-based applications. Web-based application
provider has to ensure that there are no abrupt downtimes.
Non-Functional Testing: - Non-functional testing is done to ensure that an application meets the specified
performance requirements.
Performance Testing:- Performance testing measure response times and isolate issues related to specific steps or
actions while system is subjected to increasing load from different locations and multi user operations.
Load testing: - Load testing is one of the important testing type of cloud testing. Load testing is conducted to
understand the behaviour of the application under a specific expected load. In on-premise automation testing the load
gets generated by the same system.Whereas in cloud-testing, load gets generated by multiple systems which is closer to
the real-time situation.
Stress testing:- Stress test is used to determine ability of application to maintain a certain level of effectiveness beyond
breaking point or maximum expected capacity or beyond the expected usage. It is essential for any application to work
under excessive stress and maintain stability. Stress testing assures this by creating peak loads using simulators. But the
cost of creating such scenarios is enormous in on-premise environment.
Security testing:- Security testing is done to check whether the application is secured or not. It checks to see if the
application is vulnerable to attacks.
5. CLOUD-TESTING ADVANTAGES
Cloud based testing gives following advantages:1. In cloud-based testing, test resources are virtualised hence it provides efficient implementation independent
infrastructure.
2. Test resources will be available on-demand which reduces set-up efforts and cost required for it.
3. Test environment can be scale up or down which helps to optimise the total environment.
4. Testing can be performed on various platforms which give the assurance on product service.
5. Test environment will be readily available and can be easily controlled.
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6. FUTURE SCOPE
Since we are in the early days of cloud testing, many new testing challenges have yet not been identified. More
innovative techniques are needed to be defined in Cloud-testing. Cloud-testing models need to be derived. QoS
standards need to be defined in cloud-testing.
7. CONCLUSION
Software testing and cloud computing both are likely to be popular fields in near future. Traditional software testing
techniques are being adopted for the cloud. Cloud- testing offers functional as well as non-functional type of testing.
Functional testing considers specified behaviour whereas non-functional testing considers scale of measurement i.e.
Time, Speed etc. An increasing number of organizations are accepting cloud computing as a model to test the
application. With improved interaction between developer and tester teams, we can also expect the applications to
improve in quality.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to sincerely thank Assistant Prof. Dhanashree Toradmalle, Shah and Anchor Kutchhi Engineering
College, Mumbai for her advice and guidance at the start of this article. Her hard work and passion for research also
has set an example that I would like to follow. I really appreciate her interest and enthusiasm during this article.
REFERENCES
[1] Katherine, A. V. & Alagarsamy, K. Conventional Software Testing Vs . Cloud Testing. 3, 15 (2012)
[2] Gao, J., Bai, X. & Tsai, W. Cloud Testing- Issues , Challenges , Needs and Practice. 1, (2015).
[3] Mohata, V. B., Dakhane, D. M. & Pardhi, R. L. Cloud Based Testing : Need of Testing in Cloud Platforms. 2,
369373 (2013).
[4] Inki, K., Ari, I. & Sozer, H. A Survey of Software Testing in the Cloud. 2012 IEEE Sixth International Conference
on Software Security and Reliability Companion 1823 (2012).doi:10.1109/SERE-C.2012.32
[5] Chandane, S. H. New Computing Paradigm: Software Testing in Cloud , Issues , Challenges and Need of Cloud
Testing in today s World. 6875 (2013).
[6] College, P. R. P. ER ER. 2, 17 (2013).
[7] Riungu-kalliosaari, L., Taipale, O. & Smolander, K. Testing in the Cloud : Exploring the Practice. 4651
[8] Cohen, C. Software Testing as a Service ( STaaS ). 114.
[9] Prakash, V. & Bhavani, R. CLOUD TESTING MYTHS FACTS AND CHALLENGES. 9, (2012)
[10] International, A. & Testing, S. Cloud-Testing vs . Testing a Cloud - 10th Annual International Software Testing
Conference. (2010).
AUTHOR
Shraddha Mungekar received the B.E. degree in Biomedical Engineering from Watumall Institute of Electronics
Engineering and Computer Technology in 2011 Currently she is pursuing M.E. in Information Technology from Shah
and Anchor Kutchhi Engineering College.
Dhanashree Toradmalle received the B.E.degree in Computer Engineering from Padmabhushan Vasantdada Patil
Pratishthans College of Engineering in 2002. She received the M.E. degree in Computer Engineering from Mahatma
Gandhi Missions College of Engineering and Technology in 2008. Currently she is working as an Assistant Professor
at Shah & Anchor Kutchhi Engineering College ,Mumbai.
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A Review of Public Private Partnership on some

Development Projects in Nigeria
C.M U-Dominic1, A.C.C. Ezeabasili2, B.U. Okoro 3 , N.U. Dim4, G.C. Chikezie5
1
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

2 4
, School of Built Environment, University of Salford, UK.
Department of Civil Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Anambra State, Nigeria

5
Department of Computer Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Public Private Partnership (PPP) practice is taking its root in Nigeria. This is partly because of governments lean finances over
the year in financing numerous development projects and its low Capacity in risk management. Currently, the current oil price
drop consequences and its sequential down turn impacts on nations economic outlook have made PPP im perative. It is known
that numerous capital is in private hands and the willingness of these private investors is being harnessed by the governments
through the Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission (ICRC) and other quasi bodies. The Lagos Ibadan express way,
LekkiEpe road, Murtala Mohammed airport have been successfully implemented and more concessions are being negotiated.
This practice has been implemented successfully on roads, ports, dams, housing and on most development projects.
Contemporary global investment trend of the last two decades have widely attributed PPP approach as an appropriate
development bailout conveyor suited to cushion the stiff effects of ailing economic prevalences on some prestigious national
projects.
Keywords: Development Projects, Public Private Partnership, Projects, Nigeria.
1.INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, Provision of public services and infrastructure has been the exclusive duty of the government. But with
the increasing population density, urbanization and other developmental needs, governments have been restrained from
adequately addressing the much expected needs of the people. Adopting the public private partnership (PPP) involves a
rigorous process compared to the traditional budgetary procurement. But that notwithstanding, a good planned PPP
projects always meet the value for money, delivers greater efficiencies and improve service delivery. In the vein of
explaining more on this important procurement subject public private partnership, which is a concession
arrangement contractually bounded by a legal procedural framework where the government is responsible for the public
service but will delegate many of the operational tasks to private sector service providers under contract.
In the Nigerian context where there are a very large infrastructural needs and much needed funds to service re-current
expenditures, public private partnership can both meet the infrastructural needs and also generate much needed funds
required to lessen the financial burden in keeping up with the huge re-current expenditures. This practice has notably
shown a large scale improvement in infrastructural services, and even has a more edge over privatization exercise in
the sense that the government may set up the user charges, control prices and prevent market abuse. Moribund
approach of managing infrastructures in Nigeria over the years has conspicuously depicted a high rate of depleting
consequences in both social and economic statue of various public assets in the country. Properly adapting public
private partnership in Nigeria will go a long way in alleviating our infrastructural deficiencies; create competitive
market, improve quality in service delivery systems.
Public private partnership collaboration has its own complexities, nurturing and implementing PPP projects has far
greater challenges than structuring and implementing conventional projects, which always emanate due to a long-term
period of service provision agreement. With this long-term agreement, future is naturally subject to uncertainty. These
uncertainties can be mitigated by the intending or the private concessioner by selecting relatively stable projects as
public private partnership and to contractually specify with the concession party on how unforeseen variations will be
handled. Implementing PPP projects is never an easy task, despite the abound benefits associated with its practice.
However huge body of literatures and case studies has shown that the benefits outweigh its structural challenges.
Meanwhile, due to varying/diverse political, legal, constitutional, economic and social circumstances that prevail in
different countries, branding a single blueprint of how to make a PPP programme work becomes a bigger global
challenge.
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History of Public Private Partnership in Nigeria

The UK Government according to Lambert and Lapsley (2006) were the first economy that ventured into a
concessionaire agreement that grants the private sector the very early initiative of financing infrastructural project
under a project plan called Private Finance Initiative in the year 1992 (PFI). This procurement practice emanated due to
mutation of the infrastructural developments into market oriented economy which became very pronounced in 1980s
and 1990s. Bagal (2008) described PPP as a cooperative arrangement between private and public sector organizations
for providing infrastructure services and products to the public where the parties agree to share duties, responsibilities,
costs, profits and risks. The basic concept of any Public Private Partnership is to cordon-off all other responsibilities
outside regulatory and supervisory control of the public sector in a contractual long term agreement with the private
partners thereby relinquishing a good number of functions to the private sector.
Francoz (2010) also defined PPP as a cooperative venture between the public and private sector, where the private
sector offers a service traditionally offered by the public sector, accepting a substantial transfer of risks and looking for
a reward against this risk. In PPP arrangement, the private partner bears any existing risks relating to revenue, public
needs, finance, operations and other business risks and charge a premium which is built into the tariff and pricing
structure that is eventually passed on to the consumer. Broadly speaking, PPP would originally start with a proper
project design that will entails adequate financing, proper implementation plans, efficient operation/service delivery
plans and the needed maintenance on an infrastructural assets as well as allocation of project risks among the partners
in an optimal manner. Under the concessions according to Bagal (2008), the governments also undertake to
compensate the operators if the demand in the system is altered to the operators disadvantage as a result of creation of
a parallel facility such as road. It is pertinent to note that in PPP, that at the expiration of the long term contractual
agreement the Private investors and the public sectors, the government still solely owns and has the acquisition right to
acquire these assets. A proper evaluation of a project when designated as a PPP, by accessing various modes of
government support like viability gap funding (VGF), project development funding etc. are made paramount for public
scrutiny. In addition, some of the PPP projects might involve contingent liabilities for the partnering government, and
these contingent liabilities require the government to make requisite provisions in its budgetary provisions. Global
demand for basic infrastructure services with appropriate technologies has grown over the years, quickly overtaking the
supply and performance capacity of existing assets. Decades of significant infrastructural deficit due to underinvestment
and poor maintenance in infrastructural assets is holding back the countrys development and economic growth. As a
result of these demanding circumstances, the Nigerian government under the administration of President Yardua made
a seven point agenda geared towards meeting with the governments earmarked visions of being among the top 20
global economies by 2020. The then administration took cognizance on the positive influence that private sector
participation could provide in the provision of infrastructure, whilst public ministries and other public authorities will
focus on planning and structuring projects.
Nigerias Procurement transitions
Due to gross deficiencies and wide funding gaps observed in the Nigerias infrastructural spheres, new procurement
concepts Privatization and PPPs were adopted as a way to leverage limited public resources to help address the nations
growing infrastructure needs. Privatization and PPP a known infrastructural deficit as a result of earlier conventional
method of providing public services has mutated to governments rescue initiative of transferring public assets to a
private sector in terms of privatization, which has raised a lot of heated debates as regards to accountability and
transparency of the processes. Privatization similar to PPP in the sense that both involves private sector participation in
infrastructure service delivery, their differences also exist in that in privatization, the government dispossessed their
asset to a private investor, thereby transferring the risks and rewards to the private owner by the virtue of their
acquisition. In line with aforementioned differences between the two, Zagreb (2009) also acknowledged the differences
where Public private partnership differs from privatization in that
governments underperforming assets are out
rightly bought over by any concerned private investor under agreed pricing terms and conditions, while in PPP, most of
the assets are being developed from cradle with a land use act that tie both players in favor of the public sector sole
acquisition of the said property on contract expiration.
According to Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission (ICRC, 2013), the three main reasons that motivates
governments to engage in PPPs for infrastructural development and service propagation; (a) for optimal utilization of
available resources and efficiency in services. (b) To improve on the standing organizational plans and policies that will
pave more ways for transparency and fairness assessment. (c) To attract more skilled force with competitive flair and
orientation on efficient performance. (d) To reform sectors through a reallocation of roles, incentives and improve
accountability. The Privatization in Nigeria from its inception in 1999 till date could be termed a shoddy procurement
attempt and portrays the governments ineptitude to manage, maintain or even control development infrastructures.
Never was it made fair, it was marred with transparency flaws and was not made a public bidding exercise as it should
be in the real context of procurement procedural arrangements. One should at least expect it to portray some atom of
competitiveness, even if that was the best chosen procurement option most needed at that point to generate fund
acclaimed needed to augment capital expenses. The main concern for that procurement preference is said to be
responsibility-diversion based. Then administration during the exercise transferred most of these government assets
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which huge capital had been invested into; grossly mismanaged by same administration; where the same body
concurred and sold out these properties in a manner which most procurement critics tagged biased procurement
arrangement; Value for money was not well evaluated; private investors capital that was used to acquire most of
these government prestigious assets, when reviewed under VFM-criterion proved that most of these assets were
leniently and unjustly sold out. Further addressing this contemptuous procurement option into evaluation would lead to
a lot of questioning, which most critics have taken an answer to. Privatization as a procurement option has its own
undisputed merits considering most places in the world where such practice was successfully implemented. Argument
raised by most critics was constructively posed demanding that such asset transfer should have been made in a
competitive manner and other procurement option like PPP placed as a contrasting alternate procurement option to be
debated on at least. The national policy on procurement highlighted two reasons why government may choose to
privatize services: (a) Economic reason- selling off tagged underperforming assets, (b) Political reasons- to eliminating
public corruption.
Consequently, privatization has successfully been implemented in some part of the globe and reasons for embarking in
this procurement option were notable seen, observed economically in terms of value for money and in terms of quality
services. Virtually all the Private investors that acquired some of these government assets are leaping profits at an
exponential margin from their investments. The fact is that Nigeria has a large market and most of these private
investors have just explored the market size advantage and made total reformation in the way these assets were been
previously managed.A formidable developmental synergy called PPP which is most needed to improve infrastructural
funding gaps and service needs of the Nigerian populace, whereby public agencies can optimize, control and in most
cases regulate the private partners operations.Inherent risks and the associated performance rewards and penalties
embedded in PPP spurs the private partners to achieve efficiency at each stage of the project and introduce an efficient
means of getting things done. For an optimal utilization of resources and efficient output delivery, private partner are
always instigated to provide an ongoing operations and maintenance management, in addition to the well-designed and
built projects.In addition, the public sector are enabled under ppp to harness the expertise, innovations and operational
efficiencies that the private sector can offer to projects and services initially procured and delivered by the public sector.
Procurement edge of Public Private Partnership and inherent risks
The global financial crisis of 2008 resulted to collapse of large independent and government financial institutions.
Down turn in stocks and the bailout of banks by the national government through the central bank initiative has
severely affected the governments financial capacity both in the federal and state level.The public-private partnerships
have gained popularity with government as a means of procurement of public-sector infrastructure such as water, road,
electricity, railways, airports, hospitals, schools etc. Manual (2012), opined that PPPs approach harnesses prudently the
needed expertise from pools of qualified labour and the prerequisite resources in the private sector, utilizing the
combined resources for optimal service delivery and thereby making it easy for the government to focus mainly on its
assigned regulatory functions. In the Nigerian PPP Review Detail (2012) drafted by the infrastructure concession
regulatory commission, it was noted that the success or failure of PPP can often be traced back to the initial design of
PPP policies, legislation and guidance. A well institutionalized framework is often required to provide explicitly a
detailed overall roles and responsibilities of the participating PPP partners.PPP being a competitive procurement
process requires due process of structuring in accordance with the Federal government of Nigeria directive for any form
of procurement relating the Federal government of Nigeria and concerned ministries, departments and Agencies. The
legislation governing PPP procurement in Nigeria as was enlisted in the Public-Private Partnerships manual are as
follows:
1. The Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission (ICRS) Act of 2005.
2. The public procurement Act 2007
3. Regulations issued by ICRC governing the PPP process.
4. The state laws as described in each states PPP policies.
The objectives of the government determine not only the type of procurement practice to engage on but also determine
the choice of PPP model to be chosen. These models are distinct from each other as a result of the level and nature of
risks that is shifted from the public sector to the private sector. The type to be selected is adequately determined upon
proper evaluation of the project features and proper scrutiny taken in any of the chosen objective as regards its
relevance, purposefulness and specificity. Four different PPP models which can equally be referred as PPP contract type
are often in use and are as follows:
1. The service contract PPPs
2. The management contract PPPs
3. Lease contract PPPs
4. Concessionscontract PPPs(e.g. build-operate and transfer, (B0T), design build and operate DBO),
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These PPP models thus are characterized broadly under five domains: Asset ownership, operation and maintenance,
capital investment, commercial risk, service and revenue generation use. Some of the major reasons why public sector
venture into partnership with the private sector investors emanate due to the need of: (a) Improving service efficiency,
(b) Transferring investment risks. It is crucial to choose a given PPP model referencing the noted underlying principles
of PPP:
1. The best value should be sought for, and not necessarily the lowest initial cost.
2. The inherent risks should be assigned to the party or partner capable of managing the risks.
3. Penalties should be imposed for non-performance, and the key performance index should be well publicized.
4. Contract uncertainties should be well deliberated on and properly taken care of at the inception stage of the
agreement.
Notably, any agreement covering such a long period into the future is naturally subject to uncertainties/ variations.
Governments should improvise a mitigation measure in order to make projects that are economically viable over long
term to be commercially viable for investors.These mitigation measures could either be in form of viability gap funding
which is amitigation measure, in form of grants that are only disbursed after investors have committed equity to the
project, thereby putting their money at risk for projects they believe to be viable.
Nigerias infrastructure and service delivery forecast under PPP
The African Public Private Partnership Network Inaugural meeting (AP3N, 2013) was solely organized to deliberate on
the objectives of their proposed established network of African PPP counterparts.These objectives that form the basis for
the interactive and developmental cooperation among these member countries are as follows:
1. To encourage more African countries to embrace the PPP procurement option and promote the development of a
coherent PPP practice and expand the PPP market in the region.
2. To provide a platform for peer-learning through sharing ideas and experiences between African PPP units officials
and thus create a knowledge hub for PPP practitioners.
3. To enable African PPP unit officials work together to build political support and facilitate the development of
regional solutions to challenges of infrastructure financing among African countries.
4. To provide a regional data base for PPP practitioners and projects that should be accessible to all members of the
network and other stakeholders.
5. To provide an effective interface with the outreach to the private sector stakeholders in the finance, construction
and consulting industries.
Reportof the AP3N quoting Earnest Shonekan noted that Africas overall infrastructure need is estimated at about USD
93billion, and in filling this gap, would require countries to pool ideas, experiences, information and resources to
develop a robust framework to strengthen their PPP regimes. Two key issues were identified as the principal factors
militating against adequate PPP practice in virtually all the participating countries, and these two issues are highlighted
as follows:
1. Inadequate legal, regulatory and Institutional framework.
2. Weak capacity and low level of participation by the private sector.
The Nigerian PPP framework as was noted in the AP3N Inaugural report 2013 was derived from the ICRC Act, an act
that mandates ICRC to provide enabling environment for successful procurement, implementation, operation and
sustainability of all concession agreements entered into by the Federal Government.Among the countries that
participated, South Africa is the only country that has a strong PPP history, which has established record of 23
completed projects in energy, ICT, Tourism, transport, Health etc. Few other countries like Lesotho, Zimbabwe and
Tanzania are still lagging-behind on this procurement practice, with each of them not having either apronounced policy
or existing laws. Countries like Angola has a PPP in Biomass Power generation, DRC also have an antique record of
PPP in power sector and their current PPP effort is in telecommunication sector which has been rated a success. In
addition to these, numerous concessions have taken place within this last decade in the Nigerian system. Nationally,
remarkable concessions has taken place which the Federal government and some of its establishments had
acknowledged to be impressive, (1) Apapa port managed by AP Moeller, and (2) Lekki Toll road managed by Lekki
Concession Company.
Achievements of PPP Programmes in Nigerian Port sector and their noted anomalies.
The federal government of Nigeria in 2006 through one of its procurement arms, the Bureau of Public Enterprise
arranged and conducted the port concession in order to ameliorate the problems of low productivity, lack of cargo
handling equipment, delay in cargo delivery, ineffectiveness and inefficiency, decaying port infrastructure, inadequate
funding, restive dock labour, multiple and uncoordinated security agencies, port congestion and governments lethargic
protocols in obtaining approval for projects. Kruck (2008) listed key reasons for port concession as follows:
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1. Reduce long turnaround time for Cargo and Ships.

2. Eradicate insecurity of Cargo.
3. Making labour force in Nigerian port authority to be productive.
4. Reduce to minimum multiple, government agencies in the ports.
5. Shun corrupt practices.
6. Minimize port charges.
From Table 1, twenty-five concessionaires were appointed then to manage the national ports being run by NPA, which
included six for Lagos Ports Complex; two for Inland Container Terminal. The Tin Can Island Port Complex has four;
Rivers Port, two; Delta Ports Complex, five; Onne Ports, four; and three for Calabar Port.The Bureau of public
enterprise engaged consultants as a legal and concession advisers to: (1) Devise and schedule a process, (2) make a
concession plan (3) enhance the bidding process and negotiation with the bidders (4) Provide the needed technical
support on the port reforms. Twenty four of the port terminals have been allocated to sixteen local and international
terminal operators and major investments have started taking shape by the various private investors in these terminals.
However, though the legal framework has not been finally structured due to the pending enactment of Transport
Commission Bill, port and harbor bill. A remarkable improvement in efficiency and productivity has been noted in the
sector even as Nigerian Port Authority undertakes responsibilities as the regulatory body and the landlord; a lot of
significant achievements and direct benefits have been earmarked within these few years. According to the edited report
by Kruck (2008), some of these direct benefits and achievements are as follows:
1. Private operators are to perform all terminal operations.
2. Improved efficiency and reduced cost through competition.
3. Private operators are to invest about 1billion USD in ports development.
4. Private operators are to pay about 5billion USD to government as fees.
5. Competition among various terminal operators leading to improved services and reduction in port costs.
6. Slowly attracting transshipment Cargo for West Africa.
Table 1: Current list of Terminal Operators and concession areas in the Nigerian Ports
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Source: Nigeria Port Authority, NPA (2012)

Kruck (2008) revealed that some Concession port terminals were made under competitive bidding process and the rest
were directly negotiated. However, apart from the totaled 25 concession agreements, only 13 of these concessions could
be nationally acclaimed as a successful PPP. The later arrangement lacks some intrinsic objectives principal in an ideal
PPP framework which is transparency and competitiveness. Among these PPP projects in Apapa port terminals, the
only partnership publicly heard of was that of AP Moeller probably because it was done through a competitive bidding
process. A wise inquiry would tend towards disputing direct negotiation as the needed concession option in Nigerian
infrastructural development. Peculiar problems prevalent in Nigerias infrastructural development such as corruption,
lack of transparency, unfairness and secrecy, improper conduct, lack of competition and innovation, has brought a lot of
questions on the reasons behind adopting direct negotiation as a concessional option for some of these port terminals.
The direct negotiations without a preliminary notice on the contract nature are marred with two known shortcomings, it
breeds opportunities for dishonest conduct and secondly, obtaining value for money is always a problem because its
devoid of competition. The term direct negotiation refers to direct negotiations as one that did not undergo through a
competitive process. Direct negotiation without prior publication of the contract notice is always subject to favoritism,
bias and corrupt conducts (ICAC, 2006). Associated shortcomings of direct negotiations outweighs any circumstance
whatsoever for choosing the concession approach.The highlighted circumstances for choosing direct negotiation are as
follows:
1. When the cost of conducting a competitive process, outweigh the value of the contract.
2. When the consented legal right and conditions are met in terms of lease contracts.
3. After a faulted competitive process, a contract may directly be negotiated with any qualified proponent with a
genuinely expressed interest.
4. When a competitive process is taking a longer time to conclude, a direct negotiation could temporary be instituted
to retain a temporary source of supply (mostly in a service delivery operations).
5. A situation more prone to attracting more financial risk to the government and where delay could lead to security
challenges on the public health, safety and environment.
The government in their own capacity may choose a negotiation procedure without preliminary publication of the
contract terms, but the government has to specify their requirement and the needs for taking this procurement
procedure. The public sector should also justify the reasons in terms of suitability of the invited private operators and
the private operators in return should submit documents that will certify their suitability. Before the concession exercise
in 2006, myriads of common place difficulties were found in the Nigerian seaports which demand a reform programme.
Some of these prevalent challenges are summarized below (Razak, 2005):
Longer turnaround time for ships.
Limited Cargo-handling plants and equipment owned by the NPA, and few ones in operation are under
performing.
Incessant Port congestion as a result of prolongeddwell time for goods.
Heightened level of Corruption in port environment.
Poor infrastructural facilities.
Inadequate Security operatives inside NigerianSeaports
The concession agreements in the Nigerian ports has led to a rapid growth as claimed by the federal government in the
nations economy and has brought some positive changes as read from the Nigerian ports authoritys report sheets.The
concession reform in seaports as claimed by some BPE and NPA officials ensured harmonized integrated development,
and was able to address the key challenges that could halt trade facilitation at the port. This concession programme that
effectively began in 2006 and as acclaimed by the federal government has brought along many positive changes, has
attracted many shipping line that had left the country for neighboring ports, and has greatly increased throughput. The
throughput figures (Table 2) follows an increasing trend from year 2007 to year 201, but on the year 2012, a sharp
decline was observed from throughput figure of 83,461,697 for the previous year to 77,092,625. However, this is
understandable when the observed steep decline on the throughput figure is attributed to the stiff global economic
circumstances that prevailed within the subjectperiod.
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Table 2: Throughput figures at post concession era
Source: Nigeria Port Authority, NPA (2012)

According to NPA (2012), the number of government agencies working in seaports has been slashed to a few, which
reduces delays in goods clearance brought by these longstanding issue of too many government agencies inspecting
goods passing through the national gateways. The concession arrangement has deregulated the pilotage services, such
that the pilotage firms now compete for service provision to the industry.The federal government eagerness in making
Nigerian Ports the leading ports in Africa prompt approval and the financial support for the construction of 1.6
kilometer dual carriage road in Apapa, Tin-Can Island service lane, KiriKiri lighter terminal phase II, Industrial estate
road at Tin Can Island and some of these projects has been completed. At the 12th International Africa Conference and
Exhibition held in Lagos on the 25 of March 2014, the managing director Nigerian Port Authority
MalamHabibAbdullahi expressed his satisfaction over the positive impacts of PPP in seaports infrastructures while
presenting a paper titledThe Public Private Partnership and Port efficiency: also reiterated his contentment on the
upgrade of port operation technologies, improved port infrastructure through exploring PPP intervention approaches.
The Managing director also confirmed in his presentation that a number of investment opportunities sprang up in the
areas of channel management, pilotage and towage services, independent power project, information and
communication technology (ICT), Greenfield port development and many more as a result of PPP (NPA, 2012).
However, the Nigerian ports were tagged the most expensive in the world quite after the concession programme and
alot of comments on these concessions by great number of licensed custom agents as regards to high charges charged by
these concessionaires. Most of the agitators feared if the government has any bidding law with the concessionaires as
regards port charges that would have regulated their nefarious exploitive charges at the port. Anonymous (2013) noted
that the reform embarked upon at the ports in 2004 was characterized with its own share of recklessness peculiar to
most of Nigerian governments policies and actions that have always been devoid of active or any regulatory
framework. The report reiterates that the absence of a regulator in the system has remained a mitigating factor in
bringing about the desired changes and the concessionaires are empowered to do things their own way. Contrary to the
alleged working threats claimed by various arms of port users, the concessionaire groups under the aegis of Seaport
terminal operators Association of Nigeria, also urge the Nigerian Port Authority to give them a free hand to adjust their
local charges in line with inflation rate in the country or preferably intervene on the exorbitant rates of transacting
businesses on the Nigerian ports. The emphasized need for this increase in local charges was brought forth due to many
challenges highlighted by this concessionaire group which include epileptic power supply, poor clearing and customs
processes resulting to backlog of containers, subsequently leading to congestion, unstable inflation rate etc. Still on
these port contentious issues, the present National President of National Association of Government Approved Freight
Forwarders (NAGAFF) Eugene Nweke directed a crucial question to the Minister of transport demanding answers on
pivotal issues like achievements, and actualization of the long anticipated port reform. Information drawn from an
online news magazine daily independent on the 19th day of September 2014 similarly highlighted some of the
anticipated benefits presented to FEC, which include: reduction of port charges by 20-30 per cent, achievement of quick
clearance of cargo at the ports, steep reduction on cost of transacting business at the port (Anughara, 2014).With the
present events at the Nigerian seaports, it has become an obvious fact that some of the rationales that led to this type of
partnership have been jeopardized in terms of efficient services delivery at optimal reduced rate. National President of
National Association of Government Approved Freight Forwarders (NAGAFF) also noted that before the port
concession in 2006, the clearing cost for a 20 footer container without storage/demurrage charges was placed on N11,
715.50 and 40 footer amounted to N18, 158.50. Whereas in the post concession era, where private operators took over
cargo handling activities, the clearing cost of 20 footer Container without storage/demurrage moved up to N70, 000.00
and cost of clearing 40 footer containers climbed further to N120, 000.00. According to Anughara (2014), the
comparative difference between pre and post concession clearance cost at ports is much alarming, the port users stands
in opposition to these concession practice, rather preferred pre- concession era, the stand of the concessionaire group is
for the government to further deregulate their influence and authority in ports activities. Obvious anomalies as can
easily be attributed to the prevailing concession packages in the Nigerian ports resulted due to omission of main
foundational blocks in most concession agreement by the designated government arm for the exercise which is basically
the structuring of the formidable legal and statutory framework. The total equity investments expected from the
concerned operators within the concession duration on the net worth basis were not clarified or rather were not made
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public. There have been obstinate demands for the review of the port concession agreements, which most people feared
to be groomed on a political interest, and also on the dire interest of meeting up with the best global practice.
Achievements of PPP Programmes in construction of Lekki-Epe Express way
The pioneer toll road concession project in Nigeria is that of Lekki-Epe deal between the Lagos state government and
the Lekki Concession Company limited. The purpose of this concession is to provide sustainable solutions to the
challenges brought by heavy traffic congestion along the Lekki Peninsula Lagos. The contract between the Lagos state
government and the Lekki concession company (LCC) was signed on April 24 2006, and includes the upgrade of
50km of existing dual-lane and dual carriage way to three-lane highway and the construction of a new approximately
20km of the coastal road on the Lekki peninsula. In 2008, Lagos State government also signed supplementary
agreements with LCC was also signed as well.This concession agreement was grouped in phases; the first phase of the
project was the upgrade, expansion and maintenance of approximately 50km of the Lekki-Epe express way, while the
construction of the new 20km coastal road was grouped in the second phase of the project. The estimated cost of the
approximately 50km road expansion starting from OzumbaMbadiwe to Epe as at 2008 was pegged on fifty five billion
naira. In the contract agreement, the concessionaire was given the concession to recoup interest on the investment
through toll collection from the users for a period of 30 years before transferring the asset to the State government
(Daily Independent, 2013, Lekki-Epe Corridor, 2009).
It was further noted that the Lekki Toll road concession was a PPP arrangement and employed build-operate-transfer
(BOT) concession type of infrastructure delivery. The concession was for a period of 30years, after which the Lagos
State government takes over the assets. The Lekki concession company is an Arm group of companies that corroborate
and partnered to form a special purpose vehicle, to deliver essential road infrastructure and service along the Lekki
Peninsula of Lagos. This special purpose vehicle comprised of construction companies, Toll Service Company, design
and IT installation firm, legal and regulatory advisers. In addition, some of the Lekki concession companys local
investors comprised of First Bank of Nigeria, Stanbic IBTC, and African Infrastructure Investment Managers.However,
the concession agreement between these two parties on the Lekki Toll road was short-lived and was prematurely
truncated by the Lagos State government. Back in 2011, many resident and road users considered the toll exorbitant,
and in August 28, 2013, the Lagos State government after the proposed bill was approved by the State house, acquired
the concession rights on the project at an estimated cost of 25.3billion naira, thereby terminated Lekki-Epe deal with
LCC as concerns mass complaints on the exorbitant tolls.On the other hand, the over stretched complaint on the tolls
that prompted the termination of the deal was basically due to poor planning by the two parties, depicting their
ineptness to capture all the necessary risk factors that could threaten the agreement. The then Lagos State
commissioner of Finance Ayo Gbeleyi, explained that in the concession agreement between the Lagos State government
and the Lekki concession company, that the concessionaire has the jurisdiction to increase the toll tariff based on the
inflation rate in the country quarterly. The currency devaluation from 2008 to 2013 resulted to a steep inflation hike of
35.2% which obviously impacted on the projected cost of the project, and the concessionaire had no option other than to
increase the toll for proper adjustments of the cost effects due to inflation. The Lagos State government also admitted
that they never envisaged there would be devaluation of the countrys currency. But that concessioners argument lacks
merit, subject to unmerited optimism, considering the Nigerias poor economic policy that had always opted for
devaluation as only means to combat trade imbalances.In any bilateral legal transaction like PPP which is a contract of
obligation between the public and the private partner.It is expected that such contract obligations between these two
parties (Lagos State government and Lekki Concession Company limited) should be concluded for the prescribed fixed
period of time and finally end in expiration, rather than extinction. Inversely, unplanned situations, poor and
unstructured planning has led to litanyof project truncations.
Presently in contract agreements, provisions are basically made as a matter of principle to contain situations in case of
force majeure like natural disasters (earthquakes, landslide, lightning, fire and floods) Act of God, terrorist acts, war,
riots, industrial actions, blockades, civil unrest, strikes, labour disputes, accidents, financial crisis, that might result
during the course of the project, which could alter part of the original agreement.Though risk allocation in terms of best
practices, should be treated within the transaction, and in the choice of unfavorable outcomes like financial crisis, it is
better that the public sector step with their contributions in rebalancing tariffs so that the project would be made viable.
The Lagos state government as a way to encourage private investors nascent involvement with public sector should
have quenched the civil unrest brought by the claims laid by the lekki road users on the toll tariff having acknowledged
the inflation factor, by subsidizing the toll rate to best adjustable minimal.
Happidays (2013) e-report testified many uncertainties that may likely afflict investment if PPP models of financing
project were not properly addressed. Some of these uncertainties from his report are financial, managerial, regulatory,
societal resistance, and legal entanglement. The abrupt termination of the deal by Lagos State government was never
the ideal solution to contain the complained difficulties experienced. The state government action may discourage
intending private investors from investing on infrastructural projects. It is very glaring to the both concession parties
that the contingence factor that led to the toll hike was beyond the control of thetwo parties, and it surfaced due to the
poor identification of some of the key incident factors that conversely halted the project.A provision for agreement
amendment should at least be specified in the concession documents, whereby the government having acknowledged
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the consequences of the financial crisis on the projected cost of the project as was estimated in the original agreement
paper, should have aided the private investors by providing a kind of service support fund that would have aided in
subsidizing the toll fare. It is quite understandable the reasons why the road tolls were made highand these can easily
be admitted because the primary aim of every private investor is to leverage the invested capital fund from the return on
the interest from the project.Userscomplaints should have been negotiated on properly, other than this unfriendly and
less-objective action taken by the Lagos State government, though the concessionaire party Lekki concession company
should on their part have givena notice to the other party likely their employer on the project cost variations, rather
than transferring the cost implications directly to the road users by inflating the toll rates. Happiday (2013) e-report
affirmed Lagos State among the key players in PPP, because of their ability to commit to a long term concession
agreement.However, with the embryonic truncation of the first ever tagged PPP mega breakthrough with Lekki
concession company, it is noweven more hilarious to reiterate or reaffirm some states as key players capable of keeping
long term concession agreement because there is no unified theoretical basis for PPPs but the success principally lies
with the adept will of the two concession partners in identifying the key project tools and situations likely to prevail
within the agreement terms.
Some of the Public Private Partnership Projects in Nigeria
PPP model was officially adopted in Nigeria in 2005 for efficient project and service delivery in the country, as it seeks
to make good the huge financial resources, the expertise and management efficiency usually associated with the private
sector. A lot of success reports in infrastructural development have been made, as some of these major projects were
completed in record time under the PPP model, like the local wing of the Murtala Muhammad Airport Lagos. It would
be appropriate to note also that even before PPP model became official government policy in 2005, Federal housing
Authority had in the year 2000 adopted the PPP programme and built to completion 651 housing units in Gwarinpa II
Estate, Abuja. In the same cycle, some of the completed and ongoing PPP projects in housing, roads, power,
agriculture, social Infrastructure, transport and urban development are enlisted in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3: Some of the completed and ongoing PPP projects in Nigeria
Source: ICRC (2013)
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Table 4: Additional PPP projects in Nigeria
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Source: ICRC (2013)

Acknowledging various players arguments, projects are described to be PPP when government duties were streamlined
only to regulate private investors tasks by makingprovisionsfor legal frameworks and enforcements that will make
private markets to work well.This in equal fateallows the free market to do the work, giving the private sector investor
an extensive control over how the services are provided. Taking reminiscent on ways projects were been done,
adjoining at the time projects and services were traditionally delivered, one would always align private partnership with
the public service sector at least in the building of the physical assets. Clamor by various governments in quest for a
better way to provide more and better service to their citizens on a limited budget consequently brought the extension of
the private sector involvement in undertaking a procurement approach, whose features goes beyond the traditional way
of assigning roles/task to the private sector, but rather went further into relinquishing more of the commonly known
public tasks in a competitive manner to the private sector.
2.CONCLUSION
A step-by step guide to PPP should be adeptly followed in other to combat unplanned situations that may likely surface
as a result of unstructured planning,which from the past reports has led to litany of project truncation.A more
streamlined process in PPP practice devoid or with minimal trace of political Will that will properly harness good
private sector capacity should be opted for. PPP like all other methods of procurementapproach strictly advocate for
proper attention on issues as it concerns finance, managerial, social resistance, regulatory and legal
framework.However, the bloated task in PPP structure, that now incorporates Project design, operations and assets
management for adequate products and service delivery has also driven most private investors craving for a geometric
return ontheir investments at expense of social reactions andrecommendedstandards. In other to ameliorate and contain
these areas of identified likely difficulties, a good legal and regulatory framework should be put in place and made
good, such that, much contractual agreements would not be breached, thereby reducing to a tolerable minimum the
volume of truncated projectsin the country.
REFERENCES
[1] Anonymous (2013) In a published report on Business and Maritime West Africa online journal on the 22
November 2013.
[2] Anugwara, B. (2014) Shipper Council: bracing up for commercial regulation challengers. Retrieved from
www.mynewswatchtimesng.com/shippers-council-bracing-commercial-regulation-challenges/on march, 2014.
[3] AP3N (2013) Report of the African Public Private Partnership network (AP3N) Inaugural meeting held on the 15th
of Feb. 2012, Theme: Promoting Regional Infrastructure as a Critical ingredient in achieving greater regional
integration.Retrieved on 7 November 2014 from
www.sadcpppnetwork.org/index.php?...african...network...african...netw...
[4] Bagal, S. (2008). Managing Public Private Partnership: Economic and Political weekly PW. Retrieved on August
13 2014 from www.epw.in/search/apachesolr_search/bagal 2008.
[5] Daily Independent (2013) Why we acquired concession rights from LCC Lagos. Retrieved from
dailyindependent.com/2013/08/why-we-acquired-concession-right-from-lcc-lagos-govt/on the 29, August, 2013.
[6] Francoz, E. (2010) Advantages and Limitation of the different public private partnership risks. Presented at the
PPP workshop, June 2010, Jordan. Agence Francaise de Developpment.
[7] Happiday, L. (2013). e-report- Nigeria Infrastructure News, the premier online infrastructure News resource in
Nigeria.Retrieved on August 13 2014 from www.nigeriainfrastructurenews.com.
[8] ICAC (2006) Direct Negotiations: Guidelines for managing risks in direct negotiation, May 2006. Retrieved on 6
July 2014 from www.icac.nsw.gov.au.
[9] ICRC (2013) PPP Project report, Published on Friday 17 May 2013. www.f.pppn.org.
[10] Kruck, B. (2008). Port reforms and concession in Nigeria. Retrieved on 10 September 2014 from
www.antaq.gov.br/portal/pdf/palestrag/seminarioreform.
[11] Lambert, V and Lapsley, I. (2006). Redefining the boundaries of Public sector accounting research? The Irish
Accounting Review, Vol. 13, Special Issue, 85-105.
[12] Lekki-Epe Corridor (2009) Solving Communities Need. Africa News Services.
[13] Manuel, T. 2012. NDP Launch Speech by Trevor A. Manuel, Minister in the Presidency: National Planning
Commission. Available http://www.thepresidency.gov.za/pebble.asp?relid=6601 [Accessed on 17/4/2013].
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[14] Nigerian Port Authority, NPA (2014) Retrieved on 10 September 2014 from
www.nigerianports.org/news.aspx?id=353.
[15] Nigerian Ports Authority, NPA (2012): Terminal operators in Western Ports & Eastern Ports of NPA. Retrieved on
13 September 2014 from www.nigerianports.org/dynamicdata/.../cargo throughput-2007-2012.p.
[16] Nigerian PPP Review Detail (2012) Where are we?: The ICRC and Its Retinue, Vol.1, Issue 1. July 2012.
[17] Razak, R. (2005) Understanding port reforms. The Nigerian Situation (Ed). Lagos: Marine Business
International.
[18] Zagreb (2009) A Step-By Step Guide to public private partnerships. Agency for Public Private Partnership,
republic of Croatia. Retrieved on August 13 2014 from
www.javnanabava.hr/userdocsimage/userfiles/file/Raznepublikcije/step.
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Movie Sales Performance Prediction

Pooja Deshmukh, Shraddha Bhalerao, Rutuja Jadhav, Pooja Mhaske
Pune Institute of Computer Technology
ABSTRACT
Posting online reviews is a new trend set for people to share with other users their opinions and sentiments toward products and
services. E-commerce websites provides the venues and facilities for people to publish their reviews. Those online reviews
present a wealth of information. In this paper, reviews of viewers from movie fertility are collected and processed. When the
movie trailer releases various reviews are posted by users on social media sites. We are mining those reviews and predicting
sales performance of movie. These predictions will be used by share holders and box office for the movie business.
Keywords: Review mining, sentiment analysis, Record Classification, Information search and retrieval, data mining.
1.INTRODUCTION
The basic idea behind the movie sales performance prediction is to collect online reviews various sources, calculating
rating and revenue based on sentiment analysis and predicting sales for movies. So it is helpful for the people who are
investing for the movies in share market and the box office business.
Review mining has recently received a great deal of attention. As a domain-driven task, it is essential to understand the
characteristics of online reviews and their predictive power. To this end, it investigates the pattern of reviews and its
relationship to sales data by examining a real example from the movie sector.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Predicting sales performance based on movie and movie trailer reviews, it investigates the pattern of reviews and its
relationship to sales data. To predict the sales performance we calculate rating and revenues by mining reviews. We
predict the sales by mining movie trailer reviews and mining movie reviews will be helpful for the people who are
investing for that movie production as a share market.
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
To analyze the large volume of online reviews
To investigate the pattern of reviews and its relationship to sales data in movie domain.
To predict box office business by mining trailer reviews.
To help investors for further investment.
STATEMENT OF SCOPE
This system is designed to help share investors and various stake holders which invest in movie. It provides accurate
prediction which is based upon movie trailers reviews and reviews when movie actually releases.
Input and Output
Input: Online Reviews for the movie trailer and for movie.
Output:
1. Rating for the movie based on the reviews.
2. Revenue (box office collection) of the movie.
Fig.1.Block diagram
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MAJOR CONSTRAINTS
Input constraints:
1. This web application will not predict reviews given in any other language rather than English also reviews posted
in short forms will not be analyzed.
2. Reviews given in symbolic notation is not acceptable.
3. One viewer can post reviews only once and review should be in simple English statement.
4. The usage of punctuation marks does not have much effect on the sentiment analysis. E.g. number of exclamations
express the intensity of sentiment, but in this system it does not add any weight age to the sentiment.
5. The abbreviations that can be allowed in comments are limited. E.g. gud for good.
PERFORMANCE AND SECURITY CONSTRAINTS:
1. The social media data is also fetched. Thus security mechanisms should be there to keep the system data genuine.
2. The information given by user while creating account must be verified for genuineness so that a single user should
not have multiple accounts in order to spam the system. The system should be taken care against overwhelming.
The review spamming, multiple accounts may degrade the system performance
RELATED WORK
1. Relevant mathematics associated with the Project:
Let S be the system which processes the reviews, analyzing sentiments in them, which will serve as the basis for
predicting movie future sales performance.
S = { s , e , X , Y , fme , ffriends , DD , NDD , Xmem | s }
Where,
s : first state/ initial state
e : end state/ final state
X : set of input
Y : set of output
fme : Function which calculates the performance probability of movie
ffriends : Friend function
1. INITIAL STATE: Collecting reviews
2. INPUT:
Input X can be given as
X={C, D, id, rd}
Where,
2.1. C is the set of comments
C= {C1^C2}
Where,
C1 is the set of user comments
C1= {c1,c2,c3,,cn}
C2 is the set of expert comments
C2={ c1,c2,c3,,cn}
2.2 D is the set which contains movie details
D= {A, name, dir, prod}
Where,
name: Name of the movie
dir: Name of director
prod: Name of Production house
A represents lead actors of movie
A={ a1,a2,a3,,an} ; n<5
2.3 id =Movie id of a particular movie
2.4 rd= Release date of movie,
3. Function:
3.1 fme can be given as
fme ={ f (x) }
S Success state when
1) If correct commets are used for prediction
2) If correct rating are used for prediction
F Failure state when
1) If wrong comments are used for prediction of rating.
2) If wrong rating is used to predict the revenue.
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3.2 ffriends - Friend functions used to perform various operations.

ffriends = { ff1 , ff2 }
ff1 - This function is used to extract comments of user from social media and web site
ff2 - This function is used to process the comments i.e. perform sentiment analysis
4. OUTPUT
Y={rating, revenue}
rating: Rating given as the result of sentimental analysis
revenue: Revenue prediction according to rating
5. FINAL STATE
System gives sales performance prediction
2. Sentimental Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis [SPLSA]:
Sentiment mining based on Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis (PLSA), which we call Sentiment PLSA (S-PLSA).
Different from the traditional PLSA, S-PLSA focuses on sentiments rather than topics. S-PLSA helps us to analyze the
sentiments presented in the review which helps in to understand the emotions of the reviewers. The people can observe
their opinions and increase their feel to watch the movie if the reviews are good. If the movie is bad then the reviews
are bad then it will become serious impact for the movie.
3. Autoregressive Sentiment Aware [ARSA]:
In this project we are going to predict sale performance of the movie, this information is captured through the use of an
Autoregressive (AR) model, which has been widely used in many time series analysis problems, especially in
econometric contexts. Combining this AR model with sentiment information mined from the reviews, we propose a
new model for product sales prediction called the Autoregressive Sentiment Aware (ARSA) model. ARSA model
provides superior predication performance compared to using the AR model alone, confirming our expectation that
sentiments play an important role in predicting future sales performance.
4.Autoregressive Sentiment and Quality Aware [ARSQA]:
Since online reviews are of varying quality and, thus, carry different predictive power, we should not treat them equally
in producing the prediction. This motivates our study of the quality factor in sales prediction. Consider the both cases
in which quality indicators are readily available (e.g., in the form of user ratings), and cases in which they are not. Our
focus is on the latter case, for which develop a model that is able to automatically predict the quality of a review based
on its syntactical characteristics. The quality factor is then incorporated into the ARSA model, resulting in an
Autoregressive Sentiment and Quality Aware (ARSQA) model for sales prediction.
TECHNOLOGY AND ASSOCIATED PLATFORM
1. Programming Language : Java
2. Framework : Struts2 and Hibernate
3. Data Mining Tool: OpenNLP
4. Application server : Tomcat7
6. Database Server: MySQL
SYSTEM FLOW
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ADVANTAGES
1. Helps users to take decisions
2. Helps investors for investments
3. Production house can produce better movies depending on rating and revenue
4. Helpful to schedule the theatre shows
5. Quality Prediction
APPLICATIONS
1. 1.Box Office Business
2. 2.Share investors
3. 3.Suggesions To Viewers
4. 4.Production House
2.CONCLUSION
From all of the above work done we concluded that the wide spread use of online reviews as a way of conveying views
and comments has provided a unique opportunity to understand the general publics sentiments and derive business
intelligence. We have studied the problem of predicting sales performance using sentiment information mined from
reviews. A center piece of our work is the proposal of S-PLSA, a generative model for sentiment analysis that helps us
move from simple negative or positive classification toward a deeper comprehension of the sentiments in blogs.
Using SPLSA as a means of summarizing sentiment information from reviews, we have to develop ARSA, a model
for predicting sales performance based on the sentiment information and the products past sales performance. We have
further considered the role of review quality in sales performance prediction, and proposed a model to predict the
quality rating of a review when it is not readily available. The quality factor is then incorporated into a new model
called ARSQA. Equipped with the proposed models, it will help to better understand the predictive power of reviews
and conduct businesses in a more effective way.
REFERENCES
[1] Xiaohui Yu, Yang Liu, Mining Online Reviews for Predicting Sales Performance: A Case Study in the Movie
Domain, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, Vol. 24,
[2] Adeyemi Adejuwon, Amir Mosavi, Domain Driven Data Mining Application to Business, IJCSI International
Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 4, No 2, July 2010
[3] Anindya Ghose, Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis, Estimating the Helpfulness and Economic Impact of Product Reviews,
IEEE Transactions On Knowledge And Data Engineering, Vol. 23, Aug 2011
[4] Nihalahmad R. Shikalgar, Deepak Badgujar, Online Review Mining For Forecasting Sales, IJRET: International
Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, Vol 2, Dec 2013
AUTHOR
Pooja Deshmukh received the DIPLOMA in Computer Engineering from Government Polytechnic Pune in 2012 and
completing B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
Shraddha Bhalerao received the DIPLOMA in Computer Engineering from Government Polytechnic Pune in 2012
and completing B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
Rutuja Jadhav received the DIPLOMA in Computer Engineering from Government Polytechnic Nashik in 2012 and
completing B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
Pooja Mhaske received the DIPLOMA in I.T Engineering from Government Polytechnic Pune in 2012 and completing
B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
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Study on FractalMicrostrip Fork Antenna with

Enhanced Directivity
P. Chandrasekhar Member IEEE, P. Gowtham Kumar, K. Santhosh
Assistant professor Dept. of ECE , GITAM University
ABSTRACT
It is necessary in many applications to design an antenna which has high directivity, less VSWR, low return loss and low side
lobe level. Fractal microstrip fork antenna with parasitic elements can be used in various applications like satellite
communications, terrestrial communications, spacecommunications and in radar. The dimensions of the proposed antenna are
40 x 40 x 3.2 mm. Copper (annealed) metal is used as the ground plane and the patch. FR4 (lossy) material is used as the
substrate. The proposed antenna has the return loss, VSWR, directivity, side lobe level of -51.366576dB, 1.0054185, 9.576dBi
and -13.1dBi at an operating frequency of 11.712GHz.
Keywords: - Antenna, fork, fractal,microstrip, return loss, VSWR, directivity and side lobe level.
1.INTRODUCTION
An antenna is an electrical device which is used to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves. There are two types of
antennas transmitting antenna and receiving antenna. As the size of normal antenna is very large, it cannot be used
in mobile andsatellite communications. So, microstripantennas are preferred because of the following advantages like
small size, low weight, low cost and they can be easily fabricated. A microstripantenna has a ground plane, substrate
and a patch. Patch is printed over the substrate of microstip antenna. This patch acts as a radiator and radiates
electromagnetic waves.
In this paper a fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna with parasitic elements has been proposed which has less return
loss and high directivity when compared with normal fork antenna.
2. PROPOSED ANTENNA DESIGN

For a square shaped microstrip antenna if we incorporate two parallel slots, a fork shaped microstrip antenna is
obtained which is shown in fig.1. Copper (annealed) metal is used as ground plane and patch. FR4 (lossy) material
whose dielectric constant value is 4.3 is used as substrate. For a fork shaped microstrip antenna if we incorporate a
number of slots, we obtain a fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna. In order to increase directivity, we are introducing
two parasitic elements and slots are also incorporated in parasitic elements in order to reduce return loss.The fractal
fork shaped microstrip antenna is shown in figure.2.
fig1: Fork shaped microstrip antenna

Thickness of the substrate of fork shaped antenna is 3.28mm.
fig.2: Fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna with parasitic elements
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Thickness of substrate in fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna with parasitic elements is 3.2mm. The dimensions of
the antenna are presented in the table.1.
Table.1: dimensions of proposed antenna
3. RETURN LOSS
Return loss is the power reflected by the antenna due to the mismatch of transmission line and antenna. If the return
loss of the antenna is 0dB then the power fed to the antenna is completely reflected back by the antenna and nothing is
radiated. If return loss of antenna is -10dB, then -7dB is the reflected power and 3dB is delivered to the antenna. Lower
the value of return loss, higher is the efficiency of the antenna.
The simulated return loss of fork shaped patch antenna and fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic elements
are shown in fig.3 and fig.4.
fig.3: Return loss of Fork shaped patch antenna at f=11.304GHz
fig.4: Return Loss of fractal fork shaped patch antenna with
parasitic elements at f=11.712GHz

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4. VSWR
VSWR stands for voltage standing wave ratio. VSWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum value of standing wave
voltage to its minimum value. VSWR value is always real and positive. If VSWR value is large, the antenna is not
matched with the transmission line and there will be high return loss and vice versa. The minimum value of VSWR is
0ne. The simulated VSWR of fork shaped patch antenna and fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic elements
are shown in fig.5 and fig.6.
fig.5: VSWR of Fork shaped patch antenna at f=11.304GHz
fig.4: VSWR of fractal fork shaped patch antenna with
5. FAR FIELD PATTERN

3D plots:
The three dimensional far field pattern of fork shaped patch antenna and fractal fork shaped patch antenna with
parasitic elements are shown in fig.5 and fig.6.
fig.5: 3D far field pattern of Fork shaped patch antennaat f=11.304 GHz
fig.6: 3D far field pattern of fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic element at f=11.712GHz
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Polar Plots:
The polar plots of far field pattern of fork shaped patch antenna and fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic
elements are shown in fig.7 and fig.8.
fig.5: Polar plot of Fork shaped patch antenna at f=11.304GHz
fig.4: polar plot of fractal fork shaped patch antenna with
6. CONCLUSION
Thus the fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna with parasitic elements has been designed which has return loss and
directivity of -51.366576dB and 9.576dBi at the operating frequency of 11.712GHz.The return loss, VSWR, directivity
of the proposed antenna are better when compared with the normal fork shaped antenna. Thus from the simulated
results it can be proven that the proposed antenna is good when compared with fork shaped patch antenna.
REFERENCES
[1] Abolfazl Azari, A New Super Wideband Fractal Microstrip Antenna, IEEE Trans.On Antennas and
Propagation, Vol. 59, No. 5, May 2011.
[2] R. E. Munson, Conformal Micro strip Antennas and Micro strip Phased Arrays, IEEE Trans. On Antennas
Propagation, Volume 22, issue 1, January 1974.
[3] Constantine A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Second Edition, 1997.
[4] David M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Fourth Edition, 2011.
[5] Omar Noori, JalelChebil and et.al,Design and Analysis of Triple-Band MicrostripPatch Antenna with h-shaped
Slots, International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering, 3-5 July 2012, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
[6] SushilKakkar, Priyadarshini and Shweta Rani, New Antenna with Fractal Shaped DGS for Emergency
Management Applications, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software
Engineering, Volume 3, Issue 3, March 2013.
[7] I. Zahraoui, J. Terhzaz and et.al, Design and Analysis of a New Dual-Band Microstrip Fractal Antenna,
International Journal of Electrical, Computer, Electronics and Communication Engineering Vol.9, No.1, 2015.
[8] TruptiIngale, ChaitaliIngale and et.al, Effect of Different Substrate Material on Performance of H Shaped Patch
Antenna, International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer and Communication Engineering, Vol. 2,
Issue 11, November 2014.
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[9] Patil V.P., Kharade A.R., Enhancement of Directivity of Rectangular MicroStrip Antenna Using Multilayer
Multidielectric Structure, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, Vol.3, Issue.12,
September 2012.
[10] M.T. Islam, M.N. Shakib and N. Misran, Multi-Slotted Microstrip Patch Antenna For Wireless Communication,
Progress In Electromagnetics Research Letters, Vol. 10, 1118, 2009.
[11] A.B. Mutiara, R.Refianti andRachmansyah, Design of Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Communication at 2.4
GHz, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, Vol.33, No.2, 30th November 2011.
[12] Ashish Ranjan, Manjeet Singh and et.al, Analysis and Simulation of Fractal Antenna for Mobile Wimax,
International Journal of Future Generation Communication and Networking, Vol.7, No.2, 2014.
[13] Junshen Yu, et.al,Study of an Ultra-wideband PlanarEllipticalDipole antenna, University of posts and
telecommunicationBeijing China, university of London UK, Microwave Technology andComputational
Electromagnetics, 2009.
[14] Qinjiang Rao, et.al, A New Aperture Coupled Microstrip Slot Antenna,IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, Vol.53, Issue.9, September 2005.
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Mobile Standards, International Journal of Engineering and Science, Vol.3, Issue 1, May 2013.
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Survey on Collaborative Filtering Technique in

Recommendation System
Omkar S. Revankar, Dr.Mrs. Y.V.Haribhakta
Department of Computer Engineering , College of Engineering Pune, Pune, India
ABSTRACT
This article presents an overview of recommendation System and illustrates the present generation of recommendation
techniques. These techniques are usually categorized into three main classes as Collaborative Filtering (CF), Content-Based
Filtering (CBF), and Hybrid Recommendation approaches. CF is a framework for filtering information based on the
preferences of users. This technique can predict a users preferred items by using the users known history data as well as other
users known history data, and then recommends items to the user. This paper is focused on collaborative filtering; its types
and its major challenges for instance cold start problem, data sparsity, scalability and accuracy.
Keywords:- Recommender systems, Collaborative Filtering, Content based Filtering.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to tremendous increase in e-commerce and online web services the matter of information search and selection has
become increasingly serious; users are confused by which alternative to consider and they may be not having sufficient
time or knowledge for personal evaluation of these alternatives. Recommender systems have proved that , they are a
helpful way for online users to deal with the information load and have turn out to be one of the most popular and
powerful tools for e-commerce. Recommender system provide list of items by predicting which item are most suitable to
user, based on user past history, preferences and constraints [4]. Different algorithm and methods are used by
recommendation systems to provide personalized recommendations.
Recommendation systems are divided into following three categories:Content-based Recommending
In this method user will be recommended items comparable to the ones the preferred in the past, or matched to the user
characteristics.
Collaborative Filtering
It is the process of evaluating or filtering items using the opinions of other users. Collaborative filtering techniques
collect users profiles, and examine the connection among the data according to similarity function. The likely
categories of the data in the profiles include user behavior patterns, user preferences, or item properties. Collaborative
filtering technique collects large information about user behavior, history, click pattern and recommends what user will
like based on
his similarity with other users communally.
Hybrid methods
Hybrid methods are a combination of different filtering methods. In Hybrid collaborative filtering [5], [6] system,
collaborative filtering is combined with other recommendations techniques like content based filtering. Content based
recommendation system make predictions based on the content of textual information like URLs, logs, item description
and profiles about user taste, preferences and needs. Demographic based recommendation system [8] makes use of user
profile information such as occupation, gender and postcode. Utility based recommenders and knowledge based
recommender system uses knowledge about how a particular object satisfies user needs.
2. COLLABORATIVE FILTERING TECHNIQUES

Collaborative filtering is widely used in recommender systems. Collaborative filtering(CF) attempt to mechanize
word-of-mouth recommendation procedure that means, the objects are suggested to the customer according to how
customers with similar interests, categorize these objects.[7] Collaborative filtering technique collects large
information about user behavior, history, click pattern and recommends what user will like based on his similarity with
other users. For example, Amazons recommendation algorithm collects items which are similar to purchases of a user
and ratings, without ever calculating a predicted rating [3].
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Collaborative filtering techniques can be categorized into two types:

(a) Memory Based Collaborative Filtering Technique
Memory based collaborative filtering techniques use item-to-item or user-to-user correlations to make prediction for
user on future items. For computing prediction, whole training set is taken into memory, making it easier to include
new data but experiences slow performance on large information datasets. This issue can be overcome by precalculating correlations and updating it. Memory based collaborating filtering technique are categorized into two types
according to Nearest neighbor algorithm [15].
(1) Item based filtering technique
It mostly focuses on most similar items. The key idea is that users are likely to have same opinion for similar items [1].
Similarity between items is decided by looking at how other users have rated items. Item based filtering technique
overcome the problem of user cold-start problem and partially improves scalability problem as similarity between items
is more stable than between users.
Item Based Algorithm
for each item k for which user h has done no choice yet
for each item m for which user h has done choice so far
calculate similarity c (using Pearson correlation/Cosine similarity) between k and m
-add h's choice for m, according to ranks generated by similarity c.
return the top N ranked items
A prediction for a user u and item i is composed of a weighted sum of the user us ratings for items most similar to i
where itemSim()is a measure of item .ItemSim() is calculated using formula (1) below:
Adjusted-cosine similarity, similarity metric is used to compute item similarity by using all users who have rated both
item i and j as in formula (2) below:
Problems of item based collaborative filtering

(i) Item Cold-Start problem Cannot predict ratings for new item till some similar users have rated it, this problem also
occurs in user based collaborative filtering technique but it is a bigger problem here.
(ii) As the number of items increases the size of the model increases. We can reduce the size by only storing
correlations for item pairs with more than k co- ratings, by pruning many of the correlations it becomes difficult to
make a prediction for a given target item and user, since the items correlated with the users ratings may not contain
the target item.
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(2) User based filtering technique

It mostly focuses on most similar users. Recommendation system based on user based filtering technique generates
prediction based on ratings from similar users called as neighbors.
User Based Algorithm
for each item k for which user u has done no choice yet
for each other user v who has done choice for item k
calculate similarity c (using Pearson correlation/Cosine similarity) between u and v
add v's choice for k, according to ranks generated by similarity c .
return the top N ranked items.
If a user n is having similarity with a user u, we say that n is a neighbor of u. User-based algorithms generate a
prediction for an item i by analyzing ratings for i from users in us neighborhood by using the following formula (3).
userSim()is calculated by using the Pearson correlation. The Pearson correlation coefficient is calculated by comparing
ratings for all items rated by both the target user and the neighbor as given in following formula (4). Pearson
correlation ranges from 1.0 for users with perfect agreement to -1.0 for perfect disagreement users [1] [16].
Problems Of User-Based Algorithms

(1) User Cold-Start problem- not enough known about new user to decide who is similar.
(2) Sparsity when recommending from a large item set, users will have rated only some of the items which makes it
hard to find similar users.
3] Scalability with millions of ratings, computations become slow.
4] Item Cold-Start problem Cannot predict ratings for new item till some similar users have rated it.
(b) Model Based Collaborative Filtering Technique
User recommendations in model-based collaborative filtering algorithms are based on learned models. Model-based
collaborative filtering analyze the training data, summarize the complicated patterns into the learned models, and
then make predications based on the learned models. Results from model-based CF usually have less accuracy in
prediction as compared to memory-based methods on dense data sets where user-item values are available in a large
fraction in the training set, but give better performance on sparse data sets.
Model based collaborating filtering techniques are categorized into two types:
(1) Cluster Model
Multinomial mixture model is also called as cluster model in which the probability is conditionally liberated from
participation votes in a class C variable obtaining several relatively little numbers of values that are discrete.
In cluster model, collection of preferences is taken by definite groups or kind of users that are similar in their clusters.
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In the certain classes, the preferences that are related to the dissimilar items are liberated. The cluster model defines the
probability of joint probability of votes and class to a group of marginal and conditional distribution [18].
Pr (C=C1V1,C2V2,,Vn) = Pr (C=C)Pr (Vi |C = C)
Pr (C=C1V1,C2V2,,Vn) = Probability of a person of specific class and a collection of votes.
Pr(C=C) = Class membership probability.
Pr (Vi |C =C) = From users vote training data condition probability of votes is calculated.
If no variable is seen in user database then we have to use methods that can learn parameters with hidden variables for
modeling.
(2) Bayesian Network Model
Bayesian network model is represented in a directed acyclic graph. This model is represented in a triplet<M.D,@>,
where M denotes random variable, D denotes directed arc and @ denotes conditional probability table determining
how much a node depends on its parent node[19].
(1) Simple nave Bayesian collaborative filtering
In Naive Bayes classifier we assume the features are independent for a given class, the probability is calculated by
taking all features, the class with the highest probability will be classified as predicted class.
(2) TAN-ELR collaborative filtering
Simple nave Bayesian collaborative filtering method lacks when dealing with partial data or in completed data. This
technique is overcome by Extended Logistic Regression algorithm(ELR) which is a discriminative parameter learning
algorithm that maximize log conditionals likelihood TAN-ELR (Tree Augmented Nave Bayes) have high classification
accuracy for both complete and incomplete data[17].
3. CHALLENGES OF COLLABORATIVE FILTERING

Scalability
In any of the environments where collaborative filtering is used in recommendation, [2] there are millions of users and
items this creates problems as there are inadequate computational resources to meet the new demands of user. Large
Computational Power is required to produce recommendations. For an example if there are M users(Millions of users)
and N(Millions of items) items then overall complexity of an algorithm will be Big-O(n)these is very large complexity
with that many systems have to provide quick online recommendation for all users regardless of their purchase and
rating history.
Data Sparsity
In E-commerce system with large number of products, size of user-item matrix becomes large and sparse. Due to this it
becomes difficult to make recommendations and maintain the quality of recommendation system. The data sparsity
problem is also known as Cold Start problem. As explained in [7] [13], the cold start problem arises in a situation
where a new user or item has just registered into the system and it becomes difficult to find neighbor users or items as
inadequate information about user and item is available, and new users are unlikely given good recommendation due to
lack of ratings and purchase history.
Synonym problem
Some recommendation system categories item into different category because of difference in names.
Gray sheep
Some users cannot take benefit of collaborative filtering technique as they will not consistently agree or disagree with
group of people, [2] these people are called Gray sheep people.
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Black sheep
Blacksheep are opposite group of people who are not in favor of recommendation system concept.
4. RELATED SURVEY
A review of our study on following research work shows that ,the authors have used various collaborative techniques
like personalized collaborative filtering, user based collaborative filtering, item based collaborative filtering etc. for
building a recommender system. Some drawbacks of collaborative filtering such as cold-start problem, data sparsity and
scalability are also discovered and overcome. Yechun Jiang, Jianxun Liu, Mingdong Tang and Yechun Jiang, Jianxun
Liu, Mingdong Tang (2011) [9] discussed on personalized collaborative filtering method used for Web service
recommendation. Computation of similarity is a main part of Web service recommendation techniques. Similarity
measurement is calculated among users and personalized influence of services. By utilizing the similarity measurement
model of Web services, an effective Personalized Hybrid Collaborative Filtering technique is developed by integration
of personalized user-based algorithm and personalized item-based algorithm. They also conducted experiments based
on real Web service QoS dataset WSRec which consists of more than 1.5 million test results of 150 service users
belonging to different countries on 100 publicly available Web services situated all over the world. Their Experimental
evaluation shows that the method increases accuracy of recommendation of Web services considerably. Anand Shanker
Tewari, Kumari Priyanka (2014) [10] designed online book recommendation system for students reading textbooks.
Motivation of this project was to develop recommendation system to the students according to their price range and
publishers name. Recommendation system is designed by combining the features of user based collaborative filtering
and association rule mining. Recommendation is carried at offline mode and system stores recommendation in
students web profile. First system scans the buyer profile record find out the category of the book that the buyer has
bought earlier such as Novels, educational book, Bibliography etc. Then it find out the subcategory of the book for
example if at stage1 category of book is educational then subcategory would be Computer data structure, Theory of
mechanics, operating systems etc. At stage third association rule is applied on transaction database and list of books is
generated that buyer can buy it afterwords at stage 4 user based collaborative filtering technique is applied to the books
found in stage 3 and top N recommendation are provided to targeted buyer. Jyoti Gupta and Jayant Gadge (2014) [11]
used Collaborative Filtering algorithms to provide recommendations to a user. The recommendations are given based
on the ratings of other users in the system. In their proposed work they have given solutions to overcome the Problems
faced by collaborative filtering algorithms for instance sparsity, scalability, and cold start. In the proposed outline, item
based collaborative filtering prediction is joined with prediction by means of demographics based cluster of user in an
adaptive weighted scheme. Item similarity and user clusters are computed offline, which makes the solution scalable. A
new user is added to the cluster with the nearest centroid based on demographics and can be given immediate
predictions based on the user cluster. An adaptive weighting scheme will improve the quality of predictions by
giving more weight to prediction using demographics based user clusters when the number of ratings available for
a user are less, for example in cases when the user is new, and increasing weight to item based collaborative filtering
as the number of ratings available for a user increases. This will result in a solution that is scalable while addressing
user cold start. Anand Shanker Tewari, Abhay Kumar and Asim Gopal Barman (2014)[14] have designed
recommendation system to recommend books to the buyer that suits their interests. The working of the system is
divided into different stages. Stage1 finds out the category of the book that the buyer has bought earlier like novel,
science, engineering etc. from the buyers web profile. Stage2 finds out the subcategory of the book if there is any in
the stage1 found category.stage3 performs content based filtering of category /subcategory found in stage1 and 2, to
find out the books that are much similar to the books that the buyer has bought earlier based on the books overview
content from the buyers past history record. At stage 4 based on the result of stage3 item based collaborative filtering is
done to find out the list of books in the descending order of recommendations. In this step, the system actually evaluates
quality of the recommending books based on the rating given to those books by the other buyers. From the book
transaction database is used to find all those transactions whose category and sub category (if there is any) is same as
found in stage1 and stage2. Stage5 applies association rule on those transactions and find out the books that the buyer
can buy afterward. Stage6 discovers the intersection of the result of stage4 and 5. The intersection result is arranged in
the descending order of recommendations as given by the stage4.Outcome of the stage 6 is the final recommendations
for the buyer. All these steps are performed when the buyer is offline and the results are stored in the buyers web
profile. When the buyer comes online next time the recommendations will be generated automatically. ZhichaoQuan
(2013) [12] in his research made use of user personality for the improvement of the user model and proposed two
personality-based collaborative filtering recommendations are: first one is to calculate user similarity from the user
personality point of view and choose nearest neighbor, and then produces recommendation; second one is using the
personality-item rating matrix, and after that create recommendation for target users. Because of the stability of
people's character, recommendation based on users' character is also relatively stable. This avoids the problem of
frequently update of traditional user models, thus greatly reducing the cost of calculation. If user personality can be
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attained well, there will be no more cold start problems. The number of items of traditional collaborative filtering
recommendation is too large, while personality factors in the proposed method is in small quantity and will not change
as time goes by, which alleviate the sparsity problem to a certain extent. The weakness of this method is that: before
recommendation, one must get users' characters, which would increase the work of the recommendation system. If
there is no best way to obtain the character of the new users, "cold start" problem will occur. So when a new user is
added, if the user character is not accurately obtained, their interests should be taken advantage of to discover their
characters, and then make recommendation to users based on character traits.
5. CONCLUSION
Recommender System has made tremendous increase over the last decade. Collaborative filtering technique provides a
solution to recommender system. In collaborative filtering the recommendations are given to the new user based on the
preferences made by group of user who has similar tastes. In this paper, Collaborative filtering tasks, their main
challenges and their possible solutions are discussed. This paper also covers major categories of CF techniques:
memory-based, model-based, with examples for representative algorithms of each category, and analysis of their
predictive performance and their ability to address the challenges. The study of various research papers and their
results provides the fact that collaborative filtering is one of the most widely used filtering technique however it suffers
from sparsity, accuracy, scalability, cold start etc.
REFERENCES
[1] Sarwar, B., Karypis, G., Konstan, J.A., Riedl, J., Item-Based Collaborative Filtering Recommendation
Algorithms, Proceedings of the 10th international conference on World WideWeb. 2001, Hong Kong. ACM Press
p. 285-295.
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_filtering.
[3] Linden G. Smith B., York J., Amazon.Com Recommendations: Item-To-Item Collaborative Filtering, Internet
Computing, IEEE, 2003.
[4] Francesco Ricci, Lior Rokach and Bracha Shapira, Introduction to Recommender Systems Handbook, Springer,
2011.
[5] L. H. Ungar and D. P. Foster Clustering Methods For Collaborative Filtering, in Proceedings of the Workshop
on Recommendation Systems, AAAI Press, 1998.
[6] P. Resnick, N. Iacovou, M. Suchak, P. Bergstrom, and J. Riedl, Grouplens: an open architecture for collaborative
filtering of netnews, in proceedings of the ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, pp. 175186, New York, NY, USA, 1994.
[7] G.Adomavicius and A. Tuzhilin, Toward the next generation of recommender systems: a survey of the state-of-the
art and possible extensions,IEEE Transactions on Knowledgeand Data Engineering, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 734749,
2005.
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommender_system
[9] Yechun Jiang, Jianxun Liu, Mingdong Tang and Xiaoqing (Frank)Liu ,An Effective Web Service
Recommendation Method based on Personalized Collaborative Filtering, IEEE International Conference on Web
Services, 2011.
[10] Anand Shanker Tewari and Kumari Priyanka ,Book Recommendation System Based on Collaborative Filtering
and Association Rule Mining for College Students, IEEE International Conference on Contemporary Computing
and Informatics, 2014.
[11] Jyoti Gupta and JayantGadge , A Framework for a Recommendation System Based On Collaborative Filtering
and Demographics, IEEE International Conference on Circuits, Systems, Communication and Information
Technology Applications, 2014.
[12] ZhichaoQuan , Collaborative filtering recommendation based on user personality, IEEE International
Conference on Information Management, Innovation Management and Industrial Engineering, 2013.
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[13] K.Yu, A. Schwaighofer, V. Tresp, X. Xu, and H.-P. Kriegel, Probabilistic memory-based collaborative filtering,
IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, vol. 16, no.1, pp. 5669, 2004.
[14] Anand ShankerTewari , Abhay Kumar and Asim Gopal Barman, Book Recommendation System based on
Combine Features of Content Based Filtering, Collaborative Filtering and Association Rule Mining, IEEE
International Advance Computing Conference, 2014.
[15] Su, Xiaoyuan, and Taghi M. Khoshgoftaar. "A survey of collaborative filtering techniques." Advances in Artificial
Intelligence 2009 (2009): 4.
[16] K. Miyahara and M. J. Pazzani.Improvement of collaborative filtering with the simple Bayesian
classifier,Information Processing Society of Japan, vol. 43, no. 11, 2002.
[17] B. Shen, X. Su, R. Greiner, P. Musilek, and C. Cheng, Discriminative parameter learning of general Bayesian
network classifiers, in Proceedings of the 15th IEEE International Conference on Tools with Artificial
Intelligence, pp. 296305,Sacramento, Calif, USA, November 2003.
[18] Breese. J. S, Heckerman. D, Kadie.
Filtering. Microsoft Research, 1998.
C., Empirical Analysis of Predictive Algorithms for Collaborative
[19] J. Pearl, Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems, Networks of Plausible Inference, Morgan Kaufmann,
San Francisco, Calif, USA, 1988.
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A generic agent-oriented architecture

Sara Maalal1 , Dr. Malika Addou2
1
Hassan II University, Higher National School of Electricity and Mechanics ENSEM,
Architecture System Team LISER, Eljadida Road, BP 8118 Oasis, Casablanca, Morocco
2
Hassan II University, Hassania School of Public Works EHTP,

Architecture System Team LISER, Eljadida Road, BP 8108 Oasis, Casablanca, Morocco
ABSTRACT
Following the appearance of several agent architectures proposed by designers during the processing of their SMA specific to
their areas of research, we have decided to introduce a generic agent architecture composed of layers of agents and other
optional components such as databases, web services, or other files. This generic architecture designed to better adapt existing
and proposed architectures for multi-agent systems studied in other researches. The architecture proposed in this paper is
based on a number of researches highlighting architectural data for specific multi-agent systems [1], [2], [3] etc. Indeed, it
offers different agents types (presentation agent, business agent, data access agent...). The proposed architecture, considered as
generic, is suitable for a large number of multi-agent systems. It can be configured according to the studied multi-agent
systems structure and to agents as well as the type of collaboration to develop. It has an open system in which we can remove
or add new features that will be provided obviously by the agents.
Keywords: Multi-Agent Systems (MAS), Model, Meta-model, Architecture.
1. INTRODUCTION
Multi-agent systems structure and contents are continuously evolving. Information appear and disappear and new
concepts and components are created and changing very quickly. Multi-agent systems architecture must be able to
follow this development and must be extensible, adaptive and flexible to use information derived from MAS.
As its name suggests, our proposed Agent architecture takes advantage of the Agent-oriented software engineering to
ensure flexibility and reusability. The starting point of this architecture is a prototype already made for a collaborative
information system [1]. This system has already adopted the agent approach and used a device to facilitate and optimize
information and resources exchange and sharing among collaborative partners network in a supply chain. However,
this prototype has concerned only one research area which is the design and development of collaborative information
systems applied in logistics.
Our architecture uses computer applications architectural structure already known by its four layers (Presentation,
Business, Data Access and Data Storage) by deploying it on a larger and more effective agents software organization,
with more specialized agents in order to process simultaneously multiple research areas.
2. ARCHITECTURE DESCRIPTION
For our system design, we propose a four-level model, each level includes one or more agents (see Figure 1) that
communicate and collaborate with each other to perform the tasks assigned to them. Depending on these agents
behavior nature, that can be distributed, centralized or hybrid, we found three cases of architectures. Subsequently we
present the model of each case of architecture with its four related layers Presentation, Business, Data Access and
Data Storage :
2.1 Case of simple architecture
This architecture illustrates the distributed system behavior among several agents namely GUI, Business and Data and
Services Access agents. In this case, the decision is not taken by a single specialized agent, but by different agents, each
agent having a local activity and limited vision of the whole system.
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The model for this architecture is presented as follows:
Figure 1 Generic Agent Architecture for a simple application (Distributed behavior)

Presentation Layer (shown in blue): This layer contains the interfaces that allow users to query the system. Its role
is to capture users requests in order to meet his needs as well as possible. It includes one or more independent
reactive "GUI" agents where each one interacts with the user through a specific graphical interface to help him
achieving a specific task. Each query captured by a reactive GUI agent is transferred later to the Business layer.
Business Layer (shown in red): This layer mediates between users and the system. It is composed of one or more
independent cognitive "Business" agents where each one is responsible to perform special processing of the request
received from the Presentation layer. It will then call the Data and Services Access layer to load the resources
necessary to its processing implementation.
The utility of these cognitive "Business" agents is the fact that each of them has the ability to store all queries that
he has processed and the processing he has already made. The storage of these requests and their processing is
necessary to avoid any possible redundancies at his level.
Data and Services Access Layer (shown in green): This layer provides simple interfaces for data access and
handling. It is composed of one or more independent cognitive "Data and Services Access" agents where each one
receives the action plan to be implemented by the "Business" reactive agent corresponding to the Business layer and
loads different storage resources to perform this action plan. It also establishes and implements methods to create,
read, update and delete data entities stored in the Data Storage layer.
Similarly for the cognitive "Business" agent, "Data and services access" agent has the ability to store all action plans
received from the cognitive "Business" agent of the Business layer and all methods access it has established and the
resources that he appealed to avoid, at his level, any redundant returning of a resource loading or action plans
execution request.
Data Storage Layer (framed in blue): This layer contains the elements (files, databases and services repository)
necessary to perform the action plan defined by the Business layer.
Note that each of the "Business" and "Data and Services Access" cognitive agents of the Business and Data Access and
Services layers can be rational, adaptive or intentional according to their roles in the multi agents system being studied.
2.2 Case of complex architecture
This architecture illustrates centralized system behavior among some agents namely GUI, Business and Data and
Services Access agents. Here, the system is under the control and the decision of some agents having access to different
parts of the system.
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The model for this architecture is presented as follows:
Figure 2 Generic Agent Architecture for a complex application (Centralized behavior)

Presentation Layer (shown in blue): This layer contains the interfaces that allow users to query the system. Its
role is to capture users requests in order to meet his needs as well as possible. It includes one or more reactive
"GUI" agents where each one interacts with the user through a specific graphical interface to help him achieving a
specific task. Each query captured by a reactive GUI agent is later transferred to the Business layer. This
interaction results in a transformation of all users queries, collected via the various GUIs of this layer, to an
objective understood by the system that will facilitate the Business layer functioning. Indeed, these queries are
grouped by "GUI" agent as a global query transferred to the Business layer.
Note that this layer may contain a main GUI managed by the "GUI" agent that appeals to many GUIs when each is
used to capture a user request. Or, it may have several independent GUIs when each is managed by "GUI" agents.
Communication and transfer of messages between the different reactive "GUI" agents are illustrated by double
arrows at Figure 2. The "GUI" agent is also responsible of displaying to the user the processing result of this global
request received from the "Business" agent of Business layer. This requests and responses transfer between the two
Presentation and Business layers is illustrated by a double arrow at Figure 2.
Business Layer (shown in red): This layer mediates between users and the system. It is composed of a cognitive
agent the "Business" agent who decomposes queries into sub-queries and collects the results found in the form of a
comprehensive response and returns them to the Presentation layer. This agent is also responsible for developing
action plans composed of a series of activities, in order to achieve the target he has set for the agents it manages
which are generally reactive. Indeed, each action plan is executed by a reactive agent starting after receiving the
processing series of the sub request from the "Business" agent. It will then call the "Data and Services Access"
layer to load the resources necessary for its action plan implementation.
The utility of the cognitive "Business" agent is that it has the ability to choose the suitable reactive "Business"
agent for each processing and the ability to memorize all the requests it has processed and divided into sub-queries
as well as action plans it has established for its reactive agents with whom he communicates. These processing
storage is necessary to avoid any possible redundancies at its level.
Communication and transfer of messages between the cognitive "Business" agent and its associated reactive agents
are illustrated by a double arrow at Figure 2.
Data and Services Access Layer (shown in green): This layer provides simple interfaces data access and
handling. It is composed of a cognitive "Data and Services Access" agent that receives the action plan to be
implemented by the various "Business" reactive agents of the Business layer and appeals to different storage
resources to achieve these action plans. It also provides methods to create, read, update and delete data entities
stored at the Data Storage layer.
"Data and services access" agent is related to one or more reactive agents that load the requested resources and
execute the pre-established access methods. Similarly for the cognitive "Business" agent, "Data and services
access" agent has the ability to store all action plans received from the reactive "Business" agents of the Business
layer and all methods access it has established and the resources that he appealed to avoid, at his level, any
redundant returning of a resource loading or action plans execution request.
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Data Storage Layer (framed in blue): This layer contains the elements (files, databases and services repository)
necessary to perform the action plan defined by the Business layer.
Like simple architecture, each of the "Business" and "Data and Services Access" cognitive agents of the Business
and Data Access and Services layers for this architecture can be rational, adaptive or intentional according to their
roles in the system multi agents being studied.
2.3 Case of hybrid architecture
This architecture provides a system that can be shared between distributed and centralized behaviors among several
agents namely GUI, Business and Data and Services Access agents. Indeed, we can find for example a distributed
behavior of the Presentation layers agents and another centralized behavior of the Business and Data Access and
Services layers agents. So, we will have the following model corresponding to this architecture:
Figure 3 Hybrid Agent Architecture with distributed GUI agents behavior and centralized Business and Data and
Services Access agents behavior
Or, we can find a centralized agents behavior of Presentation and Data and Services Access layers and another
distributed agents behavior of the Business layer. So we will have the following model corresponding to this
architecture:
Figure 4 Hybrid Agent Architecture with distributed GUI agents and Data and Services Access agents behavior and
centralized Business agents behavior
We can find a third example of hybrid architecture where there is a centralized agents behavior of Presentation and
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Business layers and another distributed agents behavior of the Data and Services Access layer. The model for this
architecture is the following:
Figure 5 Hybrid Agent Architecture with distributed GUI agents and Data and Services Access agents behavior and
centralized Business agents behavior
3. APPLICATION EXAMPLES
This chapter is dedicated to MAS design phase where we present the architecture of three applications: Chat
Application chat, Football Team and Collaborative Information System Management. This will help us to test and
validate our proposed architecture and consider it as generic for any type of multi-agent system.
3.1 Application Example 1: Chat Application
Our proposed architecture has been used to design a multi-agent system of a chat application [4] which consists of three
reactive agents playing the roles of chatters. These agents are considered reactive since each of them does not respond
before the application user declares the recipient's name. Thus, they have a stimulus /response behavior. Therefore, an
agent will be prepared to capture the name and message and send it to another suitable agent. It will also react to clear
all sent or received messages from its interface.
The designer can build the architecture of its multi-agents system from our generic agent architecture (see section 2).
For this, he must choose one of three proposed architectures cases, rely on the chosen architecture initial structure with
its four layers "Presentation, Business, Data Access and Data Storage" and project them on his system.
In this first example, our chat application will have a single graphical interface called and used by three reactive agents
where each of them will capture the recipient agent name entered by the user to send a message. Therefore, the only
possible processing in this application is the verification of the recipients name of the message to send. This
verification is performed through the consultation of a table or a file containing the chat application user names. We
can consider our chat application as a simple application with a distributed behavior and thus its architecture will
correspond to the first simple case proposed at the 2.1 section of our architecture Generic Agent and whose four layers
were used and adapted to our example. So we get a valid architecture for our chat application illustrated by the
following Figure 6:
Figure 6 Architecture of a chat application
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As shown in the figure above, each of the Presentation layers reactive chat agents has a graphical interface that lets
capture the recipient's name and the message to send. This data is then sent to the Business agent, corresponding to
Business layer, who initiates the verification of the recipient's name captured by the user. For this, he uses the Data
Access agent of the Data Access layer that loads the requested table or data file from the Data Storage layer in order to
let Business agent perform its verification. Finally, the GUI agent displays the message in the recipient agents
GUI.
3.2 Application Example 2: Football Team
Our proposed architecture has been used to design a multi-agent system representing a football team (see Figure 7),
whose simulation was studied by El Bejjet [5].
Figure 7 Football Team [5]

Our football team includes nine agents listed below:
Six cognitive agents: Who play the role of players, these players are cognitive by looking to have enough
information on their environment (here the land) and to act according to different situations. So each player is able
to see the ball and the other players, to know his adversaries and to react while taking in consideration all these
information. Also, as in a football team, here the coordination and the communication are indispensable for a good
progress of all operations done by these agents.
Two reactive agents: These agents will be the goal keepers, the interest that they are reactive agents relies on the
fact that a goal keeper doesn't react before the ball is close to the goal. Therefore an agent that plays a referee's role
will react (to get ready to catch the ball) in the case where a ball will enter in a given area.
One reactive agent: Who plays the role of the referee who supervises the behaviors of the two teams other agents
in order to not overpass the lands sides. He is a reactive agent because he only reacts on the event of an agent
exiting out of the land.
Our football team is a complex application with a centralized behavior in the three layers "Presentation, Business and
Data Access" and therefore, its architecture corresponds to the second complex case proposed at the section 2.2 of our
Generic Agent Architecture whose four layers were used and adapted to our example. So we get valid architecture for
our multi-agent system simulating a football team as we illustrate in Figure 8 below:
Figure 8 Architecture of a football team

As shown in the figure, our applications Presentation layer has a main GUI managed by the main GUI reactive
agent. This main GUI is used for inserting stadiums data and football teams members with their number and type. It
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then uses nine graphical interfaces offered by nine reactive GUI agents. Each GUI is useful to inform the player,
goalkeeper or referee data namely their roles, names, sizes, weights, perceptions...
Then, this data is sent to the main Business cognitive agent of the Business layer. This agent is responsible for
establishing the link between the nine agents (six cognitive representing the game players and three reactive
representing the two goalkeepers and the referee) and transferring data captured at GUIs level of the Presentation layer.
In order to help achieving the objectives of Manager agents that it manages, the main Manager agent uses the
Data Access agent of Data Access layer that loads the requested data table or data file from the Data Storage layer, so
that the agent can perform its role. It also loads the web service ensuring the simulation of each Business agent which
transfers the football team general simulation result to the Presentation layers GUI agent.
3.3 Application Example 3: Collaborative Information System Management
In this third example, we have used our generic architecture for the design of a collaborative platform (see Figure 9)
based on a supply chain that ensures cooperation, information backup and sharing between supply chains actors in real
time. The main objective of this platform is to facilitate and optimize information and resources exchange and sharing
among the collaborative partners network. This collaborative platform has been studied and designed by Dachry [6]:
Figure 9 Concept of collaborative information system [6]

We detail below our systems agents components:
One reactive GUI agent: This agent can be seen as a wizard that allows users to interact with the
system. It allows acquiring all user requests, transforming these requests in understood goals by the system,
communicating them to the Manager agent and displaying the results to users. It also checks users identification
(authentication) and sends their profiles to the Manager agent [7].
This agent is considered as a reactive agent due to its stimulus action mode after receiving users requests and
Manager agents responses.
One cognitive Manager agent: This agent is considered as the system mediator, the agent process the
target set by the GUI agent and is able to reformulate this goal into subqueries that are transferred to
the MAS planning (set of Composer agents). When the subqueries execution is completed, the Manager
agent collects the results found in the form of a global response [7].
This agent is considered as a cognitive agent due to its ability to choose the appropriate Composer agent and to
its capacity to remember all requests that he processed and all action plans that he established for his
Composer agent he communicates with.
Since this agent is cognitive, it will therefore have a knowledge base represented by the agents possible
representations section. In our example, we find representations relating to Composer agents it manages i.e. their
identifiers, names, and availabilities. The second representations that this agent may have are those related to the
action plans it has established for its Composer agents i.e. action plans identifiers, ordered articles types and
finally processed requests identifiers.
Five reactive Composer agents: where each is attached to a specific type of supply chain partners [8]. We offer a
producer composer agent, a customer composer agent, a supplier composer agent, a agent composer agent and
subcontractor composer agent.
For each sub request sent by the Manager agent, one of the composer agent will perform a series of processing
and proposes a solution plan for the fixed goal [7]. It communicates also with internal resources (databases /
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services base) and external resources (databases / remote services) to execute the established action plan.
This agent is considered as a reactive agent due to its stimulus action mode after receiving Manager agent
requests and this by calling the appropriate service and by collecting Service agents responses.
One cognitive Service agent: This agent loads services necessary to perform the action plan produced by one of
the Composer agent.
This agent is considered as a cognitive agent due to its capacity to remember all action plans that he received from
a Composer agent and its ability to decide of the appropriate service to perform this action plan [7]. It will
therefore have a knowledge base represented by the agents possible representations section. In our example, we
find representations regarding the services it loaded for the corresponding Composer agent so that it can perform
its action plan. These representations define these services identifiers, names, and availabilities. The second
representations that this agent may have are those related to the action plans received by Composer agents i.e.
action plans identifiers, ordered articles types and processed requests identifiers and in order to quickly detect
action plans and queries for which he has already loaded services for processing.
The projection of our generic agent architectures four layers "Presentation, Business, Data and Services Access and
Data Storage" (see section 2) on our multi-agent system simulating a collaborative system between actors in the supply
chain gives us the valid architecture for our application illustrated in Figure 10 below:
Figure 10 Architecture of a collaborative information system

As noted in the previous figure, our collaborative system is characterized by a centralized behavior of its agents in the
three "Presentation, Business and Data Access" layers and therefore its architecture corresponds to the second complex
case proposed at Section 2.2 of our generic agent architecture.
Indeed, the Figure 10 indicates that our applications Presentation layer has a main GUI managed by the reactive
GUI agent. This main GUI uses two graphics interfaces provided by two reactive GUI agents. The first GUI is used
to verify the authentication of users wanting to make orders and the second GUI is used to specify the order details and
choose the delivery address.
The main GUI agent also handles displaying to the user the result of the processing performed by the Business layers
Manager agent. Indeed, it transmits the data captured by the Order GUI agent of the Presentation layer in a request
form to the cognitive Manager agent of the Business layer. It processes the request by dividing it into sub-queries and
sends them after to the five reactive Composer agents (producer, customer, supplier, subcontractor, and carrier)
depending on their tasks nature.
The Manager agent is also responsible to develop action plans for Composer agents it manages. Indeed, each action
plan is implemented by a reactive Composer agent that starts after receiving the sub-querys processing series from
the Manager agent. It will then call the "Data and Services Access" layer to load the resources required for its action
plan implementation.
Indeed, each Composer agent will be the order processings responsible by calling the appropriate services. For this,
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it calls the main Data Access agent of the Data Access layer that manages several reactive Database (BD) agents or
cognitive Services agents. These agents are respectively responsible to access to the requested table or web service
from the Data Storage layer so that the Composer agent can execute its action plan. Finally, he transfers his
processing result to the Manager agent of the Business layer that brings all the five Composer agents processing
results in the form of a comprehensive response and returns them to the Presentation layers main GUI agent.
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we presented our architecture following the agent-based paradigm. This architecture has as main mission
the projection of the various models provided on the different layers of agents belonging to a multi-agent system and
the generalization of all architectures implemented for MAS that had previously been studied. Indeed, since there is no
optimal agents architecture which precisely depends on the considered application domain and system requirements,
we have tried to give a general architecture that can be simple, complex or hybrid depending on the agent behavior
nature (distributed, centralized or both) at each Presentation, Business and Data and Services Access layer. Our
proposed architecture tries to reconcile and factorize cognitive and reactive architectures simultaneously. It has the
advantage of being easy to adjust by the designer in order to develop an efficient architecture specific to his MAS
according to its agents behavior.
References
[1] W. Dachry, Architecture du systme dinformation collaboratif et application en logistique. Ph.D. Thesis. Hassan
II University - An Chock, Dcember 2013.
[2] H. Mansouri, Conception et Ralisation dune plateforme de surveillance environnementale base de nuds relais
mobiles. Ph.D. Thesis. Hassan II University - An Chock, April 2014.
[3] J. Boussaa, Contribution la rsolution des problmes de satisfaction des contraintes : cas de loccupation
despace. Ph.D. Thesis - Cadi Ayyad University, October 2013.
[4] S. Maalal, M. Addou, A New Approach of Designing Multi-Agent Systems, International Journal of Advanced
Computer Science and Applications (IJACSA), II (11), pp.148157, November 2011.
[5] R. El Bejjet, H. Medromi, A Generic Platform for a Multi-agent System Simulation, International Review on
Computers and Software (I.RE.CO.S), XLV (4), September 2010.
[6] W. Dachry, B. Aghezzaf, B. Bensassi, Collaborative Information System for Managing the Supply Chain:
Architecture Based on a Multi Agent System, International Journal of Research in Industrial Engineering, II (2),
pp. 1-16, 2013.
[7] S. Maalal, W. Dachry, M. Addou, A New Approach of Designing Multi-Agent Systems, International Journal of
Emerging Trends & Technology in Computer Science (IJETTCS), III (1), pp. 259-269, January February 2014.
[8] M. Huget, An application of AgentUML to Supply Chain Management, JFIADSMA02, Lille, 28-30 October
2002.
AUTHORS
Sara Maalal was born in Rabat the Moroccos capital in 1985. She received his professional master in Computer
Engineering and Internet (3I), Security Networks and Systems Option, in 2008 from the Faculty of science of HASSAN
II University, Casablanca, Morocco. In 2010 she joined the system architecture team of the National and High School
of Electricity and Mechanic, Casablanca, Morocco. As a software engineer, her actual main research interests concern
Designing and modeling Multi-Agent Systems.
Malika Addou received her Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from University of Liege, Liege, Belgium, in 1992. She got
her engineer degree in Computer Systems from the Mohammadia School of Engineers, Rabat, Morocco in 1982. She is
Professor of Computer Science at the Hassania School of Public Works, Casablanca, since 1982. Her research focuses
on Software Engineering (methods and technologies for design and development), on Information Systems (Distributed
Systems) and on Artificial Intelligence (especially Multi-Agent Systems technologies).
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Multipass Ring Oscillator based Dual Loop

PLL for High Frequency Synthesizers
Daphni S1, Bamini S2, Ann Rose J3, Priya J4 ,Thavasumony D5
1
Assistant Professor, Working in Satyam College of Engineering and Technology, Midalakkadu, India
Consultant-Pre editor, Deputed to Hurix systems, Forte Solutions pvt. Ltd, Anna salai, Chennai, India
3
Assistant Professor, Working in ST.Xaviers Catholic College of Engineering, Chunkankadai, India

4
Assistant Professor, Working in Arul College of Technology, Mankuzhy, India

5
Lecturer, Working in Ambo University Ethiopia, Midalakkadu, India
Abstract
High frequency PLL architecture with low noise, low spur and less area has been used in telecommunication based
applications such as FM Receiver, which is part of a multi-radio System-on-Chip (SOC). In order to have long lasting battery
backup, electronic gadgets such as smart phones and tablets are operating with low frequency reference clock that is 60MHz
frequency. PLLs are playing vital role in generating multiple stable clock frequency needed by multi-radio system. In this
project, a 4.6 GHz Multipass voltage controlled ring oscillator based dual loop PLL is proposed. Aperture phase
detection mechanism along with phase to analog voltage convertor is used for the designing of low inband noise PLL.
A newly designed multipass voltage controlled ring oscillator is proposed to reduce effective stage delay and thereby
increasing the slew rate of generated signal. The proposed PLL is fabricated in a standard 0.18m CM OS process
using Mentor graphics Pyxis schematic software Tool. Mentor Graphics Pyxis tool is used for implementing the
modules of PLL. Transient and Noise analysis has been performed and compared with the existing PLL. Area of the
PLL is optimized considerably by properly choosing the circuitry of internal blocks with less num ber of transistors
without compensating overall performance of system.
Keywords: Phase Frequency Detector (PFD), Aperture Phase Detector (APD), Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO),
True Single Phase Clocked (TSPC), Frequency Locked Aid (FLA), Mentor Graphics Pyxis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Phase locked loops (PLLs) are widely used for frequency synthesis and clock generation in modern Systems-On-Chip.
A PLL is a control system which uses negative feedback to align the clock phase of a voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO) to that of the input reference. Typically a Quartz Crystal Oscillator (XO) is used to generate the input reference.
A quartz crystal is a piezo-electric device which produces a mechanical oscillation when a voltage source is applied; the
frequency of oscillation is determined by the shape, the cut and the elastic constants of the crystal [3]. Each XO
provides a precise, fixed frequency source often in the range of a few kHz to tens of MHz. A higher oscillation
frequency is also possible by tuning a crystal to its harmonics, called overtone frequencies.
An XO exhibits extremely low phase noise due to its high Q factor, which is several orders of magnitude higher than
an LC tank oscillator [5]. An XO also offers superior thermal stability often within 100ppms. However an XO is
typically designed around a few standard frequencies. The main advantage of using a PLL for frequency multiplication
lies in its ability to synthesize a highly tunable clock source using a local VCO with its in-band phase noise
performance approaching that of the XO.
Figure 1 A Typical PLL Block Diagram

A block diagram of a typical PLL block diagram is shown in Figure 1. A phase frequency detector (PFD) or a phase
detector (PD) is used to compare the phase between the reference clock and the feedback clock; the phase difference is
measured using a charge pump (CP); the charge pump current is then converted to voltage across the loop filter (LPF)
capacitors; the voltage signal gets further smoothed out in the LPF and is used to tune the VCO; a divided-down
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version of the VCO clock feeds back to the PD and the loop is closed. In steady state frequency multiplication is
achieved, fvco=N.fref where N is the divide ratio.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is an old technology dating from 1930s. It is used for a wide range of applications in the
fields of communications, instrumentation, control systems and multimedia apparatus. The techniques were mainly
used for synchronous reception of radio signals. Widespread use of PLL began with TV receivers during 1940s. A PLL
is a device which locks an output signal phase relative to an input reference signal phase. The signals of interest may be
any periodic waveform but are typically sinusoidal or digital clock PLLs were used to synchronize the horizontal and
vertical sweep oscillators to the synchronous pulses. Literature review about various types of PLL is discussed as
follows,
2.1 A Fully Integrated CMOS Phase Locked Loop
Cheh Ming Hung et al. (2002) [2] proposed a fully integrated 1.5-V 5.5-GHz CMOS Phase-Locked Loop. In this paper,
a 1.5-V 5.5-GHz fully integrated phase-locked loop (PLL) has been implemented in a 0.25- m foundry digital CMOS
process. Also produced many results and a PLL operating at 5.5 GHz with low phase noise and low power consumption
has been demonstrated using a 0.25- m foundry digital CMOS process. By utilizing voltage doublers in the PLL to
supply the charge pump, the frequency tuning range is increased while the degradation of the PLL phase noise and
spurs is kept negligible. A new charge-pump circuit which reduces the current glitches at its output is realized and the
PLL spurs are < - 69 dBc. The achieved performance of the PLL suggests that integration of a low-cost and low-powerconsumption frequency synthesizer for high bit-rate 5-GHz wireless applications is feasible in a standard digital 0.25mCMOS process.
2.2 A Digital calibration technique for charge pumps in Phase-Locked systems
Chi-Fu Liang et al. (2008) [3] proposed a digital calibration technique for charge pumps in phase-locked systems. In
this paper, A digital technique is adopted to calibrate the current mismatch of the charge pump (CP) in phase-locked
systems. In this digital calibration technique, there is no extra replica CP needed. A digital calibration technique has
been proposed to alleviate the mismatch in conventional CP circuits. Unlike the previous method with a replica CP, this
proposed technique calibrates the CP circuit in the loop without a replica CP. For the wideband applications, the
control voltage of the VCO may vary in a wide range. Our technique may provide a good way to compensate the CP
current mismatch due to the channel-length modulation. The technique consumes negligible power with a cost of extra
calibration time. However, the extra calibration time can be further reduced by transforming the SAR controller into a
counter once the SAR controller has completed.
2.3 CMOS fractional-N Synthesizer utilizing Hybrid PFD/DAC structure for reduced broadband Phase noise
Meninger. E et al. (2006) [8] proposed A 1-MHZ Bandwidth 3.6-GHz 0.18 m CMOS Fractional-N Synthesizer
Utilizing a Hybrid PFD/DAC Structure for Reduced Broadband Phase Noise. In this paper, A frequency synthesizer
architecture capable of simultaneously achieving high closed-loop bandwidth and low output phase noise is presented.
The proposed topology uses a mismatch compensated, hybrid phase/frequency detector and digital-to-analog converter
(PFD/DAC) circuit to perform active cancellation of fractional-N quantization noise. When compared to a classical
second-order delta sigma synthesizer, the prototype PFD/DAC synthesizer demonstrates > 29 dB quantization noise
suppression without calibration, resulting in a fractional-N synthesizer with 1-MHz closed-loop bandwidth and - 155
dBc/Hz phase noise at 20-MHz offset for a 3.6-GHz output. An on-chip band select divider allows the synthesizer to be
configured as a dual-band (900 MHz/1.8 GHz) direct modulated transmitter capable of transmitting 271-kb/s GMSK
data with less than 3 degrees of rms phase error. We have proposed utilizing a mismatch compensated PFD/DAC
structure to dramatically reduce the impact of fractional-N dithering noise on synthesizer performance. The proposed
architecture utilizes several compensation techniques to alleviate the presence of mismatch sources that would
otherwise adversely affect noise cancellation. Circuits capable of generating an accurate charge-box through the use of
dynamic element matching techniques have been presented. Using these techniques, mismatch that would otherwise
result in incomplete noise cancellation and large fractional spurs is converted to broadband noise that is then filtered by
the PLL. The prototype PFD/DAC synthesizer exhibits 29-dB noise suppression when compared to the same system
configured as a second-order synthesizer, demonstrating a simultaneous achievement of excellent noise performance
and high synthesizer bandwidth, without the use of calibration. Measurements of the prototype system suggest that
future designs of the PFD/DAC synthesizer should focus on reducing, and perhaps noise shaping, the timing mismatch
between the two phase paths within the PFD/DAC, since this noise source limits noise performance. Measurements
further suggest that on-chip coupling limits fractional spur levels to 45 dBc for the 3.6-GHz output, implying that this
is a primary issue of concern for future designs.
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3. DUAL LOOP PLL ARCHITECTURE

3.1 Linear PLL
The PLL is a nonlinear system which poses difficulties for the conventional analysis method of using a transfer
function, especially during lock acquisition. However in the locked condition, a linear time-invariant (LTI) model can
be used, assuming the PFD transfer characteristic is linear in this operating region [29]. A phase-domain LTI model is
shown in Figure 2, where the PFD is modeled with a linear gain of ICP/2 and Kv is the VCO gain in [Hz/V]. The ideal
integration 1/s accounts for frequency to phase conversion. Here we have assumed that the VCO response time is much
faster than the loop bandwidth, as is typical, and no pole is modeled in the VCO gain. A second order passive loop
filter formed by R1 , C1 and C2 is used as an example for ease of analysis. The loop gain can be found as:
Figure 2 Phase Domain Linearized Model

3.2 Components of Dual PLL
A dual loop PLL consists of two loops, namely main loop and sub loop. The main loop comprises of aperture phase
detector (APD), phase to analog converter (PAC), and charge pump (CP), third order Loop filter, VCO, differential to
single ended circuit and inverter chain. The sub loop is named as frequency locked aid (FLA) loop. It consists of blocks
normally available in conventional PLL such as phase frequency detector (PFD), charge pump, divider and additionally
dead zone creator (DZ). It shares the LF and VCO with the main loop. FLA is used for correct frequency locking and to
avoid locking in sub harmonic mode. At the start of frequency acquisition process, FLA tracks the phase error between
REF (Reference signal) and DIV (Divider output signal), but the main loop tracks the phase error between REF and
VCO signal at the same time. A block diagram of dual loop PLL architecture is shown in figure 3.
Figure 3 Dual Loop PLL Architecture.

Due to its higher gain, FLA overrules main loop. If Phase/Frequency error is small, DZ creator closes CP2 in FLA
suddenly. After that main loop dominates final locking process, which contributes the phase noise, power consumption
and reference spur of the PLL. Once phase locking occurred, CP2 and divider have no effects on the main loop and they
do not makes any phase noise, which is done for reduced power consumption. FLA tries to make the VCO frequency
equals to N times REF frequency and main loop performs the work of aligning VCO signal with REF signal in final
locking process.
3.3 Aperture Phase Detector
Aperture phase detector performs comparison of phases between REF signal and VCO signal. It neglects the need of
divider in this PLL. The schematic diagram of APD is shown in the figure 4. Being control signal PUL_WIN low, APD
tracks the first rising edge of REF signal and VCO signal. If control signal PUL_WIN goes high, APD signals will goes
low. Normally, Phase frequency detector compares the DIV signal and REF signal, then it produces the UP and DOWN
signals. The frequency of PUL_WIN is same as that of REF signal but the timing window of PUL_WIN is little bit
wider than VCO period for avoiding edge missing during phase comparison.APD can detect positive as well as
negative phase errors simultaneously at the middle time of Wd ( width of PUL_WIN). The UP and DOWN signals are
called as truncated signals. They are quite bit different and having half the pulse width of T vco .
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Figure 4 Block diagram of Aperture Phase Detector

. The pulse width of APD output signals is proportional to phase error
and its gain is expressed as
(1)
3.4 Multipass Ring Oscillator
The simplest ring oscillators have single loop architecture. While straight forward to design the basic ring is allowed to
lower frequencies. The maximum oscillation frequency of a ring oscillator is determined by the minimum delay time
through the feedback path, which is the product of the number of stages and the delay of the stage. F- and F+ are the
primary inputs of a gain stage , S- and S+ are the secondary inputs. This technique adds auxiliary feed forward loops
that work in conjunction with the main loop. The main idea is to reduce the delay of the stages below the smallest delay
that is possible inside a simple ring oscillator loop. This is accomplished by adding a set of secondary inputs to every
stage and switching these secondary inputs earlier that the primary inputs during the operation. Note the auxiliary
loops should not be stronger that the main loop to avoid undesired oscillation modes. The frequency of the oscillation
depends on the numbers of the stages in both the main and the auxiliary loops, such that the maximum frequency is
determined by the fastest signal path. A schematic diagram of multipass ring oscillator with modified delay stage is
shown in the figure 5.
Figure 5 Schematic of Proposed Multipass Ring Oscillator

A three stage multipass ring oscillator was designed for producing the sustained oscillations for PLL. It produces the
output frequency based on the control voltage from the charge pump. Delay characteristics of the saturated stage can
also be controlled by varying the strength of the latch. This can be accomplished by inserting MOS transistors inside
the feedback path. It avoids the use of cascade connections and tail current source transistor that would limit the signal
swing and add more noise to the output. This kind of frequency control based on the control of the latch strength is
preferable over the other frequency control techniques for a high frequency ring oscillator design. NMOS transistors
M3 and M4 are used to control the strength of the latching by altering the positive feedback from coupled pair M1 and
M2.
Figure 6 Schematic of Single Stage of Ring Oscillator
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A schematic diagram of designed single stage of ring oscillator is shown in the figure 6. Once the latch is triggered, it
helps pulls up the voltage on one side while simultaneously reducing it on the order. The control voltage is connected to
the gates of the M3 and M4 such that increasing the positive feedback gain in the latch by reducing FET resistance.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Circuit level simulations were carried out in Mentor Graphics Pyxis tool with 180nm technology. Dual loop PLL with
Multipass Ring oscillator VCO circuit is proposed PLL with APD was simulated in analog simulation mode. Transient
analysis was done for closed loop PLL. A Dual Loop PLL with divider less architecture was taken for simulation to
compare the results with modified DLPLL with multipass ring oscillator. At first, Dual Loop PLL with aperture phase
detector and phase to analog convertor was constructed using LC VCO. Some of the building blocks that Dual Loop
PLL architecture are modified. Inverter chain for buffers is removed to avoid the phase noise and modified Aperture
phase detector was proposed. Instead of LC VCO, Multipass ring oscillator based VCO was constructed to increase the
tuning range of PLL and less area constraints. In this work delay parameters of each stage of ring oscillators are
optimally chosen in such a way that ring oscillator to have free running frequency. This design will lock the incoming
signal to this reference frequency. This could be used to produce constant oscillations for producing stable clock for
applications where system operation sensitively depends on clock variations like jitter and noise. Aperture phase
detector is designed using True single phase clocked (TSPC) D flip flops, but it consumes less power while comparing
the reference frequency and VCO output frequency. The transistor counts in TSPC D flip flops are less when compared
to Dynamic D flip flops, which in turn reduces the area and power consumption by aperture phase detector. Noise due
to aperture phase detector was reduced by the control pulse from the clock generation circuit, which turns on the
sensing of Phase difference only when the control pulse goes high.
4.1 Output Waveforms
In this section, simulation results are discussed with waveforms obtained from each block of the modified dual loop
PLL architecture. Reference frequency of 60MHz is given to the modified architecture and obtained the following
waveforms. The output waveforms obtained from APD, PAC and PFD are shown in the figure 7.
Figure 7 Output Waveforms of APD, PAC and PFD

APDUP and APDDOWN in the figure indicate the UP and DOWN pulses generated by Aperture phase detector as a
result of phase error between reference frequency and VCO frequency. PFDUP and PFDDOWN show the UP and
DOWN pulses from Phase frequency detector block. PACUP and PACDOWN indicate the output pulses form phase to
analog convertor. UP pulses corresponds to phase error indicating reference signal leads VCO signal. DOWN pulses
corresponds to phase error indicating VCO signal leads reference signal. Figure 8, shows the waveform of frequency
locking aid (sub loop), control voltage from the charge pump and the output waveform of loop filter. The loop filter
filters ac components in the charge pump output and produces the pulsating DC waveform.
Figure 8 Output Waveforms of Charge Pump and Low Pass filter
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FLLUP and FLLDOWN in the figure show the UP and DOWN pulses of the frequency locking aid loop. ICTRL
indicates the waveform of charge pump current and is the filtered out by loop filter to pulsated DC, shown in figure as
LFOUT. The frequency locking aid helps main loop for the locking process. After locking process, the output of both
FLLUP and FLLDOWN become low, this indicates reference frequency is matched with the divider frequency. Figure
9, shows the output waveforms of Differential to single ended circuit, reference signal and the generated signal. The
signal generated by multipass ring oscillator VCO is half swing output. So it is needed to make them as full swing
signal by the help of differential to single ended circuit.
Figure 9 Input and Output signals of Modified Dual Loop PLL

VOUTPLUS and VOUTMINUS indicate the output waveforms of differential to single ended circuit. REF shows the
waveforms of reference signal given to dual loop PLL architecture. GENSIG indicates the generated high frequency
signal from multipass voltage controlled ring oscillator. Table 1, shows obtained results from simulating various PLLs
with f reference frequency and f output frequency. In these simulations, clock signal is kept as a reference signal.
ref
out
The proposed PLL is designed for 60 MHz reference frequency and 4.6 GHz output frequency. For the same set of
frequencies Multipass ring oscillator based dual loop PLL has also been implemented. In order to compare the
performance of system various PLL designs are taken for implementation and comparison. All the PLLs are compared
by means of input and output frequencies for which it is designed, phase noise performance, power consumption and in
terms of implementation technology.
Table 1: Comparison of performance parameters of Various PLLs
The conventional PLL architecture uses the LC based voltage controlled oscillator and is implemented using 180 nm
technology. It consumes power of 4.02 mw which is high compared to this proposed PLL, which consumes 3.5mw. So,
13% of power is saved by this design. High frequency signals of 4.6 GHz frequency can be generated due to high slew
rate of proposed multipass ring oscillator which is implemented in dual loop PLL architecture.
5.Conclusion
A dual loop phase-locked loop and various PLL architectures were implemented and simulated in Mentor Graphics
Pyxis tool with 180nm technology. In this project, modified dual loop PLL with 60 MHz reference frequency is
compared with the LC VCO based dual loop PLL of 60 MHz reference frequency. From analysis results, it is evident
that major noise and spur causing resistors and capacitors value considerably reduced in this design compared to
conventional one. This reduces overall noise of the system by 13.6% compared to LC VCO dual loop PLL architecture.
Since, it is tedious to control the switch dynamically in modified aperture phase detector design. Number of transistors
used in proposed APD is 46, transistors involved in conventional sequential APD is about 64. Hence, proposed APD
occupies 29.5% less area comparatively. This proposed PLL can be used for generating clock signal in a baseband
portion of an FM receiver in portable applications. Since, it operates with 60MHz reference frequency it consumes less
power for operation. This is a desirable feature needed for battery operated devices.
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References
[1] Arnold Goldstein, (1963) Analysis to phase controlled loop with a saw tooth comparator, Bell System Tech
Journal, Vol. 5, pp 603-663.
[2] Cheh-Ming Hung and James C Hung, (2002) A Fully Integrated 1.5-V 5.5-GHz CMOS Phase-Locked Loop,
IEEE journal of solid state circuit, Vol. 37, No.4,pp 203-204.
[3] Deyun cai, Haipeng Fu, Junyan Ren, Wei Li, Ning Li, Hao Yu, and Kiat Seng Yeo,(2013) A Dividerless PLL
With Low Power and Low Reference Spur by Aperture Phase Detector and Phase to Analog converter, IEEE
Transactions on Circuit and Systems I, Vol.60, No.1, pp. 35- 48.
[4] Enrico Temporiti and Subburaj. K, (2004) A 700-kHz Bandwidth Fractional Synthesizer with Spurs
Compensation and Linearization Techniques for WCDMA Applications, IEEE journal of solid state circuits,
Vol.39, No.9, pp. 15-17.
[5] Ginsburg. B. P, Nagaraj. N, Ozgun. M, Subburaj. K and Ledesma.F, (2011) Highly-linear FM transmitter for
mobile applications in 65 nm CMOS, in Proceedings on RFIC, Vol 34, pp. 14.
[6] Guan Chyun Hsich and James C Hung, (1996) Phase Locked Loop Techniques -A Survey, IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, Vol. 43, No 6,pp 233-245.
[7] Mao Lai and Michino Nakano, (1996), Special Section on Phase Locked Loop Techniques, Guest Editorial,
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol.43, No 6, pp 561-569.
[8] Meninger.E and Mao Nakano, (2006) A 1-MHZ Bandwidth 3.6-GHz 0.18-m CMOS Fractional-N Synthesizer
Utilizing Hybrid PFD/DAC Structure for Reduced Broadband Phase Noise, IEEE journal of solid state circuits,
Vol.41, No.4, pp.57-64.
[9] Pellerano.S, Liu. J. F, Carley. L. R, and Yue.C. P, (2004) A 13.5-mW 5-GHz Frequency Synthesizer With
Dynamic-Logic Frequency Divider, IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits, Vol.34, No.9, pp. 281284.
[10] Pu.X, Kumar.A, Goldman.S and Nagaraj.K, (2012) Area-Efcient Low-Noise Low-Spur Architecture for an
Analog PLL Working From a Low Frequency Reference, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems-II, Vol. 59,
No. 6, pp 145-156.
[11] Seyun Cai and Tom Yo-Hung, (2013) A PLL With Low Power and Low Reference Spur for high frequency
synthesizers, IEEE Transactions on Circuit and Systems, Vol.54, No.12, pp.575-589.
[12] Tsung-Hsien Lin and Tsen Chu Yung, (2009) Dynamic Current-Matching Charge Pump and Gated-Offset
Linearization Technique for Fractional-N PLLs, IEEE Transaction on Circuit and Systems, Vol.56, No.5, pp 2932.
[13] Wegan, (2000) Frequency Synthesis by Phase Lock, 2nd edition, New York: Wiley Interscience.
[14] William C Lindsey and Chak Chie, (1981) A survey of Digital Phase Locked Loops, Proceedings of the IEEE,
Vol. 69, No 4.pp1562-1568.
[15] Zhang. P et al., (2003) A direct conversion CMOS transceiver for IEEE 802.11a WLANs IEEE Journal on Solid
State Circuits, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp.354-355.
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DMA& USB INTERFACING FOR

KEYBOARD USING CYPRESS PSoC-5
Er. Harisharan Aggarwal #1 , Er. Yadwinder Singh #2
#1.
HOD (ECE), Guru Kashi University, Talwandi Sabo

#2.(
student), Guru Kashi University, Talwandi Sabo
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this paper is to make us understand the role of importance of PSoC-5in our lives and also to know about
its various applications. Here we are going to provide a complete report on the functionality and also the implementation of
various projects on Psoc-5. Our main application over which we will work on is ADC data buffering using DMA & USB Key
HID interfacing with Keyboard.In case of ADC data buffer we will see the data will buffer easily with less losses. Also we will
see how we can interface keyboard with USB HID. These are the widel applications on which we will work on. The need of
PSoC-5 in this era is incredible. The PSoC-5 has got time management skills which makes easy and error free research areas.
PSoC-5 helps systems to retain compatibility, flexibility and is also cost effective. So as to meet the demands of the fast growing
technology we need to learn the various aspects and functionality of the PSoC-5which will help to make our work and
knowledge more valuable. PSoC-5is used in wide no. of applications. It has got a lot of scope in the future as well in the
present. The applications are power management, wireless communication, automotive transportation, centre console, touch
screens, button replacement, HVAC, motor control, switches, ultrasonic parking, computer and peripherals like iPod, iPhone,
iPad accessories and thermal management. It has got a lot of scope in medical lines like making Blood Pressure monitor,
Blood glucose meter, fertility monitor and infusion pump. Our goal is to implement the applications ADC DATA
BUFFERING USING DMA and USB HID INTERFACING WITH KEYBOARD. For achieving our goal we are starting
here with small experiments. In case of ADC data buffering using DMA through PSoC-5 the data get buffer with less losses
and we get the result by the easiest way. In the other application we can interface the USB with Keyboard very easily.
1.INTRODUCTION
PSoC-5 microcontroller is plays a very widel role in many applications now a days. As for a project it covers all the
needs on a single chip.It gives a whole new concept of microcontroller as it contains both analog & digital
blocks.PSoC-5(Programmable system on chip) [9] is made by Cypress semiconductor & is to be defined as the family of
integrated circuits.
Here we are going to do study about the basic principle of Psoc-5, implementation of small projects which will
implemented in all the processor modules ie CY8C28, CY8C38 CY8C55.Further we will work on ADC data buffering
using DMA and USB HID intermediate with Keyboard as the big applications of Psoc-5.
We will work here on PSoC-5 Designer, PSoC-5 Creator, PSoC-5 Programmer for achieving the results & for further
analysing them.PSoC-5(Programmable System on Chip) represents a whole new concept in microcontroller
development. In addition to all the standard elements of 8-bit microcontrollers, PSoC-5chips feature digital and analog
programmable blocks, which themselves allow implementation of large number of peripherals.Digital blocks consist of
smaller programmable blocks that can be configured to allow different development options. Analog blocks are used for
development of analog elements, such as analog filters, comparators, instrumentational (non)inverting amplifiers, as
well as AD and DA convertors.Number of components that can be devised is primarily a function of the available
programmable blocks. Depending on the microcontroller family, PSoC-5chips have 416 digital blocks, and 312
analog programmable block
2.THEORY
We are focusing here on reading all the desired materials and the datasheet of Psoc-5. We will use the tools like PSoC5Creator and designer to run different programmes which are necessary to understand the functioning of both the tools.
Firstly we will simply blink the LEDs using the PWM [10] as peripheral on PSoC-5 Creator and Designer using the
development Kit. We will also repeat the project by taking different ports period and period width.
Secondly we will be implementing a project which demonstrates a 9-bit Delta Sigma ADC by measuring the voltage of
the potentiometer center tap wiper and displaying the result on the LCD on all the processor modules and all the
software.These all were the basic projects that we done for knowing the steps for performing the applications.These
basic projects that we done helps us for getting our main applications.
After doing all these minor projects we comes to know about the usage of the PSoC-5 we will directly focus on
achieving the applications of Psoc-5. In case of ADC data buffering using DMA. DMA [13] controller is uses to handle
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the data transfer without CPU intervention. DMA is useful in applications that require ADC data buffering and allows
the CPU for doing the simultaneous tasks. Here we will see the basics of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 20-bit Delta Sigma ADC
data buffering using DMA with example projects. The 20-bit example project accompanying this application note
demonstrates problems with data buffering using DMA. These problems occur when the peripheral spoke width is less
than the actual data width. The project describes how to tackle this using multiple DMA channels. The DMA is used to
move data from a source to destination without CPU intervention is the basic concept on which we will further work.In
our third application i.e. USB HID intermediate with Keyboard, We are using here Psoc-5 full speed USB interface,
where we will take the basics of USB HID development and its implementation is depends upon the knowledge by
which users get knows that how to incorporate the OUTPUT items to receive information from a host device using the
status LEDs on a keyboard taking as an example, we also send the keyboard information as an INPUT to type a
predefined string of text into a text editor.
Figure2.1 CY8C55 Family Processor Module[3]
3.METHODEOLOGY
Here we will covers the next level of Human Interface Devices (HID) [11] USB development on PSoC-53 / PSoC-55
discussing OUTPUT items using a keyboard. Weare using here Psoc-5's full speed USB interface, where we will take
the basics of USB HID development and its implementation is depends upon the knowledge by which users get
knowsthat how to incorporate the OUTPUT items to receive information from a host device using the status LEDs on a
keyboard taking as an example, we also send the keyboard information as an INPUT to type a predefined string of text
into a text editor.
Human Interface Devices (HID) [12]are the devices which enable the consumers to easily interface with and control
their PCs. almost all of the HIDs send information to the host. Keyboards and mice are the most common
examples.However, there is often PC have needs to send the information to the peripheral and for receiving the
information is from the host that is accomplished with an Output Report.
Output Items in the HID Report Descriptor must be configured properly for receiving this Output Report
properlyconfiguring the Output items.The transferring result can take the form of a LED on a keyboard.The Keyboard
requires the interaction from the host to provide the information to it. In a keyboard the Input has taken from the keys
that the user presses and Output taken from the LEDs on the keyboard by which the information will display (such as
checking if the caps lock is enabled or not).
For understanding the Output Items in greater detail, the Report Descriptor will uses for a 104-key keyboard. In Figure
3.1 it will shows HID Report Discriminator in which by expanding the parameters we will able to get output. The
chosen organization of the report descriptor follows the required format for a boot interface, which we are discussing in
the Boot Interface section. However, the report descriptor can be organized in various ways and still function as a
keyboard with LEDs.
Figure 3.1 Keyboard Report Descriptor
Figure3.2 Sectioned Keyboard Report Descriptor
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Bytes are sent to the host as an Input Item and one byte is received from the host as an Output Item. There are eight
bytes which are sent to the host and are firstly organized with modifier keys.They are followed by general keys which
are shown in Table 3.1A modifier key is uses which is a key and with the help of it the functions of a general key are to
be modifies for performing the alternative functions.Modifier keys on the keyboard include the shift, alt, and GUI keys.
All other remaining keys are considered as general keys. The format in which this information is transferred to the host
is shown in Table
Table3.1. (Keyboard Input Report Table)
There are only seven bytes of useful information when we sent information is of 8-byte packet. This is because of the
reserved byte (Byte 1) shown in Table 3.2 It is intended for OEM [14] use and is not used in most applications. There is
to be a reserved key that may be used on a keyboard which contains a non-standard key and performs a function that is
specific to that PC. We can see it in laptops and tablet computers.
In most of the keyboards that are purchased in the consumer market, the reserved byte remains a constant value of 0x00
and the remaining bytes in the configuration are the general keys. In a given transaction six available bytes of
information indicate that up to six key codes can be sent to the PC and it will enables up to six simultaneous key
presses. The order of the key codes in the array does not have any significance.When we compare the newly received
report from the previous report the sorting is accomplished then.
Table 3.2(Modifier Key Index)
In Table 3.2 We can see that each modifier key has a corresponding bit associated with it.It means in a bit field of
information the modifier keys are stored. The HID Usage Tables shows that the Usage values for the modifier keys are
in the range from E0-E7. However, it is also to be seen that the usage values are not sent as array data. The modifier
keys are to be sent as variable data and it means that each individual bit in the 8-bit value is corresponds to one of the
modifier keys. The Usage Minimum/Maximums are then used to link the modifier key information in the bit field to
the proper Usage value with the Usage Minimum/Maximum.
The difference between Array and Variable becomes more relevant in this keyboard application.We can differentiate
them as follows:
Array versus Variable: Array means only controls that are currently active are reported such as a button being pressed.
Variable means that the data reported is the current state of every control regardless if a button is pressed or not.
According to the USB HID Usage table, the usage values for the LEDs are provided in Table 3.3 LED information is an
Absolute Item, which means that the Output Report must include the state of each LED with 0 meaning off and 1
meaning on.The LEDs are not relative items, which means that a 0 represents no change and 1 represents a change
in state.
Table 3.3(LED Indicator Index)
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When referencing the Report Descriptor the first Input item is from top down and for the modifier keys (Shift, Alt, and
GUI). These keys are configured in a Variable configuration to implement a bit field. The Input Item configuration for
Keyboard modifier keys is shown in Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1 Input Item for Keyboard Modifier Keys

The entire byte is padded with zeros and configured as a constant for reserving the second byte in the data structure.By
setting bit 0 to a value to 1 we declaring this byte as a constant. (By following figure 3.2 we can see it easily and this
is done because each report is byte aligned.)
Figure 3.2 Input Item for Reserving Second Byte

The next step in configuring the Descriptor is to configure the Output Item for the LEDs on the keyboard. Here two
things are very important and they are:The prefix value is 91 signifying an Output Item with one byte to follow and
this is because the Item is an Output Item. We can modified the Bit 7 and it is not the case with any Input Item.It has
reason that this value only applies to Output and Feature Items. Bit 7 is set to 0 signifying that the bit is non-volatile
which means the device only alters the value with host interaction. It is important to note that bit 1 is set to be variable.
For a bit field configuration the Item will again configure.
Figure 3.3 Output Item for LEDs

Because all information is byte aligned thus only five bits out of the total eight bits are used for LED information and
we can easily see in Figure 3.4, the remaining three bits are reserved by padding the bits with a value of 0 by setting
those bits to remain constant. This is done by setting bit 0 in the Output Item to a value of 1.
Figure 3.4 Output Item for Padding LEDs
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The final Input Item to configure is for the general (non-modifier) keys. The HID specification requires these keys to be
configured with an Array and Absolute configuration.
Figure 3.5 Input Item for General Keyboard Button

For its functionality we have to understand the each block of the Report Descriptor and how the information is
interpreted, the next step is to study the Report Descriptor in detail .
Figure 3.6 Commented Keyboard Report Descriptor

Table 3.4. (ALT+CTRL+DEL Example)
It is a PC user desires to enter a PCs BIOS upon boot up to edit it. For getting this, the USB HID Specification defines
a boot protocol for keyboard. These protocols are predefined and the device is required to conform to the specifications
to be a boot device. The boot protocol supports up to eight bytes of information.BIOS can ignores anything over these
eight bytes[11]. It is a very important point that in actually BIOS does not read the report descriptor because of the
predefined standard, the BIOS have expectations of the information in a certain format. Because of this reason a HID
device such as a keyboard can have two interfaces.These interfaces are: one is the boot interfaces and the other is USB
aware interfaces. In first kind of interfaces i.e. the boot interface, the requirement of a hard coded Report Descriptor is
not necessary here.
This is the project which act as a keyboard and it will type the messages also will displays the status of num lock, caps
lock, and scroll lock.
Here we are going to introduce the user to a HID device and it consists of both an Input and Output transfer. The
project acts as a keyboard that types messages and displays.For getting our application we have to do following steps:
For this project, we will start by opening PSoC-5Creator and thus create an empty project named Project_1_Keyboard.
After the project has been created and PSoC-5Creator is completely loaded, we will place the following components
into the schematic entry page (TopDesigncysch).
Character LCD
(1) USBFS
(2) Digital Input Pins
(3) Digital Output Pins
Figure 3.7 PSoC-5Creator Components for Keyboard
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These pins required certain changing in settings.Thus for the Input Pins, we will open the pin configuration customizer
and be sure to uncheck the HW Connection box and thus changing their drive mode to Resistive Pull Down which is
done by clicking on the General tab in the pin customizer menu. For the Digital Output Pins, open the configuration
menu, uncheck the HW Connection box, and change their drive mode to Strong.
When the components are placed, we go to the Workspace Explorer window and thus double click on
MyFirstKeyboardHID.cydwr. Click on the Clocks tab and then double click on one of the clocks to open the GUI
clock configuration window.We will make the following changes to the clock as shown in Figure 3.7.
IMO 24 MHz
ILO 100 kHz
PLL Input: IMO, Desired: 48 MHz
Master Clock PLL Out
USB Clock IMO x2
Figure 3.8 System Clock Configuration Window.

The next step is to configure the pin configuration for the project. For this we have to click on the Pins tab located in
Project 1 Keyboardcydwr and change the pins to resemble Figure 3.8. It is important for us to remember that the USB
pins are always located at P15[6] and P15[7] whereas the other pins can be moved if desired. The following pinout is
configured to work with the project:
Figure 3.9 PSoC-5Creator Pin Configuration (Keyboard)

In next step, the USB component needs to be configured using the USB Wizard. But there is to be addition of an OUT
EP. Then we will double click on the USBFS component for opening the Configuration Wizard. Configure the Vender
ID (VID) and Product ID (PID) to be 0x4B4 and 0xE013. We will also fill in the Manufacture and Product strings. The
strings shown in Figure 3.9 can be used or other strings can be chosen. We can also change the values for the VID and
PID. For demonstration purposes any value can be used but if entering production or distributing the example project,
our own VID must be assigned from the USB Implementers Forum.
Figure 3.10 USB Device Descriptor Setup
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Our next step is to be the selection of Configuration Descriptor and the window changes as shown in Figure below.
Since the project is bus powered, limit the maximum current that can be supplied to the device. It is important to
specify a value that is appropriate for the device. Here we are using 20 mA which is more than sufficient.
Figure 3.11 USB Device Descriptor Setup

Thus configure the interface descriptor. For doing this, we will click on Alternate Setting 0.We have also need to set
the Class type to HID. This inform us about the host,that the attached device is a HID. It is to be shown in figure
below.Here it is necessary to know that the Subclass is set for No SubClass. If a Boot Interface is required, the user
must change the subclass to Boot Interface.
Figure 3.12 USB Interface Descriptor Setup

With the interface a HID report descriptor must be associated and for this purpose we have to create the HID Report
Descriptor.For doing this we will click on HID descriptor tab in the dialog.Thus we get the following window as shown
in Figure 3.12.On this window we will do the require addition that are necessary for our application. After completion
of the report descriptor, we will return to the HID Class Descriptor menu as shown in Figure 3.13 and thus set the HID
Report to the name of the HID Report that was just created.
Figure 3.13 USB HID Report Descriptor Setup
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Figure 3.14 USB HID Class Descriptor Setup

Our final step of configuration is that we have to set the Endpoints. Because in this application the informations are to
be sends and receives from the host and also an Input and Output endpoint are required. By default, here only one
endpoint is listed, hence for add an additional endpoint, we can select the Alternative Setting 0 and then click the
Add Endpoint button. Further in next step we will select the Endpoint Descriptor and under Endpoint Attributes,
select the Endpoint number to be EP1, the direction to be IN, and the transfer type to be INT. This is shown in
Figure 3.14. Select the second Endpoint and select the Endpoint number to be EP2, the direction to be OUT, the
transfer type to be INT, and the Max Packet Size to be 1. This is shown in Figure3.15.
Figure3.15 USB Endpoint Setup (IN)
Figure3.16 USB Endpoint Setup (OUT)

The main.cfile will located in the Workspace Explorer and open the file to edit it. Delete the existing code in main.cand
place the C code. After the code has been placed in the project, Build/Compile the project and program it into the
PSoC-5device.
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We will use the jumper wires to make the following connections on the PSoC-5CY8CKIT-001. If we want to change
the pin configuration from Figure 4.31,we have to sure to change the wiring configuration accordingly.
SW1 -P0[6] -Caps Lock Key
SW2 -P0[7] -Type Constant String
LED2 -P1[5] -Num Lock LED
LED3 -P1[6] -Caps Lock LED
LED4 -P1[7] -Scroll Lock LED
LCD -P2[6:0] -Status Display
After the device is programmed, we will connect a USB cable from the PC to the DVK. When the device has
enumerated, we will press the Caps, Num, and Scroll Lock keys on our keyboard and then observe the changes on
LEDs and LCD accordingly. When we Press SW1 on the DVK and then observe the Caps Lock toggle. In next step we
will open a text editor on the PC and then press SW2. Observe a string of text transmitted to PC and displayed in the
text editor. We are free to edit the string in the main.cfile to type anything. The program by which we will able to
obtainour application is to be explain on Appendix.
4 RESULT ANALYSIS
In this chapter we have shown the simulation results obtained by us while working on different applications of the
Psoc-5.
ADC Data buffering using DMA
Build and program the chip
Press F5 or click the debug icon to download the program and debug.
Figure 4.1 Add watch timer.
Figure 4.2 including Breakpointput a breakpoint inside in (DMA done flag).

The execution stops at the breakpoint after the DMA transfers the specified number of samples from ADC to memory
and the result can be verified by monitoring the ADCsample array in the watch window. The outputs for 8 bit, 16
bit,20 bit and 12 bit ADC SAR as follows
Figure 4.3 Result of 8bit ADC data buffering
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16 bit ADC data buffering
Figure 4.4 Result of 16 bit ADC data buffering

20 bit ADC data buffering
Figure 4.5 Result of 20 bit ADC data buffering

12 bit SAR ADC data buffering
Figure 4.6 Result of 12 bit SAR ADC data buffering
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USB HID INTERFACING

The output for USB HID intermediate with Keyboard is as follows:
Figure 4.7 Result of USB HID Intermediate with Keyboard
5.APPLICATIONS
These all were the methodology by following the each and every steps from here we firstly implement the small projects
and further will implement our main big applications i.e ADC DATA BUFFERING USING DMA and third
application is USB HID intermediate with Keyboard.For getting these main applications implementations we will
follow the same method from these PSoC-5creator, PSoC-5designer and PSoC-5 Programmer but for these we will
firstly study what is data buffering, what is ADC data and what the meaning of DMA, how data will buffer by DMA?
In our next application i.e. USB HID intermediate with Keyboard, here we will see how we can intermediate the
keyboard with USB HID.We will provide the input from Keyboard by pressing any key on Keyboard like Caps Lock
and then output we will see on PSoC-5board by LED glowing. Hence we will comes to know that the USB HID get
intermediate with Keyboard. By knowing all these concepts and all these questions we will easily implement our
applications
6.CONCLUSION
This dissertation focuses on use of PSoC-5(Programmable System on Chip) for achieving big applications. We designed
here ADC data buffering using DMA and USB HID intermediate with Keyboard. In case of ADC data buffering using
DMA, we buffers 8 bit, 16 bit, 20 bit and 12 bit SAR ADC data using DMA very easily.USB HID intermediate with
Keyboard, we have done burning of the program on Pasco throughPSoC-5/ Miniprog 3 from PC to PSoC-5board and as
the output we can see the output on board in the form of light in LED by providing the input from Keyboard. PSoC-5is
a less time consuming device.
We started from basics projects .With the help of these basic projects we got enough information to achieve our main
applications. Firstly we have done LED with PWM project, thus we put some changes on it by changing the
connections and as a result we glow the LED on board. We also have done ADC to LCD display and other basic project
was Capsense. By doing these projects we got familiar with the working of cypress kit.
This Kit is very attractive and main thing that it is very interesting. On performing the work on kit, we felt more
curiosity for doing work on it. By the use of this kit we can also make our own IC.
REFRENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Architecture and Programming of PSoC-5microcontroller by Predrag Micakovic.

Designs Guide to the Cypress PSoC-5(Embedded Technology) by Robert Ashby.
CY8CKIT-001-PSOC-5DEVELOPEMENT KIT GUIDEuDoc. # 001-48651 Rev. *D January 5, 2011.
Anu MD,Lakshmi Natarajan , CY8C38xx/CY8C55xx on software version of PSoC-5Creator for PSoC-53 &PSoC55-Getting Started with DMA.
Using DMA with high performance peripherals to Maximize the system performance by John Manjine.
Anu MD,Anup Mohan PSoC-53 &PSoC-55 for ADC data Buffering using DMA.
USB HID intermediate with Keyboard using CY8C38xx, CY8C55xx on PSoC-53/PSoC-55 by Robert Murphy.
Robert Murphy PSoC-53 &PSoC-55 for USB Fundament
RtrASSoc: an adaptable superscalar reconfigurable system-on-chip. The simulator Silva, J.L. ; Costa, R.M. ;
Jorge,G.H.R.System-on-Chip for Real-Time Applications, 2003.
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[10] The Method of data exchange between high performance PWM modulator and MCU by Maxim, D. ; Volkov, A.G.
; Makarov, D.V. Micro/Nanotechnologies and Electron Devices (EDM), 2012 IEEE 13th International Conference
Publication Year: 2012.
[11] A human-robot interface using vision-based eye gaze estimation system Dong Hyun Yoo ; Jae Heon Kim ; Do
Hyung Kim ; Myung Jin Chung Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2002. IEEE/RSJ International ConferenceYear:
2002.
[12] Microcontroller implementation of a voice command recognition system for human-machine interface in embedded
systemsBernal-Ruiz, C. ; Garcia-Tapias, F.E. ; Martin-del-Brio, B. ; Bono-Nuez, A. ; Medrano-Marques, N.J
Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation, 2005. ETFA 2005. 10th IEEE Conference in 2005.
[13] DMA controller design using self-clocked methodology Aghdasi, F. ; Bhasin, A.AFRICON, 2004. 7th AFRICON
Conference in Africa, 2004.
[14]A Case Study to Track High Value Stillages using RFID for an Automobile OEM and its Supply Chain in the
Manufacturing IndustryAghdasi, F. ; Bhasin, A. AFRICON, 2004. 7th AFRICON Conference in Africa
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TOWARDS GREEN ICT DRIVEN

ECONOMIES: ASSESSING THE
GOVERNMENTS ROLE IN GREEN ICT
ADOPTION
1.
Njeru Mwiti Kevin, 2.Zipporah Munene, 3.Mwangi Robert Kimani, 4.Kevin Murithi Njagi,
5.
Bildad Mbagara, 6.Kaaria Karwitha Joy
1.
Department of Information Technology, Mount Kenya University

2.
KCA University, Department of Information Technology
3.
4.
5.
Mount Kenya University, Department of Information Technology
6.
Mount Kenya University, Department of Information Technology
ABSTRACT
This paper analyzes the role of the government in establishing green ICT within organizations. Looking at the practices
currently adopted by governments, this paper identifies some of the most important areas through which the low carbon value
added by new technologies could be increased. Drawing on evidence from other countries around the world, practitioners and
from the academic community we can see that there are similarities between the approaches taken by a number of
governments, but we can also see that this area of activity will need to be context-specific as well. As we move forward, areas of
focus will become more obvious for particular countries and regions, where they have a unique role to play and can add more
value. We achieve this by adopting two approaches. One is by investigating what other countries have done as regards to
entrenching green ICT in their countries, second was by an analysis of the Kenyan context which took a case of the Kenyan
governments ministry of Information Communication Technology (ICT) and the national environmental management
Authority (NEMA) to find out the extent of government support for businesses and the implementation of Green ICT within the
core functions and departments of the organization. Data collection was then carried out within two major ICT consumer
companies to find out the level of green ICT adoption within them and the way forward, as well as gauge the level of user
awareness on green ICT concepts. The paper concludes by making recommendations which could help the government to
invest more on green ICT, develop a green ICT policy to guide in green ICT adoption and support for organizations
implementation of green ICT.
Keywords: Green ICT, Regulations, Greenhouse gases (GHG)
1.INTRODUCTION
The potential to make our factories, office buildings, transport systems and energy use much more efficient by the
utilization of information and communications technologies (ICTs), has been increasingly acknowledged and
quantified during the past five years [1]. An increasing number of governments are seeing ICTs as a critical component
of their strategies for tackling environmental problems. Governments have widely acknowledged the important
contribution of ICTs in reducing CO2 emission and energy consumption in households [2]. ICT is the critical enabler
that will allow governments to take advantage of the opportunities in todays hyper-connected, integrated and
information-rich world to create responsive 21st century State Services. The future for government ICT is envisaged as
information-centric rather than the technology-centric model of today, transcending agency boundaries to deliver
smarter customer-centered services [3].
From simple data input and processing tasks in an organization, to communication via mobile devices through
manufacturing, product design and engineering, transport control and management systems through accounting and
finance functions, the enabling role of ICT cannot be underestimated. ICT permeates every level of an organization and
government. Its integrating and enabling capability of individual, business and government functions makes it one of
the most essential technologies of our times. Unfortunately, progress in Information communication Technology (ICT)
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comes at a price as ICT is a major user of energy and natural resources. It is also estimated that ICT contributes about
2-3% of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [4]. Reducing this ICT environmental footprint is the major aim of
green IT/ICT. And hence, every effort should be made to reduce the environmental footprint of ICT in our economies.
The integrating and enabling role of ICT also provides an avenue where ICT can be applied as a solution to reduce the
environmental footprint of other economic and social factors. This is estimated to about 97/98%. This concept is
referred to as green Information systems (green IS), or greening by IT. Hence green IS aims to apply the innovative
power of IT as a solution to the global environmental pollution and GHG emissions [5]. Consider this, major economic
drivers such as transport, energy, manufacturing, and construction contribute heavily to the environmental pollution.
How therefore can we apply ICT in these areas for a better cleaner environment? Various terms from green
construction, green manufacturing, green energy and green transport have been coined.
Consider the case for green construction for example. In 2009 When the United Nations outgrew the office
accommodation at its 140-acre Gigiri compound in Nairobi, it was clear that they needed a building and any new
building had to meet several challenges head-on. It needed to be energy and water efficient, to reduce and recycle, and
to maximize sustainability without compromising the quality of the working environment [6]. The chief head of
facilities describes the building as a showcase for sustainability and a huge enhancement of the working environment.
The new building he notes:
But the new building takes environmental sustainability to a new level. Solar panels cover the roof space, automated
low energy lighting illuminates workspaces, and energy efficient computers sit on desks. Rainwater is collected from
the roofs to feed the fountains and ponds at the four entrances and sewage is treated in a state-of-the-art aeration system
and recycled to irrigate the beautifully landscaped compound. Water saving lavatories, a central atrium and light wells
in every office zone, together with an inventive design that maximizes cooling natural airflow through the building, all
contribute further to sustainability. And far from compromising the working environment, the new building and its
environmentally responsible features are acknowledged to be a huge enhancement of the surroundings and comfort in
which its new occupants work. [6]
What this demonstrates is that there is always a more environmental friendly way of doing things. Truth is that
investing in environmental friendly systems comes at an initial cost, but in the long run the cost is lower for both the
business and for the environment [7]. The use of ICT to build a low carbon future for our governments and societies
offers a unique opportunity. Keeping up to date with technological developments and its ability to support innovation
will deliver environmental, societal and economic benefits for both present and future generations [1].
Government agencies therefore should lead by example by setting a target in reducing use of materials and establishing
necessary procedures, such as introducing travel substitution and more videoconferencing; create right financial
incentives to encourage the development of private sector specialized in green products and services; encourage green
ICT procurement by the public and private sectors and Raise awareness on market potentials for green ICT among the
private sector companies [8]
Research questions
The study comprised of 3 research questions
1.What global trends as regards green computing public policy exists
2.What areas does the current ICT policy in Kenya cover as regards green ICT
3.What is the current status of green computing implementation in Kenya
2.METHODOLOGY
To be able to answer the research questions appropriately, this research employed the following methodology
Questionnaire administered to employees of two heavy ICT consumer companies in Kenya.
Interviews a group of 4 respondents participated in 20-minute in-depth interview. These individuals included a
manager of a leading supermarket in the country, a bank manager, a ministry of Information communication
Technology (ICT) in Kenya official and a National environmental management Authority (NEMA) official.
Document Review: this included previous research especially documents relating to green computing from other
countries to identify what they have done and highlight issues that Kenya as a country can adopt. A review of Kenyan
government policy documents to find out the extent of government involvement in green computing was also done.
In both questionnaires and interviews, respondents were asked to outline the Green ICT adoption states within their
companies, and to describe the role and support the government was playing in facilitating the adoption of Green IT, as
well as their organizations outlook, attitudes, and reasons. They were also questioned about the state of environmental
issues and action in their business practices and within the government, organizational culture as regards best
environmental practices, the state of ICT in the country and the way forward. Data analysis was done based on the
collected data. It comprised of the current state of green computing in Kenya, global trends in green computing and the
organization view of green computing
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3.LITERATURE REVIEW
Government and sustainability
Many governments are introducing aggressive environmental policy, encompassing everything from greenhouse gas
reduction and natural resource protection to clean power initiatives and incentives for energy efficiency [9]. The threat
posed by uncontrolled environmental usage has amplified the role of the government in facilitating proper usage of the
environment and management of the limited natural resources. According to research, a more resource efficient and
Green Economy provides the framework for a stronger and more sustainable business approach, at the heart of which
lies the necessity to ensure sustained financial growth over the long-term. A Green Economy requires step changes in
resource efficiency, investment in clean technologies, the development of alternative products, services and materials,
and the ability to obtain value from unavoidable waste [10]. This means that enhancemenent of environmental friendly
business practices goes behold the question of governments trying to legislate to a drive by organization trying to find
better ways of doing business, cutting on their operation costs, offering more environmental friendly products and
services to their customers which in the long learn gives these businesses a competitive advantage [11].
A number of government and non governmental institutions are providing guidelines for implementation of green ICT
[12]. This means that the government has a lead role in providing the necessary legislative frameworks that are
essential to guide organizational implementation of green ICTs. It should be noted that the core drivers of green ICT
implementation are factors external and internal to the organization. These include and are not limited to government
legislation, customer demands, competitors, technological changes and a desire to lower costs [13] [14]. At the same
time, the recognition by organizations that greening their operations (green IT) is not a cost [13] of doing business but
rather it can be a means by which organizations can be able to lower the cost of production [10] [7] will push many
firms to adopt green ICT.
It should be noted that this paper considers green IS and green IT to be two different concepts within the same context.
We adopt the argument of [5] [15] [16] [13] that Green IT is a component of green IS. Green IT (greening IT) focuses
on the energy efficiency and equipment utilization of computers and related systems. Green IT aims at reducing the
carbon footprint of IT. Green IS in contrast tries to find the innovative ways in which computers and information
systems can be used to reduce the environmental footprint caused by other factors outside IT. Energy efficiency means
using less to provide the same service whereas carbon footprint is defined by [4] as the measure of the environmental
impact of an individual or organizations lifestyle or operations measured in terms of units of carbon dioxide produced
The UK government was one of the first governments to seriously take steps to green its ICT in 2009. The Greening
Government ICT strategy of the UK government sets out the first steps of the government to reduce its carbon footprint.
We are the first government in the world to look at our ICT in this way and we want to see changes taking place
immediately. We want to see best green practice throughout government - computers switched off overnight, printers
defaulting to duplex, data centers efficiently cooled. The good news is that we are not alone in aiming for these goals.
There is already a great deal of activity in departments and within industry and we will be working with our suppliers
to ensure that action is taken immediately. [17] to show the impact of simple green ICT strategies, the report notes
that turning off just one computer overnight can save 235kg of CO2 in a year. Over the whole estate the potential is
enormous turning off 500,000 computers at night would have the same effect as taking 40,000 cars off the road. This
therefore shows that there should be no excuse for not adopting green ICT measures and underpins the potential
environmental savings within the ICT sector.
In 2011 March, the UK government launched the greening government commitment to ensure that by 2015 the
government will have made substantial reductions in waste generation, water use and greenhouse gas emissions [18]
with a vision to provide a cost effective and energy efficient ICT estate, which is fully exploited, with reduced
environmental impacts to enable new and sustainable ways of working for the public sector. The Greening
Government: ICT strategy describes how government ICT will contribute to those commitments and deliver financial
savings in addition to efficient, green practices. It sets out the green ICT commitments and actions that central
government departments, their agencies and arms length bodies, will take over the next four years. Aligning with the
Governments transparency and efficiency agenda, it recognizes the importance of clear reporting against them and sets
out how government will measure progress by departments, and aggregating this to give a whole of government report
on an annual basis. The strategy sets out how ICT can be exploited to assist the government in achieving the Greening
Government Commitments, in a set of Green ICT commitments and environment. It defines how these commitments
can be met through the adoption of green ICT principles and practices across the Government ICT Strategy and in its
design, delivery and implementation phases as shown in figure 1 below.
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Figure 1: greening government strategy components: adopted from [18]
4.ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Environmental factors are acting as constraints in production, particularly in the agricultural and energy sectors,
heavily dependent on these resources. This confirms that business as usual over the long-term is simply unviable.
Companies acting ahead of the game will be able to tap into most of the opportunities available, sustain growth and
adjust to changes to the regulatory environment which, in turn, is responding to the growing evidence of environmental
degradation
According to [19] the reduction of subsidies for GHG-related activities in various sectors can achieve emission
reductions, depending on the social and economic context. While subsidies can affect emissions in many sectors, most
of the recent literature has focused on subsidies for fossil fuels. Since a small but growing literature based on economywide models has projected that complete removal of subsidies for fossil fuels in all countries could result in reductions
in global aggregate emissions by mid-century. Although political economy barriers are substantial, some countries have
reformed their tax and budget systems to reduce fuel subsidies. To help reduce possible adverse effects on lower-income
groups who often spend a large fraction of their income on energy services, many governments have utilized lump-sum
cash transfers or other mechanisms targeted on the poor [19].
Green ICT means a shift to encouraging close level community and economic integration as opposed to international
trade as much as possible. By encouraging the sourcing of raw materials, products and services locally, we reduce on
travel which in return cuts on the CO2 emissions in the environment as a result of burning of fossil fuels. The
introduction of green ICT within firms would end up transforming the traditional firm into a digital organization or
even government which in return would improve the delivery of products and services to consumers and citizens
efficiently and at the same time cut on costs at each of these levels. The integration of business functions into simple
coherent systems such as Enterprise resource planning systems will be the greatest win for the environment: the result
will be reduced consumption of paper based documentation as more and more documents can be transmitted and stored
online; eliminating the need for travel as discussed above: it also means video based conferences will be preferred as
opposed to having to travel to attend business meetings and such. This in turn results in lower product costs, a better
and cleaner environment and increased revenue for organizations. The major drive for organizations adoption of
information systems and ICT is because of the benefits in terms of increased revenue, better customer service, lower
production cost and better decision making support [20]; however, green IS goes behold the quest for higher quest by
firms to improve their revenue [21] to viewing green initiatives as a tool of corporate social responsibility.
While organizations implement green ICT as a means to cut on cost, governments implementation is driven by a
desire for a cleaner environment for its citizens and to establish standards for other organizations to follow. In some
cases and especially in developing countries, implementation of green ICT by governments could provide a low cost
operating environment for the delivery of public services to the citizens in addition to some other major benefits. What
this means is that benefits that come with green IT should not be the major drive for green ICT implementation by both
organizations and governments.
The question therefore is, if green ICT offers all these benefits to firms and governments, and the environment, why are
firms as well as governments not implementing it? We seek to discuss this in our findings.
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The transition to a Green Economy is not an easy path however. It is characterized by step changes in resource
efficiency and a shift in emphasis from shareholder value to stakeholder value. Some companies, and perhaps whole
industries, will not survive the transition. Success over the long term will require new skills, diverse collaborations,
continuous innovation, investments with uncertain returns, and a change in what the market values. Companies, like
governments, will need to choose wisely if they are to capitalize on the opportunities it brings [10]. What this means is
that these benefits are not a clear cut thing and hence organizations should evaluate their readiness for green ICT
before adoption. Models to access green ICT readiness already exist as proposed by [22] [23].
5.BUSINESS CASE FOR GREEN ICT

Today, companies around the world are looking at ways to implement ICT solutions to both improve their own
productivity and provide new sustainable offerings to their clients, and are realizing significant benefits in the process
[1]. Global bodies, government agencies and non-governmental organizations have set themselves the goal of
identifying and accelerating scalable ICT-enabled energy solutions and helping policymakers to shape the strategies
and policies to support businesses in implementing more energy efficient systems.
Green Information systems (ICT applications) can reduce the environmental impact of organizations. This includes
ICTs for new way of production and collaboration like teleworking and teleconference applications, cloud computing,
supply chain integration or moving businesses and governments to the Internet (e-government, e-business, and ecommerce) [2] [11]. Yet not many businesses seem to fully adopt and integrate ICT solutions such as teleworking and
teleconferencing in their operations. [6] for example in their report noted that much of the organizations (UNEP)
carbon emissions amounting to over 70% is caused by travel, and hence they adopted teleconferencing as opposed to
travelling and reduced travel to the most essential cases in order to cut on this amount. Adopting such technologies
should not be viewed as a cost for businesses [24] but rather, it offers many benefits to organizations including lower
costs of production [11], increasing revenue and better environmental practices which are essential in enhancing the
corporate social responsibility position of a company. However, the potential cost savings of green IS applications, such
as videoconferencing resulting from local and trans-border travel reductions cannot be realized without having
adequate infrastructure to make a conversation effective enough to make it a viable substitute hence global governments
have the responsibility of laying down the necessary infrastructure to support business initiatives.
Sustainability has worked on corporate social responsibility, we have witnessed time and again the multiple ways that
sustainability delivers business value to companies that adopt it as a strategic principle [19]. There is therefore no
doubt that there is a clear business case for an economy that results in improved human well-being and social equity,
while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. The long-term prosperity of businesses is
tied directly to our ability as a society to make the transition. Critical choices need to be made now, to decouple
economic growth from environmental impact and resource use, to prepare for the economic reality of tomorrow, and to
enable business to seize the scale of the opportunity.
In the findings of UNEP on a report titled business case for green economy, [10] notes that as we switch to a more
resource efficient and green economy, one where economic growth, social equity and human development go hand in
hand with environmental security, business and industry will be a key driving force. This statement is two-fold; it
highlights the key role that businesses have on sustainable development and also enhances the regulatory role of
governments in ensuring that businesses and industry are just in the use of natural resources. That the drive to make
profits does not overshadow their critical role in ensuring the protection of citizens as regards provision of a clean
environment.
The economic benefits of green economies is highlighted by [10] in its argument that businesses cannot afford to
ignore the benefits that a green economy will bring. The report gives examples from case studies of organizations like
PUMA, Equity bank Kenya, Unilever and Colombian coffee growers corporation, firms they argue that by investing in
green strategies, have been able to reap big in terms of savings and revenue some amounting to hundreds of millions of
dollars. Organizations therefore need to step up and show the role they can play in generating decent jobs, in
developing energy efficient technologies and industrial processes, in greening their supply chains and in integrating
environmental, social and governance principles throughout their lending, investment and insurance decision-making.
Some of the benefits highlighted include: more resilient supply chains, New investment opportunities, Increased
consumer demand for sustainable goods and services, Sales growth and duration of sales, Training and job creation,
Reduced dependency on natural resources and Mitigation against the negative financial risk from environmental impact
[10].
6.DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
State of Green Economy in Kenya
The Kenyan Government has implemented electronic systems in various State Departments and other state-owned
institutions. These include national tax systems, immigration information system, legal information system, the
integrated financial management system and education system. Most of these systems are to be found in the National
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Treasury, Kenya Revenue Authority, Home Affairs State Department and Immigration Office. In addition, information
is manually exchanged by and between departments and institutions using fax, e-mail and electronic media [25]. The
Kenya ICT master plan identifies ICT as a critical tool in Kenyas vision of a knowledge based economy, which aims at
shifting the current industrial development path towards innovation where creation, adoption, adaptation and use of
knowledge as the key source of economic growth.
In a green assessment report of the Kenyan economy, United Nations Environmental programmes (UNEP) notes that
Kenya has one of the most dynamic economies in Africa, yet it is facing a number of pressing economic,
environmental and social challenges. From climate change and natural resource depletion to high poverty rates and
rising unemployment, the country is addressing these concerns through its commitment to a low-carbon and resourceefficient development pathway. The report continues to argue that Kenya has adopted several green economy-related
approaches and policies, which include implementing renewable energy feed-in tariffs in 2008, embedding sustainable
natural resource utilization into its 2010 Constitution and mainstreaming green economy in its Second Medium Term
Plan [26]. However, the report continues to note that there is still untapped potential to pursue a development pathway
that will create green jobs, accelerate poverty reduction, support sustainable growth and restore environmental health
and quality. This point to the fact that we cannot be able to separate the social well being of a people, businesses and
economy without considering the well being of our environment.
Efforts by Kenya have been driven by a number of pressing economic, environmental and social concerns such as the
increasing rural to urban migration need for job creation for youth, and degradation of valuable ecosystems. In response
to this, the government has established key policies and programmes for a green economy including:
Developing a national climate change response strategy and action plan, and seeks to embrace a low-carbon
development pathway that is inclusive and equitable, and contributes to its global competitiveness.
Through the Greening Kenya Initiative (GKI), the government has developed a database on green economy activities,
which highlights efforts on the manufacturing of eco-friendly materials, tree planting, organic farming, fish farming,
renewable energy, eco-labeling, solid waste management and environmental management, among others.
The countrys long-term development blueprint, Vision 2030, launched in 2008, aims to transform the country into an
industrialized, middle-income country, providing a high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure
environment [27].
The Constitution of Kenya 2010, in Article 42, recognizes a healthy and clean environment as a right and calls for
sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment and natural resources [28] [26].
The government of Kenya Medium-Term Plan (2013-2017) which has endorsed the development of a comprehensive
national green economy strategy [25]. It is important to note that lack of a government green ICT strategy has been
identified as one of the major reasons for the slow adoption of green ICT within the country by this research.
The UNEP report [26] concludes that countrys Green economy-related investments in the agriculture, energy,
manufacturing and transport sectors could help lower energy consumption and carbon emissions. While CO2
emissions are projected to increase from 12 million tonnes per year in 2012 to 24.35 million tonnes per year in 2030 in
the agriculture and energy sector alone, under a green economy scenario, emissions would be approximately nine per
cent lower than BAU investment scenario (26.7 million tonnes).
7.Business View of Government adoption of Technology

In 2006, a UK study investigated companies perception of government procurement and technology adoption. Four
areas were identified where the government was regarded as a problem. First, companies do not believe that the
government fosters innovation; it does not engage to define solutions and is not an early adopter. Smaller companies in
particular identified lack of innovation, lack of engagement to define the problem, late adoption and lack of skills as
some of the major problems in relation to the government [29]. The report concludes that as long as public procurement
does not support greening with ICT is will be very difficult to deliver concrete results, regardless of general policy
statements. In order to speed up the adoption of green ICT the report suggests that an increase in public transfers for
developing and implementing green ICT products and solutions. It recommends the following policy measures:
-Conditioning public procurements and businesses, entrepreneurship benefits and high risk investments on their
greenness and use of green ICT solutions.
- Budget funding of exemplary, pioneering, visionary and inspiring green ICT products, services, solutions
What this demonstrates is the issues that arise in relation to government functions. An introduction of ICT would
greatly booster a public confidence in governments from how procurement is performed is performed to manufacturing,
human resource and supply chain integration within the government.
Great strides have been made by the Kenyan government in relation to ICT deployment and usage within the
government and in the private sector. In 2009, as a means of entrenching financial accountability within government by
automating and integrating public financial management systems which facilitate efficient and effective execution of
the financial management process, eliminate risk and enhance security and financial controls in all service areas.
According to officials from the ministry of finance, the implementation of the IFMIS facilitated a faster transaction
processing cycle after the inclusion of six modules that reengineered the system.
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8.ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND FRAMEWORKS IN K ENYA

Kenya Vision 2030 is the new long-term development blueprint for the country. It is motivated by a collective
aspiration for a better society by the year 2030. The aim of Vision 2030 blueprint is to create a globally competitive
and prosperous country with a high quality of life by year 2030 [27]. The Vision is anchored on three key pillars:
economic; social; and political governance. Of importance to this research are the economic and social pillars. On the
social pillar, environmental protection is identified as key to the achievement of the major aspiration of vision 2030.
The blueprint notes that Kenya aims to be a nation that has a clean, secure and sustainable environment by 2030. This
will be achieved through: promoting environmental conservation to better support the economic pillars aspirations;
improving pollution and waste management through the application of the right economic incentives; and improving
the capacity for adaptation to global climatic change.
On the economic pillar, the role of ICT is identified with the aim of making the country a top off shoring destination in
Africa. On this, the country aims to attract at least five major leading information technology (IT) suppliers, and at
least ten large multinational companies and global BPO players to the country. Target areas of ICT adoption and usage
within the policy document include also the Installation of effective ICT infrastructure in all security agencies to aid in
crime detection, prevention and investigation and the establishment of ICT parks in the country with the flagship
project being KONZA techno city [27].
It is evident from this that investment in ICT and related infrastructure is expected to grow rapidly as the country
moves towards implementing vision 2030 projects. With these heavy investments, the environmental footprint of ICT
in Kenya is expected to increase rapidly as more ICT investments are made by 2030. With this, it is our argument that
an analysis on the overall impact on the environment, for a country that aims to provide a better cleaner environment
for its citizens, should have been made and mechanisms adopted even through proposed legislations to minimize the
ICT environmental footprint. These legislations would provide guidelines for purchase, use and disposal of obsolete
computing devices hence minimizing its impact to the environment as possible.
While developing its green ICT policy, the government of Estonia found that as much as the companies within the
country were innovative, there were various obstacles that constrain wider and more pervasive development and
adoption of green ICT in Estonia: low awareness, uncertainty concerning advantages, constrained cooperation, scarcity
of financial resources [29]. Policy recommendations to ease and overcome these constraints were made including:
Raising awareness about green ICT by compiling green ICT products and solutions databases, consulting businesses on
green ICT, and acknowledging and inspiring companies with green ICT award; Clarifying the advantage of green ICT
by reviewing and developing green ICT auditing and evaluation methodology, doing follow-up study of greenness of
green ICT solutions, and disseminating the best practice of evaluation of greenness of green ICT; Advancing
cooperation by initiating public-private partnership in developing and implementing exemplary green ICT solutions,
greening ICT and other technology clusters, and clarifying the limits of cooperation and Increasing funding by
conditioning public procurements, grants, investments on greenness and use of green technology, including green ICT,
and allocating resources for public-private partnership projects for developing green ICT solutions. Several
governments, Kenya included can learn a lot from this regarding measures they can take to facilitate adoption of green
ICT in their economies.
9.GREEN ICT IN K ENYA

The study found that the green ICT attitude level of organizations was very low in Kenya as compared to other
countries such as the Germany, EU, OECD countries and Australia. This is in contrast to the fact that Kenya has been
on the forefront when it comes to research in the area of adopting green strategies and environmental sustainability, but
has been slow in moving towards green ICT. Prior research shows that the awareness and adoption of green ICT in the
country is very low [30]. While there seems to be heavy investments in ICT within firms and the government, very few
controls exist on how these computers are used within both private and public organization. Most of the Kenyan
government programmes cover the areas of reuse and disposal, ICT diffusion, and skills and awareness, with many
having multiple objectives ignoring other critical areas of ICT lifecycle. For example, a study on green ICT in OECD
countries found that most governments focus on development and promotion of Green ICT standards and labels
indicating the resource efficiency of ICTs, and increasing energy cost transparency (e.g. the multi-stakeholder task
force of the Global e-Sustainability Initiative). These governments efforts also include increasing energy efficiency of
data centers through virtualization for server consolidation and improved power and cooling systems (e.g. The Green
Grid). Furthermore, they include green procurement of recyclable, reusable, and energy efficient ICT components.
Green purchasing also applies to end-users (e.g. myGreenElectronics.org of the Consumer Electronics Association). A
few initiatives promote ICT applications such as energy saving tools or tele-working [2]. In Kenya, few initiatives seem
to focus on optimizing the ICT value chain and even the adoption and use of energy efficient computers, and mainly
cover reducing energy consumption and resource use in ICT supply chains, production and distribution. A majority of
Kenyans however seem to agree that the government plays a great role in the adoption of ICT within their organization
as shown in figure 1 below
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Figure 2: perception of government role in green ICT adoption

Kenya is not alone in this, while most policy makers, major studies and business groups clearly state that the greening
with ICT is significantly more important, the actual programs and policies in countries, NGOs work, research at
universities, business initiatives etc still focus on the direct effects. In fact, prior research has shown that most
organizations and governments globally seems to focus more on greening ICT (green ICT) rather than greening with
ICT/IT (green IS) [29] [11]. It should be noted that as argued above, greening ICT just solves a small portion of the
global carbon footprint because the ICT carbon footprint is only 2-3%. The Kenyan Government has adopted a range of
ICT and the environment policies, covering innovation, ICT adoption, ICT application, usage, education on ICT and
the environment and the disposal of obsolete computing devices.
Areas of waste that can be directly addressed to bring in immediate benefits not just in reducing CO2 emissions but also
direct savings were identified. These areas involve direct application of ICT as opposed to the current way of doing
things; eliminating travel and reducing it to the most basic especially within the government, encouraging
organizations to develop internal green ICT policies and strategies and the environmental authorities developing
inherent policies for acquisition of computers and the disposal of obsolete computers.
To test on power saving, the respondents were asked on how frequently they use power saving options on their
computers, the results are shown in figure 2 below
Figure 3: Green IT in organizations. 0 for public, 1 for private organizations

It should be noted that simple green computing good practices such as switching off the computer can go a long way in
enhancing energy savings [11]. From the results, very few individuals in both private and public organizations
performed simple basic green ICT tasks. This collaborates prior research by [31] which identified the level of green
ICT awareness in Kenya as being very low.
Regulations
Regulatory approaches and information measures are widely used, and are often environmental. Examples of such
regulatory approaches include energy efficiency standards; examples of information programmes include labeling
programmes that can help consumers make better-informed decisions. While such approaches have often been found to
have a net social benefit, scientific literature is divided on the extent to which such policies can be implemented with
negative private costs to firms and individuals [19].
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In Kenya for example, various regulatory frameworks have been put in place by the government to help in the
protection of the environment. Industrial leaders contend that the government has been supportful as far as legislative
measures are concerned. As noted above, a majority of the respondents seemed to agree that the government plays a key
role in the implementation of green ICT. Some of these key legislations include article 42 of the Kenyan constitution
which states that every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment which includes the right to have the
environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations and article 70 which guarantees a clean
environment as a claimable right by any member who feels that his rights to a clean environment have been infringed.
This article states that if a person alleges that a right to a clean and healthy environment recognized and protected
under article 42 has been, is being or is likely to be denied, violated, infringed or threatened, the person may apply to a
court for redress [28]. Other policies in Kenya include the controlled substances regulations, EIA regulations and the
environmental management and coordination act of 1999 which established a number of environmental regulatory
institutions such as NEMA, provincial and district environmental committees and the public complaints committee. It
is also important to note that the ICT authority in Kenya proposes the development of a green ICT implementation
strategy in Kenya [25]
In some countries, tax-based policies specifically aimed at reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions alongside
technology and other policies have helped to weaken the link between GHG emissions and GDP (high confidence). In a
large group of countries, fuel taxes (although not necessarily designed for the purpose of mitigation) have effects that
are akin to sectoral carbon taxes [2]. Some mitigation policies raise the prices for some energy services and could
hamper the ability of societies to expand access to modern energy services to underserved populations (low confidence).
These potential adverse side-effects can be avoided with the adoption of complementary policies (medium confidence).
Most notably, about 1.3 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and about 3 billion are dependent on
traditional solid fuels for cooking and heating with severe adverse effects on health, ecosystems and development.
Providing access to modern energy services is an important sustainable development objective.
10.CONCLUSION
It is our inherent that the government has an important role in promoting green IS. In the case of Kenya, it is our clear
that the government needs to raise awareness about green ICT by compiling green ICT products and solutions database,
consulting businesses and international organizations such as UNEP on green ICT, and acknowledging and inspiring
companies with green ICT award. From our findings and even with support from other academic literature, the level of
ICT awareness in Kenya and a majority of African countries is fairly low [30] [32].
It is clear that Kenya has made some great strides in greening its economy: from the adoption of geothermal, solar and
wind energy to afforestation through to the provision of proper legislations to govern environmental management.
However, in terms of green ICT, very little seems to have been done. And even where policies are in place, only a few
of all government programmes and industry association initiatives have measurable targets and indicators to measure
whether these targets are being achieved. For example, within the ICT master plan for 2014-2017, the only statement
that touches on green ICT is found on page 39 Environmental protection and conservation - All institutions involved
in ICT Master Plan implementation to adhere to the green ICT concept by environmentally friendly equipments that
are cheaper and easy to implement and ensuring there is no e-waste dumping. This statement is to a large extent vague
as very little in terms of policy exist to provide guidelines on green ICT within the Kenyan government. This puts the
government on the spot in terms of providing guidelines for green ICT eight years since green ICT was identified as a
major strategic technology in 2008. These findings reinforce an earlier research in the UK where private businesses
accused the government of being a late adopter. Overall, much more needs doing to develop and apply clear and
measurable policies and initiatives to improve environmental performance of ICTs, and to apply ICTs across the
economy to tackle the challenges of global warming and environmental degradation. In particular, policies and
initiatives can encourage improvement of environmental performance along the entire ICT life cycle and promote
On a global scale, the west seems to have made great strides with a number of countries having already developed their
green ICT strategies/policies. These include Germany, UK, Uruguay, Newzealand, Denmark and Estonia among
others.
11.RECOMMENDATIONS
Clarifying the advantage of green ICT by reviewing and developing green ICT auditing and evaluation methodology,
doing follow-up study of greenness of green ICT solutions, and disseminating the best practice of evaluation of
greenness of green ICT is an essential undertaking of every government. This may include developing a country policy
for green ICT that can be implemented at government level and adopted within the private enterprises.
Advancing cooperation by initiating public-private partnership in developing and implementing exemplary green ICT
solutions, greening ICT and other technology clusters, and clarifying the limits of cooperation. Increasing funding by
conditioning public procurements, grants, investments on greenness and use of green technology, including green ICT,
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and allocating resources for public-private partnership projects for developing green ICT solutions will go a long way
in stamping the effectiveness and benefits of green ICT in the economy.
Raising awareness of green ICT in the country especially among organizations will be essential. Providing essential
policy guidelines specifically targeting the broader green ICT practices is critical to the operations of the organization.
Organizations too need to realize the economic potential of green IT.
ICT needs to be separated from other sustainability mechanisms and addressed by governments individually if efforts
without bundling it together with other environmental protection areas. This is because green ICT is a multifaceted tool
that tries to reduce the environmental footprint of ICT as well as provide solutions to other environmental pollution
agents.
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[16] Chen, Adela, Boudreau, Marie-Claude, and Watson, Richard T. Information systems and ecological sustainability.
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Competitiveness. (Detroit Michigan 2011), Proceedings of the Seventeenth Americas Conference on Information
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[35] Marie-Claude Boudreau, Adela Chen, Mark Huber. Green IS: Building Sustainable Business Practices. Ceport
Report: Global text (2008), 1-17.
[36] Melville, Nigel P. INFORMATION SYSTEMS INNOVATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY.
MIS QUARTERY (2010), 1-21.
[37] Olson, Eric G. Creating an enterprise-level green strategy. Journal of Business Strategy (2008), 22-30.
[38] IPCC. Fifth assessment Report of Climate Change by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
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[39] GOOGLE. Google's Green Computing: Efficiency at scale. Califonia, 2012.
[40] Johnson, Gerry and Scholes, Kevan. Exploring Corporate Strategy, 6th edition. Financial Times/Prentice Hall,
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[41] Jenkin, Tracy A., Webster, Jane, and McShane, Lindsay. An agenda for green Information Technology and
Systems Research. Information and Organization (2011), 17-40.
[42] Loeser, Fabian, Erek, Koray, and Zarnekow, Ruediger. TOWARDS A TYPOLOGY OF GREEN IS
STRATEGIES: INSIGHTS FROM CASE STUDIES. In Thirty Third International Conference on Information
Systems, Orlando 2012 (ORLANDO 2012), International Conference on Information System, 1-19.
[43] MICROSOFT. Green Computing. The Architecture Journal #18, 2013.
[44] SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS OREGON. IT sector cuts CO2 emmissions by 32M metric tones. Portland Business
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[45] CDW. Implementing Green I.T. Eleven Ways I.T. Can Lower Power Consumption, Reduce Costs & Eliminate
Waste. CDW-G, Illinois, 2007.
[46] Mann, Hanuv, Grant, Gerald, and Mann, Inder Jit Singh. Green IT: An Implementation Framework. In Americas
Conference on Information Systems (ACIS) (San Francisco 2009), Association for Information Systems Electronic
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[47] Porter, Michael. competitive strategy. The academy of management journal (1980).
[48] SAFARICOM LIMITED. Safaricom UNCOP Report. Safaricom Limited, Nairobi-Kenya, 2011/2012.
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Authors
Kevin Mwiti Njeru is a lecturer at Mount Kenya University in the Department of Information
Technology. He holds a Master of Science in Information Technology from Mount Kenya University
and a Bsc. Computer Science from Gretsa University. He has published a number of papers in Green
ICT/IS and His research interests include Green Computing, Information Systems, Computer
Networks, Databases, and Artificial intelligence.
Zipporah Wangechi Munene is Lecturer at KCA University in the department of Information

Technology. She holds a Master of business Administration - management Information System from
The University of Nairobi (UON) and a Bsc. Information Technology from Jomo Kenyatta
University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT). She has a wealth of knowledge and experience
in teaching in the areas of Management Information Systems, Business Information Systems,
Business Intelligence, software Engineering and data communications and networking areas which
also form a major component of her research interests.
Kevin Murithi Njagi is Lecturer at Mount Kenya University in the department of Information
Technology. He holds a Master of Science in software Engineering from Jomo Kenyatta University
and a Bsc. Computer Science from Kabarak University. He has a wealth of knowledge and
experience in teaching in the areas of programming, software Engineering, hardware and software
maintenance and data communications and networking. He has research interests mainly in
software security, Information Technology Systems and Computer Networks.
Robert Kimani Mwangi is a lecturer at Mount Kenya University in the Department of Information
Technology. He holds a Master of Science in Information Technology from Mount Kenya
University and a Bed (Science). Majoring in computer Studies and mathematics from Mount Kenya
University. His research interests is in Integration of ICT in education, information Systems,
Business Intelligence, Green ICT and Network security
Bildad Mbagara is a lecturer at Mount Kenya University in the Department of Information
Technology. He has been a lecturer at Meru University of Science and Technology, Zetech
University and Kenyatta University in The field of computing. He holds a Master of Science in
Informatics from University West in Sweden and a Bachelor of Applied science in Information
Technology from RMIT (Australia). His research interests is in Integration of ICT in artificial
Intelligence, Smart networks and Network Security
Kaaria Karwitha Joy is an associate faculty at Mount Kenya University. She holds a Master of
Science degree in Procurement from Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
(JKUAT) and B.Com. procurement from University of Nairobi. Her research interests includes
Supply Chain Integration, Business Information Systems, E-procurement, and E-procurement
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International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management (IJAIEM)

Web Site: www.ijaiem.org Email: editor@ijaiem.org

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Denial-Of -Service Attack Detection Using KDD

2. EXISTING SYSTEM FOR DETECTING DOS ATTACKS

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3.DRAWBACKS OF THE EXISTING SYSTEM

4. KDD CUP 99 DATASET

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5. GENETIC ALGORITHM USED IN RULE SET CREATION

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[12] CERT. Denial of Service Attacks. http://www.cert.org/tech tips/denial of service.html

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Company Attributes and the Timeliness of

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2.HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INTERIM FINANCIAL REPORTS IN JORDAN

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company size, measured by natural log of total assets;

company growth, measured by the percentage change in net sales;

leverage of a company, measured by log of ratio of debt to total assets;

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Within 3 weeks (21 days)

One month or 31 days ( due date)

More than one month

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Table 2: Regression results of timeliness against independent variables

COMPANY SIZE, MEASURED BY TOTAL ASSETS;

COMPANY GROWTH, MEASURED BY THE PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN NET SALES;

LEVERAGE OF A COMPANY, MEASURED BY RATIO OF DEBT TO TOTAL ASSETS;

FIRM SIZE, CLASSIFIED BIG FIRM (BIG

OR LOCAL FIRMS WITH INTERNATIONAL AFFILIATIONS) AND