This article was downloaded by: [Quaid-i-azam University]

On: 30 September 2014, At: 22:13

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing

Science: Bridging Asia and the World
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rgam20

Consumer motivations to disclose

information and participate in
commercial activities on Facebook
a

Mark Ng
a

Department of Business Administration, Hong Kong Shue Yan

University, North Point, HKSAR, Hong Kong
Published online: 17 Sep 2014.

To cite this article: Mark Ng (2014) Consumer motivations to disclose information and participate in
commercial activities on Facebook, Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science: Bridging Asia
and the World, 24:4, 365-383, DOI: 10.1080/21639159.2014.949372
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21639159.2014.949372

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
Content) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 2014

Vol. 24, No. 4, 365383, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21639159.2014.949372

Consumer motivations to disclose information and participate in

commercial activities on Facebook
Facebook

Mark Ng*

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Department of Business Administration, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, North Point, HKSAR,
Hong Kong
(Received 25 June 2013; Revised 3 August 2013; Final version received 3 October 2013)
The prevalence of social media use has significantly expanded the landscape of
marketing communication and brand community management. Currently, various
international brand players are beginning to develop ways of communicating with their
customers on social media. This study focuses on the marketing applications of social
media by examining the key motivations influencing the disclosure of personal
information and participation in commercial activities of Facebook users in Hong
Kong. The 566 responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics, reliability analysis
and structural equation modeling. The results support most of our hypotheses,
suggesting that perceived convenience of maintaining relationships, enjoyment of
activities, self-presentation, social presence, and perceived risks of privacy invasion
have significant impacts on users self-disclosure on Facebook and participation in
commercial activities. The findings contribute to the literature on internet consumer
behavior and have implications for the use of social media tools in marketing.
Keywords: consumer motivation; social media; commercial activity; information
disclosure; Facebook
Facebook

Facebook
Facebook

2030
Facebook
SEM586
. FacebookFacebook
Facebook
. Facebook
Facebook
.

*Email: chng@hksyu.edu
q 2014 Korean Scholars of Marketing Science

366

M. Ng
.

Facebook

Facebook

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

; ; ; ; Facebook

1.

Introduction

Over the past few years, online social networks (OSN) have swept through popular culture
and been adopted across industries. As of February 2012, more than 1.5 billion people had
social media accounts. The most visited website, Facebook, reported having more than
1.1 billion users globally in May 2013, more than 50% of whom log in to their account every
day, and 30 billion pieces of content are shared each month. The strong growth of
smartphones and other mobile devices has also enhanced use of Facebook and different
OSNs. Facebook, Twitter and Live are among the top 10 most visited OSN websites globally.
OSNs have become not only part of our social lives but also a major economic
phenomenon. Businesses are adopting social media as a major tool to communicate with
target customers, define and fulfill the needs of customers, and maintain relationships with
customers. One third of consumer spending is said to be influenced by social media. It is
predicted that the use of social media to improve communication, productivity and
consumer focus in four major business sectors could add between US$900 billion and $1.3
trillion to the US economy.
The prevalence of Facebook and other OSNs has significantly expanded the landscape
of marketing communication and the development of brand communities. Spending on
word-of-mouth marketing has increased significantly, at a compound annual growth rate
of 53.7% from 2001 to 2008 (Anonymous, 2009). Many major brands have established
Facebook pages to connect with target markets. It has been reported that 56% of
consumers said in a survey that they are more likely to recommend a brand after becoming
a fan. Facebook is a potentially powerful marketing tool, but only if used in a correct
manner. According to a recent survey, 82% of Facebook brand pages are inactive (with
less than five posts per month) and more than 90% of conversations posted on these pages
were left unattended. These results reflect that many companies are still struggling to
understand how to use Facebook properly to promote their brands and engage with users.
Incorrect use of Facebook and other OSNs may even lead to consumers having adverse
reactions to marketing messages and spreading dissatisfaction to others in their OSNs,
which may negatively affect the company image and reduce the ability to use OSNs as a
marketing tool (Diffley, Kearns, Bennett, & Kawalek, 2011).
The use of OSNs is also prevalent in Hong Kong and China. Although Facebook is
blocked in China, the number of OSN users in China has increased dramatically since
2009. The number of active Chinese OSN users reached 265 million in 2011 and more
than 95% Internet users in China have OSN accounts. As of September 2012, there were
more than 4 million Facebook users in Hong Kong, constituting more than 56% of its
population and 82% of its online population. Facebooks high penetration rate has made it
a major tool for international brands to do interactive marketing in Hong Kong.

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

367

Internet penetration is very high in Hong Kong but the credibility of Internet
advertising is low (Prendergast, Liu, & Poon, 2009). As a result, many major brands use
Facebook to connect with customers, build image and promote their products in the form
of brand communities. For example, in the first half of 2012, Estee Lauder spent more than
US$700,000 on online advertising to promote its new Facebook page and attracted more
than 60,000 fans to like the page. The highest-ranked fan pages, such as Beecrazy and
Ocean Park, have connected with more than 400,000 fans. These connections have
allowed them to directly and effectively communicate with potential customers and
reduced their spending on traditional advertising media.
These figures reflect that OSNs have changed the rules of the game in marketing.
Instead of putting strong emphasis on advertisement, these brands have used different
kinds of activities to attract and maintain fans and strengthen their relationships. As a
result, this paper aims to investigate how marketers in Hong Kong can make use of
Facebook to engage with customers effectively. Specifically, the main objectives are to
examine the key factors that motivate users to present their information and participate in
commercial activities on Facebook.
Many researchers have started examining viral marketing as a tool for marketing
communications (Ahn, Lee, Lee, & Paik, 2012; De Bruyn & Lilien, 2008; Godes & Mayzlin,
2009). These studies examine the characteristics of WOM (word-of-mouth) transmitters and
the role of WOM in viral marketing. For instance, van der Lans, van Bruggen, Eliashberg,
and Wierenga (2010) proposed a branching model for predicting the spread of online WOM.
Park, Song, and Ko (2011) also identified four features entertainment, WOM, interaction,
and customization of social networks which exert effects on brand loyalty. However, in the
social media marketing literature, there are few studies about attracting Internet users
participation in commercial activities, such as joining fan pages. Thus, this paper contributes
to the literature on social media marketing by examining the key motivating factors that
determine consumers participation in commercial activities on social media. Considering
the growing importance of the Chinese market and the significant influence of online WOM
on Chinese customers (Xue & Zhou, 2010), it is also worthwhile to examine the key
motivating factors that determine how Chinese customers use social media.
2. Literature review
2.1 Key motivational factors for using Facebook
One of the challenges for marketers has been to motivate consumers behaviors in
different areas, such as providing their information and participating in brand-centered
communications. Motivation is viewed as a force that directs individuals toward goals
(Maclnnis & Jaworski, 1989). In the context of this study, motivation is defined as a users
interest to engage in activities with other Facebook users. Motivated consumers in a brand
community will be energized and willing to engage in brand community activities online.
As previous studies have adopted various perspectives to explain peoples motivations and
behaviors online, I also adopt a multidimensional perspective in this study. Major
theoretical perspectives adopted in this study include social exchange theory, uses and
gratification theory, and social identity theory.
Social exchange theory is based on the premise that social interaction is an exchange of
activities, particularly of costs and benefits (Homans, 1958). As the Internet culture puts
strong emphasis on cooperation and sharing, the norm of reciprocity plays a key role in
regulating the behaviors of participants in online communities. According to social
exchange theory, people engage in some actions if they find that the potential benefits of

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

368

M. Ng

disclosure or participation in some activities offset the potential threats or losses (Bateman
& Organ, 1983). Social exchange theory has been applied in different areas of marketing
and research on Internet behaviors. For example, some studies have found that people
engaged in social media participate in online communities as they can receive useful
information, enjoy rich entertainment, and build social connections online (Krasnova,
Spiekermann, Koroleva, & Hildebrand, 2010; Stafford, Stafford, & Schkade, 2004). Chen,
Chen, and Farn (2010) also used social exchange theory to predict the formation of
citizenship behavior in virtual communities.
Uses and gratifications theory also provides an answer to questions regarding
consumers social media usage (Stafford & Stafford, 2001) by suggesting that people use
media to fulfill a core set of motivation (Dholakia, Bagozzi, & Pearo, 2004). Dholakia
et al. (2004) identified five value perceptions driving consumers to join virtual
community, which included purposive value, self-discovery, maintaining interpersonal
interconnectivity, social enhancement, and entertainment value. Purposive value refers to the
use of social media to achieve instrumental purposes such as gaining useful information and
completing tasks. Self-discovery refers to the achievement of self-understanding through
interaction. Maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity refers to friendship, social support,
and affection. Social enhancement refers to the value a member feels when being accepted
and respected in a community. Entertainment value refers to the feeling of relaxation and
fun gained from different activities. This five-value perspective provided us with a good
basis for understanding peoples motivations to engage with online communities.
Social identity theory suggests that a person achieves a social identity through selfawareness of membership of a group and their perceived status in that group (Tajfel,
1978). From this perspective, participation in a virtual community relates to both personal
self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 1985) and collective self-esteem (Crocker, Luhtanen,
Blaine, & Broadnax, 1994). Personal self-esteem can be satisfied when members fulfill
their self-related motivations, which include gaining personal knowledge, experiencing
enjoyment, and maintaining positive self-concept. Collective self-esteem can be enhanced
by members fulfillment of their social motivation. In other words, people join brand
communities with the aim of building relationships with people who have similar
connections to the brand (Muniz & Oguinn, 2001) and achieving a certain social position
or status within the group (Muniz & Schau, 2005).
These theoretical perspectives provide us a solid foundation to examine consumers
motivations for self-disclosure and brand community participation. Major motivations for
and barriers to using social media and disclosing personal information online include
information exchange, social interaction, relationship building, pleasure seeking and
entertainment, self-image enhancement and needs of self-expression and self-actualization
(Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2009; Hui, Tan, & Goh, 2006; Rosen & Sherman, 2006;
Shao, 2009). The major cost of disclosing personal information online is the perceived
privacy risk (Malhotra, Kim, & Agarwal, 2004).
As shown by Kim, Sohn, and Choi (2011), major motivations for using social network
sites seeking friends, social support, entertainment, information, and convenience are
similar between users in eastern and western countries. However, reflecting the unique
social nature of the medium, the weights placed on these motivations are different. Many
empirical studies have found that Chinese Facebook users describe similar motivations to
join social networking websites: for example, Lin and Lu (2011) found that enjoyment is
the most influential factor, followed by social presence and usefulness. A recent survey
classified active Chinese social media users into social enthusiasts, resenders, readers, and
opinionated users (Chiu, Lin, & Silverman, 2012). The major motivations among these

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

369

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

users included maintenance of relationships, self-presentation (seeking social status),

enjoyment, and seeking useful information (Dong, Wu, & Gu, 2012). Huang and Chen
(2012) also suggested that the major concern for Chinese Facebook users is the risk of
privacy invasion. As a result, I include six major factors in this study: convenience of
relationship maintenance, enjoyment, self-presentation, information benefits, social
presence, and privacy invasion. Table 1 summarizes the major motivational factors
identified in these studies and their relationships with different theoretical perspectives.
2.2 Proposed model
There are two dependent variables in this study: self-disclosure and participation ins
commercial activities on social media. Facebook provide means for users to selectively
disclose information about themselves and communicate with friends. Self-disclosure
refers to the amount of information disclosed in terms of frequency and duration (Wheeless
& Grotz, 1976). Participation in commercial activities refers to users liking of fan pages,
sharing of product and promotion information, and participation in brand events and
promotional sales activities. Previous studies supported that convenience of maintaining
relationships, enjoyment, self-presentation, social presence, and perceived risks of privacy
invasion are directly related to an individuals self-disclosure on Facebook, while
information benefits, enjoyment, self-presentation, social presence, and perceived risks of
privacy invasion are directly related to users participation in commercial activities online.
2.2.1

Convenience of maintaining relationships

Heavy users of internet have a high desire for convenience (Brashear, Kashyap, Musante,
& Donthu, 2009). The popularity of social networking websites has allowed individuals to
communicate with thousands of relatives, friends, and even strangers conveniently and
efficiently. They can keep in touch with their friends latest news and, in exchange, update
their friends with their recent life changes and activities. This convenience has motivated
use of Facebook and other OSNs (Dwyer, Hiltz, & Passerini, 2007; Hann, Hui, Lee, &
Png, 2007; Hui et al., 2006). The three major uses of OSN in Australia are keeping in touch
Table 1. An overview of motivation for self-disclosure and participation of commercial activities
on Facebook.
Motivation

Source (examples)

Convenience of
maintaining
relationship
Information benefits

Dwyer et al., 2007; Hann et al., 2007; Hui Social exchange theoryUses
et al., 2006; Krasnova et al., 2010
and gratifications theory

Enjoyment
Risks of privacy
invasion
Self-presentation
Social presence

Theoretical perspective

Chang et al., 1999; Dholakia et al., 2004

Social exchange theory

Uses and gratifications theory
Social identity theory
Krasnova et al., 2010; Sledgianowski &
Social exchange theory
Kulviwat, 2008;Young, 2009
Uses and gratifications theory
Social identity theory
Malhotra et al., 2004; Krasnova et al., 2010 Social exchange theory
Krasnova et al., 2008; Sachdev, 2011
Sachdev, 2011

Uses and gratifications theory

Social identity theory
Uses and gratifications theory
Social identity theory

370

M. Ng

with family and friends, communicating with others and following what is happening in
the lives of others (Young, 2009). The convenience of relationship maintenance may
motivate people to use Facebook and other OSNs to communicate with their friends
satisfactorily, share personal information and interact with them (Park, Shin, & Ju, 2014).
Therefore, I hypothesize:

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

H1:

Users perceived convenience of using Facebook to maintain relationships is

positively related to their self-disclosure on Facebook.

2.2.2 Information benefits

Facebook is a platform for users to gain knowledge and information from their friends and
different virtual communities. Chang, Kannan, and Whinston (1999) suggested that there
were three factors related to the development of a virtual community: continuously
updated information, protection of privacy risks, and a good membership system. Virtual
communities provision of useful and interesting information content could stimulate
peoples participation in that community (Armstrong & Hagel, 1997; Ko, Chun, Song, &
Kim, 2013). Thus, information and knowledge gained from Facebook can enhance users
participation in marketing activities.
H2:

Users information benefits obtained from Facebook are positively related to their
participation in commercial activities on Facebook.

2.2.3 Enjoyment
Facebook is not only a way to connect with other people, but also a major source of
entertainment. Some Facebook users use it as a hedonic platform which allows them to
discover the latest entertaining posts, news, music videos, films, and games. Enjoyment is
the intrinsic reward derived from the use of the Internet (Igbaria, Parasuraman, & Baroudi,
1996; Igbaria, Schiffman, & Wieckowski, 1994). After receiving pleasure and fun, the
audience gets actively involved in the mass communication process (Wearden & Harper,
2000). Thus, enjoyment is a powerful predictor of users self-disclosure and participation
on Facebook (Rosen & Sherman, 2006). The importance of enjoyment benefits to
Facebook participation is also supported by various empirical studies (Krasnova et al.,
2010; Sledgianowski & Kulviwat, 2008; Young, 2009). Thus, I hypothesize:
H3a:
H3b:

2.2.4

Users enjoyment of using Facebook is positively related to their self-disclosure

on Facebook.
Users enjoyment of using Facebook is positively related to their participation in
commercial activities on Facebook.

Perceived risks of privacy

Facebook and other OSNs allow users to get in touch with peers and build social networks
effectively. However, the use of these tools involves risks associated with public
accessibility of users personal information and information shared with other parties
(Acquisti & Gross, 2006; Hogben, 2007). Examples of privacy problems include identity
fraud (Haddadi & Hui, 2010; Young & Quan-Haase, 2009), online harassment, and cyber
bullying, such as posting problematic messages on users Facebook walls (Valkenburg &

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

371

Peter, 2009). Users who are worried about privacy issues related to use of OSNs are less
likely to disclose their information, allow businesses to access their personal information,
and participate in various activities on OSNs (Dinev & Hart, 2003; Gao, Sultan, & Rohm,
2010;Hugl, 2011; Krasnova et al., 2010). Therefore I hypothesize:
H4a:
H4b:

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

2.2.5

Users perceived privacy risk is negatively related to their self-disclosure on

Facebook.
Users perceived privacy risk is negatively related to their participation in
commercial activities on Facebook.

Self-presentation

Facebook users can use various means to establish the image they wish to project in their
social community (Walther, 1996). For example, they may only reveal information which
they are proud of, and decide what impression they would like to create through partial
disclosure of their personal information. Thus, users actively engaged in impression
management tend to display more information online (Krasnova, Hildebrand, Gunther,
Kovrigin, & Nowobilska, 2008; Sachdev, 2011). However, this proposition was rejected in
another study in Australia (Krasnova et al., 2010) which says most people use Facebook to
connect with their friends and relatives and not to project an exaggerated, enhanced image.
In Chinese culture, the emphasis on face is a common social phenomenon. Face is the
social esteem obtained from others (Lim & Bowers, 1991). Chinese perceive their selfimage on the basis of feedback on their social activities, which reflect their social value
(Zhu, 1988). Thus, the image-conscious Chinese Facebook users disclose some positive
information about themselves and participate in interesting and positive activities online to
enhance their image. I therefore hypothesize:
H5a:
H5b:

Users perceived benefits of self-presentation are positively related to their selfdisclosure on Facebook.
Users perceived benefits of self-presentation are positively related to their
participation in commercial activities on Facebook.

2.2.6 Social presence

Social presence refers to the degree to which users perceive their presence and interaction
with others online (Sachdev, 2011). Facebook provides many features that enhance
perceptions of social presence, such as status updates of friends, a list of friends available
to chat online, links and games shared by friends, and new photos of friends uploaded to
their photo albums. This social presence allows members to simulate the presence of
others virtually and enhance their use of social media to connect with friends online
(Sachdev, 2011). Besides, friends participation in commercial activities on Facebook,
such as commenting on products, liking fan pages, and joining brand events has some
impact on attitudes and purchase intentions toward products. Friends recommendations
are appealing as they share similar interests and background and are perceived as genuine
and relevant (Diffley et al., 2011). Thus, I posit the following three hypotheses:
H6a:
H6b:

Users perceived social presence on Facebook is positively related to their selfdisclosure on Facebook.
Users perceived social presence on Facebook is positively related to their
participation in commercial activities on Facebook.

372

M. Ng

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

3. Research methodology
3.1 Participants and data collection
This research was conducted using a structured, self-administered questionnaire. A pilot
questionnaire was designed and administered to 30 young adults, which outlined a number
of potential areas that required improvement. After revision, a link to the updated
questionnaire was sent through e-mail with a covering letter explaining the topic and goals
of the research.
More than 710 questionnaires were administered, resulting in 566 valid responses,
with an overall response rate of 79.72%. There were 252 men (44.5%) and 314 women
(55.5%) among the respondents. Most participants were below 35 years old (94.9%) and
students at two different universities in Hong Kong. More than 75% of the participants had
online shopping experience. They were active users of Facebook, with more than 80%
logging in to their Facebook account every day. The profiles of participants in this survey
were quite similar to Facebook user patterns. Participants had an average of 347.9 friends
in their Facebook accounts.

3.2

Instrument and measures

This study was designed to answer the following research question: How do different
factors relate to the motivation for self-disclosure and participation in commercial
activities on Facebook? The independent variables were factors that motivate consumers
to disclose information on Facebook, which included convenience, relationship building,
self-presentation, enjoyment, perceived privacy risks, and social presence. The
dependent variables were their attitudes toward satisfaction with using Facebook and
participation in commercial activities (Table 2). Measures for the variables in the
proposed model were adapted from previous studies (Krasnova et al., 2010; Malhotra,
Sung, & Agarwal, 2004; Nambisan & Baron, 2007; Walther, Slovacek, & Tidwell, 2001).
The measurement items used seven-point Likert scales anchored by strongly disagree
and strongly agree, with a point of neutrality in the middle. The survey instrument also
contained questions about the respondents demographics and their usage behavior with
regard to Facebook.

4.
4.1

Results
Measurement model and structural model

Structural equation modeling was used to test the measurement model, then the path
model and the hypotheses. In the first step, the principal components with eigenvalues
of over 1 were used to extract the factors used in the study. Ultimately, all items were
retained after identification of variables with more than one factor, or removal of items
with low factor loadings. The data were then rotated by the varimax method and
reliabilities of the extracted factors were assessed using Cronbachs Alpha coefficient.
The Cronbachs Alpha measures are found to have reliability coefficients well above
the typically accepted level of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). Cronbachs alpha on factors turns
out to be 0.756 at minimum and 0.889 at maximum, indicating high-level reliability
(Table 3).
Next, the measurement model comprising all items was tested with the global fit indexes
(x 2/df 1.099; goodness-of-fit index [GFI] .958, comparative fit index [CFI] .996,
normed fit index [NFI] .958, incremental fit index [IFI] .996, and root mean square

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

373

Table 2. Measure of constructs.

Latent variable

Source

Convenience in
Krasnova et al., 2010
relationship maintenance

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Enjoyment

Krasnova et al., 2010;

Nambisan & Baron,
2007

Perceived privacy risk

Malhotra et al., 2004

Self-presentation

Walther et al., 2001

Social presence

Self-developed

Participation of
commercial activities on
Facebook

Self-developed

Item samples
Facebook is convenient to inform all my
friends about my ongoing activities
Facebook allows me to save time when I want
to share something new with my friends
When I am bored I often log in to Facebook
I spend enjoyable and relaxing time on
Facebook
Overall, I see no real threat to my privacy due
to my presence on Facebook (reversed)
Overall, I find it risky to publish my personal
information on Facebook
I try to make a good impression on others on
Facebook
I try to present myself in a favorable way on
Facebook
I find time to keep my profile up-to-date
I keep my friends updated about what is going
on in my life through Facebook
My friends are active users of Facebook
My friends always update their status on
Facebook
My friends always share their interests
through Facebook
I always share some shopping privileges on
Facebook
I have participated in groups established by
some brands
I always share my views on different products
or brands on Facebook
I have participated in some promotional
activities organized by brands through
Facebook

error of approximation [RMSEA] .013) with AMOS software (Version 21). The result
revealed that the hypothesized factor structure fitted the data well, indicating the model was
acceptable (Table 4). According to the results of correlation analysis, all constructs had
significant relationships to users self-disclosure and participation in commercial activities
on Facebook (Table 5).
After validation of the measurement models, the next step was to test the hypotheses.
A structural model was suggested with nine constructs convenience of relationship
maintenance, information benefit, enjoyment, perceived privacy risk, self-presentation,
social presence, attitude toward using Facebook, self-disclosure, and participation in
commercial activities on Facebook. All global fit indexes (x 2/df 1.02; goodness-of-fit
index [GFI] .962, comparative fit index [CFI] .999, normed fit index [NFI] .962,
incremental fit index [IFI] .999, and root mean square error of approximation
[RMSEA] .013) reached acceptable levels. The hypothesized factor structure fitted the
data well and the model was found to be well specified (Table 4).

3.742
3.322
3.371

PC2
PC3
PC4

1.675
1.564
1.691

0.879
1.056
0.936
1.116
1.022
0.908
1.143
1.074
1.138
1.436
1.270
1.245
1.214
1.182
1.150
1.004
0.882
0.861
0.897
1.465
1.331
1.359
1.485

Standard
deviation

0.692
0.801
0.669

0.754
0.633
0.758
0.695
0.864
0.668
0.671
0.749
0.785
0.734
0.837
0.589
0.788
0.897
0.740
0.804
0.890
0.889
0.716
0.823
0.925
0.774
0.702

Standardized factor
loading
AVE

0.515

0.711

0.685

0.658

0.529

0.542

0.559

0.515

Note: Recommended criteria of acceptance of composite reliability is 0.7, and criteria of AVE is 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Participation in commercial activities on

Facebook

Self-disclosure

Social presence

Self-presentation

Perceived privacy risk

Enjoyment

Information benefits

5.878
5.550
5.682
4.633
5.203
5.633
5.769
4.931
5.288
4.650
4.827
4.813
4.682
4.435
4.472
5.633
5.705
5.663
5.569
4.385
4.832
4.730
3.666

CON1
CON2
CON3
BI1
BI2
BI3
EN1
EN2
EN3
RISK1
RISK3
RISK4
SP1
SP2
SP3
FS1
FS2
FS3
FS4
SD1
SD2
SD3
PC1

Convenience of relationship maintenance

Mean

Item

Latent Variable

Table 3. Quality criteria of the constructs.

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

0.809

0.880

0.896

0.851

0.767

0.780

0.789

0.760

Composite
reliability

0.807

0.873

0.889

0.846

0.758

0.780

0.768

0.756

Cronbachs
alpha

374
M. Ng

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

375

Table 4. Goodness-of-fit measures for confirmatory factor analysis and structural model.
Goodness-of-fit measure

Recommended cut-off criteria (source)

Normedo Chi-square x2/df

GFI

,3 (Kline, 2005)
.0.90 (Joreskog & Sorborm, 1989)
. 0.80 (Etezadi-Amoli & Farhoomand, 1996)
.0.80 (Joreskog & Sorborm, 1989)
,0.06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999)
, 0.08 (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004)
.200
.0.95 (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004)
.0.95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999)
.0.95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999)
.0.95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999)

AGFI
RMSEA

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Hoelters N at 0.01
NFI
CFI
IFI
TLI (NNFI)

CFA

SM

1.099
0.960

1.020
0.962

0.943
0.013

0.947
0.013

518.389
0.960
0.996
0.996
0.996

555.471
0.962
0.999
0.999
0.999

4.2 Hypothesis testing

Besides the global fit indexes, most relationships between constructs were significant.
Most hypotheses were supported based on the parameter estimates and t-values of the
hypothesized relationships. Eight out of 10 hypotheses received significant support. The
accepted hypotheses were H1, H3a, H3b, H4a, H4b, H5a, H5b, and H6b. There was no
support for H2 or H6a (Table 6). Figure 1 graphically summarizes the results. The
explanatory power of the model was good. It explained 47.1% of the variance of selfdisclosure on Facebook and 32.1% of the variance of users participation in commercial
activities on Facebook.

5.

Discussion and implications

5.1 General discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the determinants of Facebook users
participation in online commercial activities. One challenge for companies using
Facebook is to get their customers not only to like their fan page, but also to share posts
on their walls. The results corroborate the findings of previous studies in this field
(Sachdev, 2011; Shao, 2009). Social exchange theory, uses and gratifications theory, and
social identity theory provide a solid foundation in explaining users self-disclosure and
participation in commercial activities on Facebook. Specifically, the results show that
convenience of relationship maintenance, self-presentation, and enjoyment of using
Table 5. Square root of AVE and correlation between latent variables.
CON

BI

EN

RISK

SP

FS

SD

PC

Convenience (CON)
.516
Information benefit (BI)
.639**
.559
Enjoyment (EN)
.571**
.563**
.542
Perceived risk (RISK)
2 .155** 2.173** 2.310**
.529
Self-presentation (SP)
.328**
.313**
.410** 2.379** .658
Social presence (FS)
.407**
.458**
.413**
.003
.187** .685
Self disclosure (SD)
.566**
.534**
.583** 2.324** .395** .291** .711
Participation in
.233**
.256**
.427** 2.375** .438** .252** .450** .515
commercial activities on
Facebook (PC)

376

M. Ng

Table 6. Standardized path coefficients, p-values, and hypothesis evaluation.

Hypothesis Construct A ! Construct B
H1
H2
H3a
H3b

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

H4a
H4b
H5a
H5b
H6a
H6b

Perceived convenience ! Self-disclosure

Information benefits ! Participation in
commercial activities on Facebook
Enjoyment ! Self-disclosure
Enjoyment ! Participation in commercial
activities on Facebook
Perceived privacy risk ! Self-disclosure
Perceived privacy risk ! Participation in
commercial activities on Facebook
Self-presentation ! Self-disclosure
Self-presentation ! Participation in
commercial activities on Facebook
Social presence ! Self-disclosure
Social Presence ! Participation in
commercial activities on Facebook

Path
coefficient P-value
0.340
20.071

Rejected/
Supported

, 0.01 Supported
0.262 Not supported

0.313
0.256

, 0.01
, 0.01

Supported
Supported

20.137
20.220

, 0.01
, 0.01

Supported
Supported

0.106
0.250

, 0.05
, 0.01

Supported
Supported

20.006
0.133

0.886 Not supported

, 0.05 Supported

Facebook are directly and positively related to users attitudes toward using Facebook and
their activities on Facebook. This study shows that the entertainment motive was the most
powerful predictor of satisfaction with using Facebook and disclosure of personal
information on Facebook. Thus, many users are using Facebook as a major platform for
entertainment and in a similar fashion as blogs (Hunt, Atkin, & Krishnan, 2012). Besides
this, convenience in maintaining relationships and self-presentation are strong driving
forces for using Facebook. The primary motive of Chinese Facebook users is to connect
with their friends effectively. They are more willing to disclose personal information and

Figure 1. Results of the structural model.

Note: **Significance at 1%, *Significance at 5%.

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

377

share interesting information on Facebook when they want to use it to connect with friends
and relatives. Users self-presentation is related to their self-disclosure and participation in
commercial activities, which is consistent with some previous studies (Sachdev, 2011).
This finding shows Chinese social media users use social media to build and maintain a
good social image. They tend to selectively display some information to create a favorable
public image and are less likely to participate in some activities which have negative
effects on their personal image.
Perceived risks of privacy are negatively related to their attitudes and participation in
commercial activities on Facebook. In other words, some Facebook users do not join these
commercial activities as these companies usually require users to allow them to access
their personal information, refer products or activities to their friends, and post on behalf
of the users.
In contrast to previous studies, there is no significant support on the relationship
between perceived social presence and self-disclosure. Their friends disclosure of
information on Facebook does not have significant effects on their self-disclosure. In other
words, some Facebook users in Hong Kong only seek updated information from their
friends; they are not willing to disclose their personal information online. However, social
presence has a significant relation to their participation in commercial activities on
Facebook. Users participate more actively in commercial activities on Facebook if they
find that their friends have liked these fan pages or participated in these online
promotional activities. Moreover, users information-seeking motives are not significantly
related to their participation in Facebook commercial activities. Users liking a fan page
do not aim to receive a lot of product information from the brand. This result reflects that
Chinese users want to use Facebook as a social tool to connect with friends instead of
brands. They view Facebook and other OSNs as private spaces where they can share their
opinions, comments, photos, and other activities with friends or people with common
interests.
5.2 Managerial implications
The proposed research model contributes to the body of knowledge on social media users
motivation theoretically and has some practical insights. The results of this study not only
extend the use of social exchange theory, social identity theory, and uses and gratifications
theory to Facebook behavior but also identify the key determinants of Facebook users
participation in commercial activities, which have some important implications for ways
in which marketers can increase their engagement with social media users.
First, enjoyment is the strongest motivator among different factors. Thus, companies
can stimulate consumer participation in activities by offering entertainment to them
(Heinonen, 2011). Branded entertainment can be an effective way to enhance brand
awareness, stimulate traffic, build brand loyalty, and engage with brand profile pages
(Zhang, Sung, & Lee, 2010). Marketers may enhance playfulness by creating games and
entertaining online content in different ways. For example, they can invite individuals to
comment and share their experiences and amusing incidents. Also, marketers may make
use of social media to launch innovative and attractive experiential activities to strengthen
the affective links between the customers and the brand.
Second, a company using Facebook to market its brand and products should
understand that consumers primarily use Facebook as social media (Young, 2009).
Facebook is not a new mass communication platform but a way to build social
relationships. Thus, a company should use its page to connect with consumers as friends

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

378

M. Ng

and gain their trust in the brand, instead of just providing brand information online (Diffley
et al., 2011). The company should not use Facebook or other OSNs to push messages onto
their customers. Instead, they should engage consumers in conversations directly. With a
true dialog between consumers and the company, they can create trustful and committed
relationships (Heinonen, 2011).
Third, as many users participate in commercial activities due to a desire to extend their
networks with people interested in the same brand, marketers may make use of Facebook
to develop brand communities to share information with customers, perpetuate the culture
of the brand, and assist newcomers with using the products. With the development of
social networking, marketers may move their thinking toward the consumer brand
consumer triad (Muniz & Oguinn, 2001). To build a brand community, a Facebook page
should serve not only informational but also relationship-building purposes. Direct
experience and perceived interactivity would strengthen consumers attitude toward the
brand (Kim, Lee, & Taylor, 2013). Companies should use pages to create a feeling of
belonging to a community. In addition to regularly updating the trends and latest
information about the brand and the industry, the page should encourage users to connect
with and support each other, and to share their experiences (Yan, 2011). Some companies
may also arrange for employees to share their thoughts and experiences and directly
interact with their fans to impart a human touch and ensure involvement. Through these
activities, consumers may develop strong commitment to the brand community.
Fourth, users self-presentation is also related to their participation in commercial
activities in Hong Kong. When designing online activities, the company should consider
the effects of these activities on personal images of the users. The company may create
some events and activities with more positive image to attract participation. For example,
a coffee shop may launch a Fair Trade Stamp Collection Scheme and motivate fans to
participate in some socially responsible activities. In contrast, when companies require
participants to select and push their activities to their friends, or post advertising messages
on their walls, they may make them feel embarrassed and irritated, which may reduce
participation.
Finally, on the negative side, companies should be aware that perceived privacy risks
do prevent self-disclosure and participation in commercial activities (Tow, Dell, &
Venable, 2010). To reduce privacy concerns of users, companies and OSN providers may
enhance their perceived control by providing more transparent, consistent and userfriendly privacy management systems (Hugl, 2011; Krasnova et al., 2010). Requests for
personal information should be fair and justified to avoid feelings of privacy invasion
(Poddar, Mosteller, & Ellen, 2009). Being concerned with privacy issues, Hong Kong
users tend to join activities and fan pages of only known brands that they trust. It has been
observed that they are more willing to share information from major brands with a positive
brand image.
6.

Conclusion

The development of social media has not only created a new medium to connect with
target customers but has also changed the relationship between companies and customers.
With the ability to voice their rights and share important information with friends and the
public, customers become more powerful and are willing to state what they want and
expect from a company. Companies should make use of OSN to turn customers into major
partners in various areas of business. This study examined the key motivational
determinants of OSN users and identified some implications for how a company can use its

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

379

fan page to stimulate their customers to participate in their activities and build closer
relationships with the company.
Despite the above contributions, this study has several limitations. The present
research is based on a snowball sample in Hong Kong. Future research should be expanded
to a more representative sample of a population, besides testing in other countries or
markets. Besides, some other factors may also influence the dependent variables in this
study: these include perceived anonymity (Joinson & Paine, 2007), users perceived
control of their information (Krasnova et al., 2010), trust in OSN providers (McKnight,
Choudhury, & Kacmar, 2002) and product involvement (Yoon & Han, 2012).Thus, future
studies should extend the model to gain a more comprehensive picture of participation in
commercial activities on Facebook. Moreover, this study only focused on the use of
Facebook and failed to examine the use of other OSN vehicles such as Weibo in China.
Future studies should extend their reach to compare and contrast the use of different OSN
vehicles. Finally, the present study measures consumers attitudes toward participation in
commercial activities but not their actual WOM activities and purchase behaviors. Future
research may address this limitation by linking attitudes with behavior.
References
Acquisti, A., & Gross, R. (2006). Imagined communities: Awareness, information sharing, and
privacy on the Facebook. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop in Privacy Enhancing
Technologies, June 28 30, 2006, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Retrieved from: http://people.
cs.pitt.edu/,chang/265/proj10/zim/imaginedcom.pdf
Ahn, J., Lee, C., Lee, J., & Paik, M. (2012). An analysis of different types of advertising media and
their influence on consumer preferences and purchase intentions for digital cameras. Journal of
Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 22, 356 369. doi:10.1080/21639159.2012.721212
Anonymous. (2009). Word-of-mouth marketing forecast 2009 2013: Spending, trends & analysis.
Stamford, CT: PQ Media.
Armstrong, A. G., & Hagel, J. (1997). Net gain: Expanding markets through virtual communities.
USA: McKinsey & Company.
Bateman, T. S., & Organ, D. W. (1983). Job satisfaction and the good soldier: The relationship
between affect and employee citizenship. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 587595.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/199803132?accountid10134
Brashear, T. G., Kashyap, V., Musante, M. D., & Donthu, N. (2009). A profile of the internet
shopper: Evidence from six countries. Journal of Marketing Theory Practice, 17, 267 282.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212206807?accountid10134
Chang, A., Kannan, P. K., & Whinston, A. B. (1999). Electronic communities as intermediaries: The
issues and economics. In Proceedings of the 32nd Hawaii International Conference on System
Sciences. Hawaii: IEEE Press. Retrieved from: http://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/
hicss/1999/0001/05/00015041.pdf
Chen, M., Chen, C., & Farn, C. (2010). Exploring determinants of citizenship behavior on virtual
communities of consumption: The perspective of social exchange theory. International Journal
of Electronic Business Management, 8, 195 205. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/
docview/846937737?accountid10134
Chiu, C., Lin, D., & Silverman, A. (2012). Chinas social media boom. Retrieved from: http://www.
mckinseychina.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/McKinsey-Chinas-Social-Media-Boom.pdf
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and
psychological well-being among white, black, and Asian college students. Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 503513. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/
213999475?accountid10134
De Bruyn, A., & Lilien, G. L. (2008). A multi-stage model of word-of-mouth influence through viral
marketing. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 25, 151 163. Retrieved from http://
search.proquest.com/docview/860591200?accountid10134
Dholakia, U. M., Bagozzi, R. P., & Pearo, L. K. (2004). A social influence model of consumer
participation in network-and small-group-based virtual communities. International Journal of

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

380

M. Ng

Research in Marketing, 21, 241 263. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/

196724556?accountid10134
Diffley, S., Kearns, J., Bennett, W., & Kawalek, P. (2011). Consumer behavior in social networking
sites: Implications for marketers. Irish Journal of Management, 30, 47 65. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/893090363?accountid 10134
Dinev, T., & Hart, P. (2003). Privacy concerns and Internet use A modelof trade-off factors. Paper
presented at the Academy of Management Meeting, Seattle, USA. Retrieved from http://www.
ebusinessforum.gr/old/content/downloads/Privacy%20Concerns%20And%20Internet%20Use
%20_A%20Model%20Of%20Trade-Off%20Factors.pdf
Dong, Q., Wu, Y., & Gu, X. (2012). The impact of cultural values and gender on Chinese young
adults in using social networking site (Renren). Human communication, 15, 193 205. Retrieved
from http://www.uab.edu/Communicationstudies/humancommunication/03_03_Dong.pdf
Dwyer, C., Hiltz, S., & Passerini, K. (2007, August). Trust and privacy concern within social
networking sites: A comparison of Facebook and Myspace. Proceedings of the Thirteenth
Americas Conference on Information Systems. Keystone, Colorado. Retrieved from http://csis.
pace.edu/,dwyer/research/DwyerAMCIS2007.pdf
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook friends: social capital
and college students use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 12, 1143 1168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x
Etezadi-Amoli, J., & Farhoomand, A. F. (1996). A structural model of end user computing
satisfaction and user performance. Information & Management, 30, 65 73. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/237018783?accountid 10134
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable
variables and measurement error. JMR, Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/235226668?accountid 10134
Gao, T., Sultan, F., & Rohm, A. J. (2010). Factors influencing Chinese youth consumers acceptance
of mobile marketing. The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 27, 574 583. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1108/07363761011086326
Godes, D., & Mayzlin, D. (2009). Firm-created word-of-mouth communication: Evidence from a
field test. Marketing Science, 28, 721739. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/
212308960?accountid10134
Haddadi, H., & Hui, P. (2010). To add or not to add: Privacy and social honeypots. In Proceedings of
the ICC 2010: IEEE International Conference on Communications, (pp. 23 27). Capetown,
South Africa.
Hann, I., Hui, K. L., Lee, S. T., & Png, I. P. L. (2007). Overcoming online information privacy
concerns: An information-processing theory approach. Journal of Management Information
Systems, 24, 13 42. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1366127814?
accountid10134
Heinonen, K. (2011). Consumer activity in social media: Managerial approaches to consumers
social media behavior. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 10, 356 364. Retrieved from http://
search.proquest.com/docview/914179272?accountid10134
Hogben, G. (2007). Security issues and recommendations for online social networks. Position Paper.
ENISA, European Network and Information Security Agency. Retrieved from http://
fredstutzman.com.s3.amazonaws.com/papers/ENISA2007.pdf
Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63, 597600.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2772990?uid 3738176&uid2129&
uid2&uid70&uid4&sid21102360557881
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:
Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling:
A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1 55. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/
62481431?accountid10134
Huang, L-Y., & Chen, Y-J. (2012). The study of using variables and negative reviews in social media
networking service sites - A case study of Facebook. Retrieved from http://www.scu.edu.tw/ba/
2012conference/papers/PDF/M2-5512-1.pdf
Hugl, U. (2011). Reviewing persons value of privacy of online social networking. Internet
Research, 21, 384 407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/10662241111158290
Hui, K. L., Tan, B. C. Y., & Goh, C. Y. (2006). Online information disclosure: Motivation and
measurement. ACM Transactions on Internet Technology, 6, 415 441.

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

381

Hunt, D., Atkin, D., & Krishnan, A. (2012). The influence of computer-mediated communication
apprehension on motives for Facebook use. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 56,
187 202. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1020099911?accountid 10134
Igbaria, M., Parasuraman, S., & Baroudi, J. J. (1996). A motivational model of microcomputer
usage. Journal of Management Information Systems, 13, 127. Retrieved from http://search.
proquest.com/docview/218952744?accountid 10134
Igbaria, M., Schiffman, S. J., & Wieckowski, T. J. (1994). The respective roles of perceived
usefulness and perceived fun in the acceptance of microcomputer technology. Behaviour
Information Technology, 13, 349 361. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/
618658820?accountid10134
Joinson, A. N., & Paine, C. B. (2007). Self-disclosure, privacy, and the internet. In A. N. Joinson,
K. McKeena, & T. Postmes (Eds.), Oxford handbook of internet psychology (pp. 237 252).
Oxford. Retrieved from http://ekarapanos.com/courses/socialweb/Social_Web_-_fall_2011/
Reading_Material_files/Joinson_sd.pdf Oxford University Press.
Joreskog, K. G., & Sorborm, D. (1989). LISREL-7 users reference guide. Mooresville: Scientific
Software.
Kim, J., Lee, K. H., & Taylor, C. R. (2013). Effects of mobile direct experience on perceived
interactivity and attitude toward smartphone applications. Journal of Global Scholars of
Marketing Science, 23, 282 296. doi:10.1080/21639159.2013.788365
Kim, Y., Sohn, D., & Choi, S. M. (2011). Cultural difference in motivations for using social network
sites: A comparative study of American and Korean college students. Computers in Human
Behavior, 27, 365372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.08.015
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York:
The Guilford Press.
Ko, E., Chun, E., Song, S., & Kim, K. H. (2013). Which content types increase participation in
fashion social platforms? Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 23, 297313.
doi:10.1080/21639159.2013.793503
Krasnova, H., Hildebrand, T., Gunther, O., Kovrigin, A., & Nowobilska, A. (2008). Why participate
in an online social networks: An empirical analysis. In ECIS 2008 Proceedings, Paper 33.
Galway, Ireland. Retrieved from http://aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2008/33/
Krasnova, H., Spiekermann, S., Koroleva, K., & Hildebrand, T. (2010). Online social networks: Why
we disclose. Journal of Information Technology, 25, 109 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jit.
2010.6
Lim, T., & Bowers, J. W. (1991). Facework solidarity, approbation, and tact. Human Communication
Research, 17, 415 450. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61285163?
accountid10134
Lin, K., & Lu, H. (2011). Why people use social networking sites: An empirical study integrating
network externalities and motivation theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 1152 1161.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.009
Maclnnis, D. J., & Jaworski, B. J. (1989). Information processing from advertisements: Toward an
integrative framework. Journal of Marketing, 53(4), 1. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.
com/docview/227740510?accountid 10134
Malhotra, N. K., Kim, S. S., & Agarwal, J. (2004). Internet users information privacy concerns
(IUIPC): The construct, the scale, and a causal model. Information Systems Research, 15,
336 355. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/208156803?accountid10134
McKnight, D. H., Choudhury, V., & Kacmar, C. (2002). The impact of initial consumer trust on
intentions to transact with a web site: A trust building model. Journal of Strategic Information
Systems, 11, 297 323. Retrieved from https://www.msu.edu/, mcknig26/TrBldgModel.pdf
Muniz, A. M. jr., & Oguinn, T. C. (2001). Brand community. Journal of Consumer Research, 27,
412 432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/319618
Muniz, A. M. jr., & Schau, H. J. (2005). Religiosity in the abandoned apple newton brand
community. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 737 747. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/426607
Nambisan, S., & Baron, R. A. (2007). Interactions in virtual customer environments: Implications for
product support and customer relationship management. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 21,
42 62. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/229717893?accountid10134
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

382

M. Ng

Park, J., Song, H., & Ko, E. (2011). The effect of the lifestyles of social networking service users on
luxury brand loyalty. Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 21, 182 192. doi:10.
1080/21639159.2011.9726521
Park, M., Shin, J. K., & Ju, Y. (2014). Social networking atmosphere and online retailing. Journal of
Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 24, 89 107. doi:10.1080/21639159.2013.867681
Poddar, A., Mosteller, J., & Ellen, P. S. (2009). Consumers rules of engagement in online
information exchanges. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 43, 419 448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1745-6606.2009.01147.x
Prendergast, G., Liu, P. -Y., & Poon, D. T. Y. (2009). A Hong Kong study of advertising credibility.
The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 26, 320 329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
07363760910976574
Rosen, P. A., & Sherman, P. (2006). Hedonic information systems: Acceptance of social networking
websites. Proceedings of the 12th Americas Conference on Information Systems, 1218 1223.
Presentation Date: August 5, 2006.
Sachdev, V. (2011). Motivations for social computing. IT Professional Magazine, 13, 18 23. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1109/MITP.2011.65
Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginners guide to structural equation modeling
(2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.
Shao, G. (2009). Understanding the appeal of user-generated media: A uses and gratification
perspective. Internet Research, 19, 7 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/10662240910927795
Sledgianowski, D., & Kulviwat, S. (2008). Social network sites: Antecedents of user adoption and
usage. In AMCIS 2008 Proceedings, Paper 83. Toronto, Canada. Retrieved from http://aisel.
aisnet.org/amcis2008/83/
Stafford, T. F., & Stafford, M. R. (2001). Identifying motivations for the use of commercial web
sites. Information Resources Management Journal, 14, 22 30. Retrieved from http://search.
proquest.com/docview/215883296?accountid 10134
Stafford, T. F., Stafford, M. R., & Schkade, L. L. (2004). Determining uses and gratifications for the
internet. Decision Sciences, 35, 259 288. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/
198191947?accountid10134
Tajfel, H. (1978). Social categorization, social identity, and social comparison. In H. Tajifel (Ed.),
Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations
(pp. 61 67). London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1985). The social identity theory of group behavior. In S, Worchel &
W. G, Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (Vol. 2., pp. 7 24). Chicago: NelsonHall.
Tow, W. N. H., Dell, P., & Venable, J. (2010). Understanding information disclosure behaviour in
Australian Facebook users. Journal of Information Technology, 25, 126 136. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1057/jit.2010.18
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Social consequences of the internet for adolescents: A decade
of research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(1), 1 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1467-8721.2009.01595.x
van der Lans, R., van Bruggen, G., Eliashberg, J., & Wierenga, B. (2010). A viral branching model
for predicting the spread of electronic word of mouth. Marketing Science, 29, 348365.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/205365493?accountid10134
Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and
hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 23, 3 43. Retrieved from http://search.
proquest.com/docview/61515310?accountid 10134
Walther, J. B., Slovacek, C. L., & Tidwell, L. C. (2001). Is a picture worth a thousand words?:
Photographic images in long-term and short-term computer-mediated communication.
Communication Research, 28, 105134. doi:10.1177/009365001028001004
Wearden, S. T., & Harper, J. M. (2000). Play theory revisited: Dimensions of play in television and
internet use. Paper presented to the Communication Theory and Methodology Division of the
Association for Eucation in Journalism and Mass Communication, Annual Convention, Phoenix,
Arizona.
Wheeless, L. R., & Grotz, J. (1976). Conceptualization and measurement of reported self-disclosure.
Human Communication Research, 2, 338 346. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1976.tb00494.x

Downloaded by [Quaid-i-azam University] at 22:13 30 September 2014

Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science

383

Xue, F., & Zhou, P. (2010). The effects of product involvement and prior experience on Chinese
consumers responses to online word of mouth. Journal of International Consumer Marketing,
23, 45 58. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/818672917?accountid10134
Yan, M. (2011). Social media in branding: Fulfilling a need. Journal of Brand Management, 18,
688 696. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/bm.2011.19
Yoon, S. J., & Han, H. E. (2012). Experiential approach to the determinants of online word-of-mouth
behavior. Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 22, 218 234. doi:10.1080/
21639159.2012.699219
Young, A., & Quan-Haase, A. (2009). Information revelation and internet privacy concerns on social
network sites: A case study of Facebook. 4th International Conference on Communities and
Technologies (C & T 2009), Junuary 25. Retrieved from http://sozio-informatik.net/fileadmin/
IISI/upload/2009/p265.pdf
Young, K. (2009). Online social networking: An Australian perspective. International Journal of
Emerging Technologies and Society, 7, 39 57. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/
docview/223223244?accountid10134
Zhang, J., Sung, Y., & Lee, W. (2010). To play or not to play: An exploratory content analysis of
branded entertainment in facebook. American Journal of Business, 25, 53 64. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/214179714?accountid 10134
Zhu, R. (1988). The Social Interaction of Chinese: the Mechanism of Face. In X. Zhai (Ed.), Chinese
social psychology review(in Chinese) (pp. 79 106). Beijing: Social Literature Press.