Intro Bridge

AN INTRODUCTION TO
CONCRETE BRIDGES
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The Concrete
Bridge Development Group
The Concrete Bridge Development
Group aims to promote excellence
in the design, construction and
management of concrete bridges.
With a membership that includes
all the sectors bridge-owners and
managers, contractors, designers and
suppliers - involved in the concrete
bridge industry, the Group acts as a
forum for debate and the exchange
of new ideas. The Group provides an
excellent vehicle for the industry to
coordinate an effective approach and
to enhance the use of concrete.
The Concrete Bridge Development
Group has many set objectives including
the identification and commissioning
of future bridge research needs, the
promotion of best practice and the
provision of a focus for the bridge industry.
Not least has been the specific effort
to aid and support students and young
engineers.
This includes:
Students design competition
Provision of brochures and technical
guidance
Contribution to IT material (e.g.Calcrete)
Support of education establishments
(e.g. Second Severn Bridge Visitors Centre)
Partner in Constructionarium
(New on-site training programmme
in conjunction with CITB and industry)
CBDG will continue to seek ways to offer
aid and support so that future generations
can continue to design in and use concrete
to maximum effort.
For further details please contact:
Concrete Bridge Development Group
Riverside House,
4 Meadows Business Park,
Station Approach, Blackwater,
Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: 01276 33777
Fax: 01276 38899
AN INTRODUCTION
TO CONCRETE
BRIDGES
An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

First published 2006
Concrete Bridge Development Group

ISBN 1 904482 26 0
Published for and on behalf of the

Concrete Bridge Development Group by
The Concrete Society
Riverside House
4 Meadows Business Park
Station Approach
Blackwater, Camberley
Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: +44 (0)1276 607140 Fax: +44 (0)1276 607141
E-mail: enquiries@concrete.org.uk
Website: www.concrete.org.uk
All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part
of this work may be photocopied, stored in a retrieval system, published,
performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded or
reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to the Concrete
Bridge Development Group.
Although the Concrete Bridge Development Group (limited by

guarantee) does its best to ensure that any advice, recommendations
or information it may give either in this publication or elsewhere is
accurate, no liability or responsibility of any kind (including liability for
negligence) howsoever and from whatsoever cause arising, is accepted
in this respect by the Group, its servants or agents.
Further copies of this title are available from the Concrete Bookshop,
part of The Concrete Society, at www.concrete.org.uk
and
+44 (0)700 4 607777.
Printed by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, UK.
CONTENTS
1.
Introduction.............................................................................................................................5
2.
Bridge types.............................................................................................................................5
3.
Aesthetics.................................................................................................................................. 7
4.
Bridge decks.............................................................................................................................7
5.
Loading.......................................................................................................................................10
6.
Analysis.......................................................................................................................................10
7.
Substructures and foundations...................................................................................11
8.
Material selection.................................................................................................................14
9.
Pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete......................................................17
10.
Precast concrete in bridge construction................................................................18
11.
History of pre-tensioned concrete beams in bridges....................................20
12.
Durability and detailing.....................................................................................................21
13.
Construction planning.......................................................................................................25
14.
Inspection and maintenance.........................................................................................26
15.
Health and safety....................................................................................................................27
16.
Future trends.............................................................................................................................27
17.
Further reading........................................................................................................................28
Acknowledgement
This publication was kindly supported by The Concrete Centre. Please visit them
at www.concretecentre.com for further information.
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete will be found somewhere in all bridges in the foundations,
abutments, piers, retaining walls and deck. For a bridge decks main
supporting members, there may be a choice between in-situ or
precast concrete, structural steel beams or a combination of the two
materials known as composite construction.
Concrete is versatile. It can be cast to any shape so dicult geometrical
requirements, such as a bridge with pronounced skew or curvature,
can be easily satised. Concrete bridges can be designed with high
span/depth ratios, so shallow decks are possible.
2. BRIDGE TYPES
There are several basic bridge types that are usually adopted for
the construction of concrete bridges with various combinations of
layout used for the superstructure (deck) and substructure (supports
and foundations).
2.1 Slab bridges

For short spans, the simplest form of bridge deck is a concrete slab.
Slab bridges can be cast in-situ in either reinforced or prestressed
concrete. In longer spans, the self-weight of the slab may be reduced
by using polystyrene void formers in the construction. Solid slab
bridges may also be constructed from precast prestressed concrete
beams normally inverted T-shaped beams with in-situ concrete
inll and topping. This form of construction is economical for spans
up to about 18m.
Figure 1: Slab bridge on A30, Bagshot, Surrey
2.2 Beam and slab bridges

Beam and slab bridges are generally constructed of precast
prestressed concrete beams with an in-situ concrete slab. In-situ
beam and slab construction, known as a ribbed deck, is rarely used
now but can be found in older, existing bridges.
Beam and slab bridges are economical for spans from 12m to
36m, but the span may be limited by the length of beam that it is
permissible to transport. In the UK this is normally 30m. Beyond this
a special order is required from the Department for Transport, which
permits lengths up to 40m when the beams are transported to
motorway sites via the motorway network. Longer-span box beams
can be cast in-situ and post-tensioned.
A series of spans over several piers can be constructed as an integral
bridge, without movement joints. In this type of bridge, either insitu concrete or precast concrete beams can be used, with the joints
Figure 2: Beam and slab bridge at Oyster Creek, Gambia
between the precast beams lled with in-situ concrete. The deck may
be supported by elastomeric bearings at the piers, and longitudinal
movements are resisted by dowels or anchors. Alternatively the
beams may be cast into the pier structure. This arrangement, without
any movement joints, has typically been used for bridge structures
with overall lengths of up to 100m, although longer lengths are
possible. It has become popular because of the problems caused
by the penetration of water and de-icing salts through movement
joints in other forms of construction.
will aect the substructures and vice versa, so a full appreciation of

their interactive behaviour needs to be understood.
2.3 Framed bridges
2.6 Long-span bridges
Slabs and abutments are often connected monolithically to form a

portal-frame. This type of construction is usually cast in-situ and can
be used instead of slab, or beam and slab bridges. As with integral
bridges, there are advantages to be gained by avoiding movement
joints.
The use of a fully supported sot using formwork for long-span insitu concrete bridges is expensive, and may also be dicult. These
bridges are often constructed incrementally using travelling formwork
or concrete sections cast on stationary formwork, with the bridge
pushed out from the abutments a system known as incremental
launching. These bridges are frequently post-tensioned.
For short spans, a concrete culvert can be used as a simple form of

framed bridge. Box-shaped reinforced concrete culverts are suitable
for spans of up to 6m and the units can be precast.
2.4 Concrete arches

Arched solutions are ideally suited to utilise the principal qualities
of concrete working in compression as long as height clearance
considerations below can be fully satised. The behaviour of the
arch will depend on the rigidity of the foundations and the type
of backll used. In-situ concrete poured on formwork is normally
used for longer-span monolithic arches, whereas precast concrete is
available for short-span two- or three-pinned arches from specialist
manufacturers. Arch bridges should be an aesthetically pleasing
solution where the site layout and foundation conditions permit.
Continuity is the structural connection of adjacent spans of a bridge

to eliminate joints in the deck between spans. Continuity is usually
provided to carry imposed loads more eciently and to avoid
maintenance problems associated with expansion joints. All spans of
a bridge not only at intermediate supports but also between decks
and abutments are thus connected together longitudinally.
Segmental bridges are made from precast concrete units, stressed

together with strands or bars. The units are normally counter-cast
against each other to ensure a good t, then glued together insitu. Spans can be built out from the abutments and from the piers.
When building out from a pier, the deck is often cantilevered in both
directions so that the sections under construction balance each
other. The cross-section is usually cellular or box shaped, with the
deck slab cantilevered out transversely on either side.
Bridges with spans of over 250m may be designed as arches, or
as suspension or cable-stayed bridges. Arches have been used
successfully for spans of up to 400m.
Suspension and cable-stayed bridges may have concrete decks,
either of in-situ concrete constructed using travelling formwork
or precast concrete segments stressed together. In these bridges
the primary means of deck support is achieved using suspension
cables and hangers.
Figure 3: Arch bridge - Scammonden, M62, Yorkshire
2.5 Integral bridges and continuous construction

Concern over the durability of bridges constructed using movement
joints has encouraged the use of integral bridges, especially for
highway structures. These are bridges built without movement joints
in the carriageway surface and may also avoid the need for bearings.
In the UK all highway bridges less than 60m in overall length and
less than 30 skew must be built using integral principles in order to
maximise their performance and durability (BA42/96 The Design of
Integral Bridges). For this type of construction, behaviour of the deck
10
Figure 4: Precast balanced cantilever bridge - A39, Bideford, Devon
3. AESTHETICS
Bridge appearance is as important as economical and ecient
design. Concrete is a very versatile material that can be moulded and
nished in a variety of forms to give the desired eect. Bridges are
often designed to last 100 years or more, so it is essential that they
are integrated into the environment in a manner that complements
and enhances the surroundings.
Overall appearance can be subjective but general advice is available
in documents such as BD41 The Design and Appearance of Bridges
published by the Highways Agency, which encourages designers to
aim for slender decks in relation to the headroom, balanced span
openings and minimising the bulk of the end supports.
expressed in the deck support structure (bankseats, abutments, piers

and crossheads), the edge of deck treatment and in the combined
overall eect of structure with landscape.
Visual eects can be created, contrasting deck edges with shadow
lines or by varying the ratio of deck-edge cantilever or string-course
depth to overall deck thickness. Continuous decks can be designed
with shallower elevations that are pleasing to the eye. Special
concrete nishes and textures are also possible, especially where the
public will pass close to the structure.
Even with standard prestressed bridge beams, there is ample

opportunity for the designer to inuence the appearance of
bridges utilising precast concrete components. Individuality can be
4. BRIDGE DECKS
In the great majority of modern bridges a concrete deck slab
provides the structural support for the asphalt running surface. The
thickness of the concrete slab will vary, depending upon the form of
bridge deck that supports it. The deck is dened as that part of the
superstructure that spans longitudinally between supports.
Reinforced concrete
solid slab
Voided slab
Multi cell
box section
Single cell
box section
Precast beam and

in-situ slab deck
Figure 5: Typical deck sections
11
4.1 Deck types

For short spans a solid reinforced concrete slab, cast in-situ, is the
simplest and most cost-eective solution. The at sot of the in-situ
reinforced concrete makes the formwork, xing of reinforcement
and concreting very simple with a corresponding reduction in cost.
As spans increase, there will be a need to increase the reinforcement
and introduce some prestressing; the deadweight of the deck
itself can be reduced by introducing voids within the slab using
polystyrene formers. They are usually of circular section to enable the
concrete to ow under them to the deck sot. It is very important,
however, that these void formers are rmly held in position to prevent
otation and that the concrete under the voids is well compacted.
Reinforced concrete voided slabs are more economical than the
prestressed concrete alternative up to about 25m span. The exact
change-over point depends on comparative costs of reinforcement
and prestressing at the time of construction.
Figure 6: Medway Bridge - In-situ balanced cantilever bridge
If the location of the bridge does not suit in-situ slab construction
then precast pre-tensioned concrete beams may be used. Inverted
T-beams placed side by side and inlled with concrete provide an
alternative to the in-situ reinforced concrete slab.
For longer spans, beams and slab construction is used with a 200
250mm concrete deck slab supported on precast pre-tensioned
beams spaced at 1.02.0m centres.
Precast beam construction utilises high quality, factory-made
components that can be quickly erected on site and is therefore
particularly useful when bridging over live roads, railways and
waterways where interruptions to trac must be minimised. The
standard beams currently in use are the M, U, Y and super Y beams
which can be used for spans up to 40m. Detailed information may
be obtained from the Prestressed Concrete Association (see www.
britishprecast.org) or its member companies.
Figure 7: Launched deck, Taiwan High Speed Rail
4.2 Construction methods for longer spans

The span-by-span method of construction is used in multi-span
viaducts with individual spans of up to 80m. A span plus a cantilever
of about one-quarter the next span is rst constructed. This is then
prestressed and the falsework is moved forward and a full span
length is then formed and stressed back to the previous cantilever.
In-situ construction is used for smaller spans.
As the spans increase, the cost of falsework also increases. To
minimise this, the weight of the concrete to be supported at any
one time is reduced by dividing the deck into transverse segments.
These segments, which can be in-situ or precast, are normally
erected on either side of each pier to form balanced cantilevers and
then stressed together. Further segments are then added, extending
the cantilever to midspan where a small closure is formed of in-situ
construction to make the spans continuous. In precast construction,
the segments are match-cast against one another and jointed with
epoxy resin before being stressed together.
Figure 8: Segmental construction
Straight or curved bridges of single radius and of constant crosssection may be built in short lengths from one end and incrementally
launched. Completed sections are pushed o the casting bed, with
the whole deck travelling forward and propelling the leading face
towards the next support.
Cable-stayed bridges are normally built using a form of precast
segmental cantilever construction, successively building out from
the support towers.
12
Figure 9: Span by span construction - A16, Brebant, Holland
Figure 10: Incremental launch - Ceirog Viaduct, North Wales
Figure 11: Incremental launch - Pushing ram, Medway Bridge
4.3 Span ranges for concrete bridges

Figure 13 below illustrates the range of spans that may be achieved
using various types of concrete construction.
Figure 12: Cable-stayed bridge - Dee Crossing, North Wales

Figure 13: Span ranges for concrete bridges
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE
IN SITU
DECK TYPE
SPAN RANGES / M
RC solid slab
RC voided slab
Prestressed voided slab
(Internal bonded )
Incremental launching
Span by span
(Supported on launching truss)
Span by span
(Supported on scaolding)
Segmental balanced cantilever

Arches
PRECAST
Inverted T beams cast into slab

M, U and Y beams with deck slab
(erected by Crane)

(erected by lifting gantry)
Cable stayed bridges by

balanced cantilever
- Denite range
- Possible range extension
13
5. LOADING
Whether the bridge is carrying a road, railway, waterway or just
pedestrians the deck will be subjected to various types of load:
Self-weight
Environmental, e.g. wind, snow, temperature eects
Trac
Accidental loads, e.g. impact
Temporary loads, e.g. during construction or maintenance.
Bridges in the UK are generally designed in accordance with British

Standard BS 5400, which gives details of the load combinations to
be used for various bridge applications. Additional standards are
published by the Highways Agency and Network Rail to supplement
British Standards. Many of these standards are being upgraded to
Eurocodes and in time these will state the basic requirements for
bridges in the UK and other European member states. Specic
requirements will be incorporated into a National Annex.
6. ANALYSIS
The analysis of a bridge should be undertaken by a designer who
has received sucient training and experience. The method of
analysis selected should be appropriate to the type of bridge being
considered. On many concrete bridges the bending moments and
shears resulting from the application of trac load on a bridge
deck are not necessarily carried by just the portion of bridge deck
immediately under the load. When the aected area deects, the
deck bends transversely and twists, thereby spreading load to either
side. The assessment of load that is shared in this way and the extent
to which it is spread across the deck depends on the bending, torsion
and shear stiness of the deck in both longitudinal and transverse
directions. Computer methods are generally used to analyse the load
eects. The most versatile of these is the grillage analysis, which treats
the deck as a two-dimensional series of beam elements in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions. This method can be used for
slab, beam and slab-and-voided slab decks where the cross-sectional
area of voids does not exceed 60% of the area of the deck.
Box girders are now generally designed as one or two cells without
any transverse diaphragms. These are usually quite sti torsionally but
can distort under load giving rise to distortional and warping stresses
in the walls and slabs of the box. It is then necessary to use threedimensional analytical methods such as 3D space frame, folded plate
(for decks of uniform cross-section) or a 3D nite element method.
14
7. SUBSTRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONS
Figure 14: Substructures - M20, Maidstone, Kent
A bridge is supported at the ends on abutments and may have

intermediate piers. Both abutments and piers are usually constructed
from reinforced concrete. The positions of the supports and the
lengths of the spans are determined by the topography of the ground
and the need to ensure unimpeded trac under the bridge.
Piers and abutments carry high loads, and their foundations
may require piling. The design and method of construction of
the foundation will depend upon the ground and groundwater
conditions.
The substructure of a bridge is particularly at risk from damage
caused by ooding, overows from blocked drains, freezing and
thawing weather conditions, and exposure to de-icing salts from
sprayed or leaking water. The concrete in the substructure must be
capable of resisting all forms of attack. Design for durability is vital.
The design of the substructure and foundation requires an
understanding of the interaction between the substructure and the
ground on which it is to be built and the structure to be supported. A
thorough site investigation should be carried out. However, it may not
be possible to obtain precise information about the soil conditions,
in which case the designer must make sound judgements based on
the data that can be obtained.
The cost of the substructure is often greater than that of the
superstructure, and it is important to carry out the bridge design
as a whole rather than allow the design of the deck to impose
unnecessary restraints on the design of the substructure. Many
bridges are designed to be continuous structures that are integral
with the abutments: for such bridges the deck and the substructure
have to be designed together.
The eects of the construction of the bridge on the progress of

other parts of the work, such as earth moving, must also be taken
into account. The substructure must be designed so that it can be
constructed as quickly and easily as possible: the emphasis should
be on simplicity and buildability, which will invariably contribute
to economy. At the same time, the substructure must have an
attractive appearance which is in keeping with the bridge and its
surroundings.
7.1 The site

On restricted sites the choice of substructure is often controlled by
the space available and the plant that can be used. In particular,
large-bored piles and raking piles require a considerable amount of
space. Overhead power lines can seriously restrict the use of plant.
The interaction of construction with existing trac is an essential
factor in the design of the work. If it is possible to acquire additional
land for construction, this may be cheaper than the cost of delay
caused by extending the programme.
Groundwater conditions will aect the design: for example, it may
not be possible to lower the water table due to the eect it might
have on the stability of neighbouring structures. In this case it will
be necessary to construct the foundation under water, and this may
require the design to be in mass concrete rather than reinforced
concrete.
15
be designed as a whole. Abutments are usually constructed of

reinforced concrete but, in suitable circumstances, mass concrete
without reinforcement may provide a simple and durable form of
construction.
If the deck is constructed before the main excavation is carried out,
contiguous bored piles or diaphragm walling can be used to form
an abutment wall. The cost of this type of wall construction is high,
but can be oset against savings in the amount of land required, the
construction time, the cost of temporary works and by minimising
the disruption to trac. A facing of in-situ or precast concrete or
blockwork will normally be required after excavation. Reinforced
earth construction may be suitable where there is an embankment
behind the abutment, and here precast concrete facing is often used.
Replacement of the ties during the life of the structure is dicult so
the selection of appropriate ties and xings is very important.
Figure 15: Boring rig
7.2 Site investigation
Where a bridge is constructed over a cutting it is usually possible to

form a bankseat abutment on rm undisturbed ground. Alternatively,
bankseats may be constructed on piled foundations. However, where
bridges over motorways are designed to allow for future widening of
the carriageway, the abutment may be taken down to full depth so
that it can be exposed at a later date when the widening is carried
out.
The purpose of the site investigation is to provide information about

the soil prole and groundwater conditions across the site. The
extent of the investigation will depend upon the nature of the site
and the type of structure to be built. Trial pits and deep boreholes
will provide a general picture of the ground and groundwater
conditions. A more detailed study of samples from boreholes and
in-situ tests in trial pits will give further information, but it should be
borne in mind that the precise position of the foundations may not
be known at the time the survey is carried out. All of the information
obtained must be carefully examined and interpreted into data to be
used for the design.
7.3 Foundations
The choice of foundation for an abutment or a pier is normally
between a spread footing and piling. Where ground conditions
permit, the spread footing will provide a simple and economic
solution. Excavations for foundations should be left open for as short
a time as possible before the concrete is placed in order to limit
ground disturbance.
Piling will be needed where the ground conditions are poor
and cannot be improved, the bridge is over a river or estuary, the
water table is high or site restrictions prevent the construction of a
spread footing. It is sometimes possible to improve the ground by
consolidating, grouting or applying a surcharge by constructing the
embankments well in advance of the bridge structure.
Dierential settlement of foundations needs to be controlled, and
the construction sequence will have an eect on settlements. In the
early stages of construction, abutments may settle more than piers
but piers will settle later when the deck is constructed.
7.4 Abutments
The overall appearance of a bridge structure is very much dependent
on the abutments and piers.
The structural design of the abutments is closely related to that
of the bridge deck, and for an integral bridge the structure must
16
Figure 16: Skelton Bridge 12A, Cleveland, showing abutments and

wingwalls
7.5 Wingwalls
The design of wingwalls is determined by the topography of the
site and can have a major eect on the appearance of the bridge.
Wingwalls are often taken back at an angle from the face of the
abutment for both economy and appearance.
On integral bridges wingwalls should be aligned parallel with the
span direction and this has the benet of minimising soil pressures.
In-situ concrete is normally used, but precast concrete retaining wall
units are available from precast concrete manufacturers. Concrete
crib walling is also used for the construction of wingwalls and its
appearance makes it particularly suitable for rural situations. Filling
material must be selected carefully to ensure that it does not ow
out, and the ll must be properly drained.
It is important to limit the dierential settlement between the
abutment and the wingwalls. This problem can be overcome by
cantilevering wingwalls from the abutment or by supporting the
whole structure on one foundation. If movement joints are selected
then detailing should either include some form of shear connection
or incorporate some means of disguising relative movement.
Figure 17: Piers - Docklands Light Railway, London
7.6 Piers
The simplest and most economic bridge pier is a vertical member
or group of members with a uniform cross-section. Sections can
be rectangular, square, circular or elliptical. The shaping of piers
can make them aesthetically pleasing but complex shapes will
increase the cost unless considerable re-use of forms is possible.
Standardisation of shapes and sizes for several bridges in the same
contract leads to economy. The durability of concrete in the piers will
be helped if the design is simple, the detailing good and the deck
overhangs the pier.
Raking piers and abutments may help to reduce the span for high
bridges but they do require expensive temporary propping and
support structures. This complicates the construction process and
considerably increases costs.
7.7 Design considerations for substructures

The design of the substructure, as for any structure, must ensure
stability, structural safety and serviceability.
It is usual to assume that an acceptable amount of movement of
an abutment or wingwall will occur, and this is taken into account
in the design. Normally the backll is a free-draining material and
the wall has a satisfactory drainage system built into the structure:
if these conditions are not satised then higher design pressures
must be used. If ll is to be compacted behind the abutment then

due allowance must be made for the pressure due to compaction.
Trac loading and vibration caused by trac must also be taken
into account. If bankseat abutments are used, their stability against
slipping must be checked carefully. The calculated resistance in
front of the toe of a wall should be ignored if there is a possibility of
excavation in this area for drainage or utilities.
Creep, shrinkage and temperature movements in the bridge
superstructure can create forces on the abutments, and these must
be determined. Dierential settlement is a factor to be considered.
Piers and, to a lesser extent, abutments are vulnerable to impact
loads from vehicles or shipping and must be designed to resist
impact or be protected from it. Substructures of bridges over rivers
and estuaries are subjected to scour and lateral forces due to water
ow, unless properly protected.
It is dicult to accurately predict bridge settlement by calculation
and any predictions should be compared with a study of case
histories of structures on similar ground. The design of a bridge to
control dierential settlement may result in the foundations being
larger than those required solely for stability.
The durability of the substructure will be improved by proper
consideration being given to all aspects of its design and construction.
Careful selection of materials and mixes for the concrete, the design
and detailing of the structure to prevent damage due to water and
de-icing salts, and supervision and control of the quality of the work
are all essential for durability.
17
8. MATERIAL SELECTION
8.1 Ready-mixed concrete
8.2 Why use ready-mixed concrete?
Concrete has been a major construction material since Roman times

and remains so today. Originally, all the ingredients (cement, ne and
coarse aggregates and water) were mixed on the building site. In
the 1930s, however, the idea of mixing at a dedicated o-site plant
and delivering to local sites was rst originated. It was the birth of
an industry that developed rapidly and soon became recognised
throughout the world.
Concrete is a basic construction material consisting mainly of

naturally occurring materials but its production in large volumes to
meet rigorous modern specications requires considerable expertise
and experience. While it is possible to mix it on site, ready-mixed
concrete is now used in all but exceptional circumstances for the
following reasons:
Design options enhanced
Established in the UK since the 1950s, the ready-mixed concrete

industry oers nationwide coverage from approximately 1,200
batching plants. All major suppliers are certied with organisations
such as the Quality Scheme for Ready Mixed Concrete (QSRMC), an
independent assessment organisation approved by the National
Accreditation for Certication Bodies (NACB). This ensures that the
customer will receive a consistent, quality product that will meet the
specication and be t for the purpose intended, providing that it is
placed, compacted, cured and protected to the required standards.
Pre-sales advice on mix design and the concreting operation
Production and technical support under the control of

dedicated and experienced professionals
Independent verication provides external assurance that the

quality of concrete supplied conforms with that ordered
Coordinated and exible supply in terms of quantity, rate and

back-up facilities, normally via a central despatch oce that
coordinates all deliveries in a dened area
Increased site space
Availability of up-to-date technology, materials and plant
Increased speed of construction.
Figure 18: Typical pour
Figure 19: Modern ready-mixed concrete plant
18
Figure 20: Typical ready-mixed concrete delivery truck
Cable
stay
Pier
Abutment
Tower (pylon)
Deck
Pile cap
Piles
Pad
Foundations
Figure 21: Diagram of main bridge components
8.3 Ready-mixed concrete in bridges

More than one million cubic metres of ready-mixed concrete are
used every year in bridge construction throughout the UK. They
are usually high-prole structures and are very visible in many
landscapes.
The aesthetic qualities of a bridge are of environmental signicance
both in terms of its design and the appearance of the large areas
of concrete that are normally visible. Such considerations are very
much in the minds of approval bodies and local planning oces
when bridges are rst planned and then designed. The use of
concrete oers many alternatives in shape, form, colour and type of
surface nish.
The use of ready-mixed concrete guarantees that these high
standards can be achieved and that is why it plays such a prominent
role. It has been used in all modern bridges including major structures
such as Second Severn Crossing, Skye Bridge, the Dee Crossing and
the new Medway Bridges on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link and A2/
M2 Motorway improvement.
Bridge exposure to all weather conditions and heavy trac usage is
the ultimate test for concrete performance. The consistent quality
of ready-mixed concrete helps to provide the best solution to the
variety of demands placed upon it.
of paramount importance. The high compressive strength, the

resistance to re and impact, the adaptability to meet various
structural and environmental demands by using specialist materials
and mix designs, are all typical examples of how concrete can
contribute to the longevity of a bridge structure. These same qualities
can also be used to good eect, when necessary, in the repair and
maintenance of a bridge over its lifetime.
8.4 Specication of concrete mix

The exibility that it oers both designer and contractor is an
important factor in meeting these demands. A typical mix for use
throughout bridge construction (refer to BS 8500) could be C40/50
a design mix which gives a compressive cylinder strength of
40N/mm2 and a compressive cube strength of 50N/mm2 after
28 days. Nevertheless, dierent components of the bridge may
need individual variations to aid placement, or to meet end-use
requirements, while still meeting the specied strength, e.g.:
Piles higher workability is required
Deck the use of an air-entraining agent may be required to

increase frost resistance.
All of these mix variations can be easily accommodated by a readymixed concrete supplier.
Bridges are normally designed for a 120-year lifespan and the

durability of the structure and all of its components are therefore
Concrete type
Uses in bridge construction
HIGH STRENGTH >60N/MM2) Signicantly increased span-to-depth ratio allowing thinner beam
sections
SELFCOMPACTING To provide increased ow characteristics to ease placement in areas of dense
reinforcement or dicult access, e.g. voided deck-slab, whilst producing
dense uniform concrete without any need for compaction
LIGHTWEIGHT The use of lighter y-ash aggregates for superstructure concrete produces
less loading, and therefore smaller foundation are needed
LOW DENSITY E.G. FOAMED, Free-owing concrete for non-structural uses, e.g. backll for abutments and
HIGHLY AIRENTRAINED retailing walls
MASS Normally low cement-content for large foundations and bases or backll
PUMPED Designed mix normally with increased nes to allow concrete to be placed
by a specialist pump
Figure 22: Concrete types
19
8.5 Grouts
Specially designed grouts are used within ducts in post-tensioned
bridges to protect the steel strand from corrosion. These should
comply with The Concrete Society Technical Report 47 (see Further
Reading). The use of pre-measured and mixed materials should be
the rst choice for quality, but this does not exclude combinations of
controlled materials on the basis that the quality of the end product
is the important factor to ensure adequate protection of prestressing
tendons.
8.6 Admixtures
A variety of chemical admixtures can be included in concrete mixes
to provide buildability benets and to meet specic demands, for
example:
Air-entraining agent increased frost resistance
Plasticiser improved ow characteristics (easier placement)
Accelerator early high strength (to counter time constraints).
Colouring pigments and special aggregates can be used for aesthetic

purposes.
Figure 23: Reinforcement - River Leen Bridge, Nottingham
8.7 Reinforcement
Most structural concrete is reinforced, normally with steel bars or
fabric. It is essential to ensure that such reinforcement is adequately
protected by a minimum cover of good quality concrete to counter
the varied climatic conditions experienced in the UK.
A new generation of non-ferrous products is becoming available to
replace steel with the aim of increasing the durability of concrete
structures. Because of their exposure to climate and de-icing
salts, bridge design and construction is at the forefront of such
technology.
Without adequate protection, steel in bridges may corrode,
particularly in countries like the UK where de-icing salts are used
during the winter months. Hence, careful consideration must be
given to the protection of reinforcement and prestressing tendons.
The type of concrete must be correctly selected and the degree
of exposure may demand the use of stainless steel reinforcement,
especially on parapet edge beams or in the vicinity of deck movement
joints. Prestressing tendons may be galvanised in addition to other
layers of corrosion protection.
20
Figure 24: Non - ferrous reinforcement
9. PRETENSIONED AND POSTTENSIONED CONCRETE

There are two main types of prestressed concrete.
9.1 Pre-tensioned concrete

Steel tendons are stressed by jacks anchored to xed blocks in the
casting yard. Concrete is then placed in moulds or casting beds
around these tendons. When the concrete has hardened suciently,
the tendons are released. As they try to return to their original length,
large compressive forces are applied to the concrete.
This process is nearly always carried out in a factory environment
and is the usual way of manufacturing precast prestressed bridge
beams.
Traditionally, post-tensioned bonded tendons have relied on

cement grouting for protection. However, inadequate detailing
and workmanship in the past have led to corrosion of tendons,
the condition of which cannot be monitored. Therefore, in the UK,
internal unbonded tendons or external tendons, the condition of
which can be monitored at any time, are currently preferred to the
bonded type.
Unbonded tendons are normally protected by placing them in
ducts, which are subsequently lled with grease or wax. Alternatively,
external tendons can be left exposed, but protected by galvanising
or epoxy coating.
9.2 Post-tensioned concrete

For this type of construction, normally associated with in-situ
concrete, the tensioning forces are applied to the tendons after
the concrete is placed and hardened. Ducts are incorporated into
the formwork and the concrete is placed around them. After the
concrete has hardened, the stressing tendons are threaded through
the ducts and are stressed using jacks. A special grout is injected into
the ducts around the tendons to provide bond and protection from
corrosion. Post-tensioning is mainly carried out on site although it
has been used for special precast beams.
Stage 1 - Concrete cast with tendons in duct

Stage 1 - Tendons are tensioned and anchored
Stage 2 - Concrete is placed
Stage 3 - Tendons are released and force is

transferred to concrete
Prestressing using pre-tensioned

tendons
Stage 2 - Tendons tensioned after concrete has hardened
Stage 3 - Tendons secured at anchorages
Prestressing using post-tensioned

internal tendons
Figure 25: Pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete
21
10. PRECAST CONCRETE IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

The use of precast concrete is both widespread and eective in
modern bridge construction. Many modern bridges are constructed
with both in-situ and precast concrete.
10.1 What is precast concrete?

Precast concrete is manufactured away from the construction site, in
an ecient factory environment to very high standards and without
any concerns about adverse weather. The quality of the concrete can
be tightly controlled and the formwork and steel reinforcement or
prestressing tendons can be prepared and positioned to extremely
high tolerances. After it has been poured, the concrete can be
cured eectively, again without interference from the weather, to
maximise its performance (especially its durability) and appearance.
Importantly, it can be stored and delivered to site at precisely the
right time in the construction programme.
10.4 Durability of prestressed bridge beams

Joints in decks are a common cause of problems in all types of bridge.
A survey of 200 concrete highway bridges commissioned by the
Department of Transport highlighted the problems of reinforcement
corrosion by water carrying de-icing salts leaking through joints or
being splashed onto the reinforced concrete elements of decks and
substructures.
The survey showed that the prestressed bridge beams, by
comparison, had performed extremely well, for two reasons:
Quality of construction (the required cover to reinforcement is

more easily achieved in prestressed concrete and so there is less
chance of corrosion)
Prestressed beams are constructed with high-strength concrete

(6080N/mm2 at 28 days) with low water/cement ratios. The
water/cement ratio is generally specied to be less than 0.45,
but values below 0.4 are frequently achieved through the use of
ecient plasticisers and water-reducing agents
10.2 Why use precast concrete?

10.5 Handling and transportation of beams
Guarantee of high-quality concrete and durability
Exceptional standards of dimensional tolerance
Excellent surface nishes
Rapid construction
More space on site
Avoidance of falsework
Great care must be taken to ensure the prestressed concrete beams

are stable during handling, transportation, storage and erection.
Transporting long-span beams by road from factory to site is a
routine operation although careful planning is essential.
It is advisable to strengthen the longer SY beams and provide a
supporting frame to enhance safety and stability during erection
and transportation. Manufacturers will generally oer full support
and advice.
10.3 Where can precast concrete be used?

Precast concrete can be used in almost all parts of a bridge structure.
The use of precast piles is quite common and demand is growing for
precast units in abutments but its most widespread use is in the deck
support structure, in the form of prestressed beams, and as parapets
and string courses.
Figure 26: Precast beams in position
22
Figure 27: Delivery of a precast beam
10.6 Deck edges and parapets
10.8 Replacement rail bridges
The edges of decks require special beams to provide a vertical or

inclined edge face and to support steel or aluminium parapets.
These beams are manufactured in precast concrete to match the
beams used for the deck, for example UM beams.
Replacement bridges spanning over or carrying railway lines are

ideally suited for the use of precast concrete due to the limited
railway possession time available. Site operations can be reduced
to a minimum as a trial erection can be carried out o site and the
major components marked with guide-lines to facilitate the actual
site erection.
Parapets are often manufactured in precast concrete and the high

containment situation is a common requirement for railway bridges.
The vertical faces can also be given an architectural appearance by
using a variety of treatments and surface nishes.
10.7 Culverts and arches

Precast concrete culverts and arches can be used to replace
underbridges carrying minor roads, services and rivers. They can be
installed speedily and economically to provide a durable option.
Figure 28: Precast box culvert section
Figure 29: Precast arch sections
23
11. HISTORY OF PRETENSIONED CONCRETE BEAMS IN BRIDGES

The rst pre-tensioned beams for use in the UK were manufactured
in 1940 to meet the demand for emergency bridge construction
during the Second World War. In the mid 1950s, at the start of the
major road building programme, the precast industry really began
to develop, mainly through the work of the Cement and Concrete
Association (C&CA) and the Prestressed Concrete Development
Group.
MY BEAMS
A major innovation was the range of prestressed inverted T-beams

for 715m spans. These were often used with an in-situ concrete inll
to form a solid, composite deck slab.
In the 1960s, demand for longer-span bridges over two- and threelane carriageways, spanning 15m26m and 26m35m, respectively,
led to the introduction of I-beams and box sections. There were
technical deciencies with these and a clear need was identied
for a standard beam for use in the 15m29m span range. In 1969,
following work by the C&CA and the Ministry of Transport, the Mbeam was born and it became the agship for the next 20 years.
M-beams were often used at 1.0m centres in either pseudo box
construction or, more simply, in beam-and-slab construction.
M BEAMS
Further developments in the mid 1970s, saw the introduction of the
U-beam, which was especially suitable for skew decks, the UM beam,
used as the edge beam on M-beam decks, and the wide box beam.
UM
BEAMS
INVERTED
TEE
Y BEAMS
U BEAMS
YE BEAMS
SY BEAMS
DOUBLE TEE BEAMS

Figure 30: Typical beam sections
Figure 31: Typical deck section
24
These new beams catered for the increasing demand through to the
end of the 1980s. Between 1965 and 1982, nearly 7,000 road bridges
were built, 6,000 of which were in concrete and more than half of
these in prestressed concrete. This reected the benets of economy
and ease-of-use of standard precast beams.
At the end of the 1980s, however, signs emerged of corrosion of
reinforcement in the relatively slender bottom anges of some M
beams due to ingress of water. The Prestressed Concrete Association
(PCA), an association of the leading UK beam manufacturers,
addressed this problem and, in 1991, unveiled the Y beam. Not only
did it cater for the same span range (15m29m) but it also proved
suitable for use in modern integral, or jointless, bridges. The YE beam
soon followed to serve as an edge beam for Y-beam bridge decks.
Development continued with the SY beam catering for the motorway
widening programme in the 1990s, which required spans of over
35m in some cases. The TY beam replaced the inverted T beam as it
oered technical advantages such as improved shear capacity and
thicker concrete cover to the reinforcement.
12. DURABILITY AND DETAILING

The speed and cost of construction and the durability of any bridge
are greatly aected by the attention paid to details. Details that are
determined solely by the desire to reduce quantities of materials
used, often by small amounts, may result in disproportionately large
increases in construction costs and may have an adverse eect on
durability.
Simplicity and standardisation are the keys to success. One example
of a situation where simplicity of construction is preferred is in the
use of a wider base on a level formation, to provide stability against
sliding, rather than inclining the formation or providing a shear key.
The excavation for a shear key or an inclined formation will increase
the cost of construction and, in the case of the shear key, may well
disturb the ground that is required to resist the sliding action.
Walls must be designed to allow access for concreting: details such
as inclines to the faces, curvature on plan and heights that change
along the length, will make it more dicult to place the concrete
and achieve a good nish. Attractive concrete surfaces are often
dicult to form in-situ, and the use of precast facings may provide a
better quality nish.
Restrictions on sizes of pour and position of construction joints can
adversely aect the programme for concreting. Such restrictions may
be necessary to control movements of the concrete but they should
suit the sizes of formwork panel and the construction procedures to
be employed.
Bearing shelves at the top of abutments must be detailed with
adequate drainage, on the assumption that water will get in.
Drainage channels and down pipes must be accessible for cleaning,
and many designers locate the drainage channels in front of the
bearings for ease of access. Drainage of the backll behind an
abutment requires careful attention to detailing of the drainage
system. Free-draining granular material is not always available for
backll and less permeable materials may have to be used. The
eects on earth pressures must be taken into account in the design,
and the drainage system must be planned to suit.
12.1 Bridge bearings

Bearings transfer the loads from an independent deck to its supports.
All bridge decks deect under load, so the bearings must be able to
accommodate the small rotations at the supports. They must also
accommodate the horizontal movements of the bridge deck caused
by temperature changes, shrinkage and creep, and the shortening
caused by prestress. Some bearings allow horizontal movement in
one direction only and are restrained in the other, while others allow
movement in any direction.
Elastomeric bearings, consisting of layers of steel plate embedded in
rubber, can accommodate small horizontal shear movements. PTFE
(polytetrauoroethylene) bearings can be designed for unlimited
free sliding between the low-friction PTFE surface and a steel plate.
Pot bearings incorporate rubber discs that permit small rotations,
while spherical bearings, moving on a PTFE surface, will permit larger
rotations.
Mechanical bearings, such as rockers and rollers, provide either
longitudinal xity or resistance to lateral forces. Pot bearings, special
guide bearings or pin bearings are often used for this purpose.
Bearings need to be inspected regularly and may require maintenance
or replacement during the lifetime of the bridge. This can be dicult
and expensive, so it is important that the structure is designed to
make inspection, maintenance and replacement possible.
Where access is dicult, the bearing should have the same design
life as the rest of the structure.
Good design detailing will make construction easier, enhance

durability and also permit easier inspection and maintenance. Typical
examples are:
Positive drainage of all surface water
Provision of chamfers, llets, drips in overhangs and chases for

tucking in waterproong
Use of standard details wherever possible, particularly in precast

beams
Use for bonded tendons of air-tight, non-metallic ducts;

anchorage protection with end caps and provision for grouting
anchorage recesses
Provision of abutment chambers for inspection
Provision for easy access into and along large and long box
girders
Figure 32: Bearings on pier - Mollington Footbridge, M40
25
12.2 Expansion joints

Expansion joints must allow free movement of the bridge, including
movements in kerbs, verges and parapets, as well as those in the
main deck, but they should not have too serious an eect on riding
quality.
Leakage at joints leads to reduced durability and disguration of
the structure below, so joints need to be waterproof or designed to
allow for drainage. Joints should also be designed to require minimal
maintenance during their lifetime. However, joints may not last the
life of the structure, so they should be replaceable.
Small movements at expansion joints can be accommodated by
compressible materials such as neoprene or rubber. These joints
can be buried and covered by the surfacing, giving an undisturbed
riding surface. Buried or run-over joints may consist simply of a gap,
sucient to accommodate the movement, covered by a galvanised
Figure 33: Typical section of asphaltic plug joint
26
steel plate and a band of rubberised bitumen exible binder to

replace part of the surfacing. This type of joint is known as an
asphaltic plug.
Larger movements require a exible sealing element supported by
steel joists or edge beams. Mechanical joints based on interlocking
sets of nger plates can be used for very large movements. Drainage
must be provided for such joints.
Whatever type of expansion joint is used, it is likely to interrupt the
surface and give rise to noise. In long structures it is preferable to
design for long lengths between joints, rather than incorporate
joints at frequent intervals. Longer lengths will result in larger
movements at the joints, but will preserve riding quality and reduce
maintenance. Integral bridges constructed with joint-free decks
have been referred to earlier.
Figure 34a: Typical section of mechanical joint
27
Figure 34b: Typical section of mechanical joint
12.3 Waterproong bridge decks

It is a current UK requirement that bridge decks are waterproofed with
an approved system, which may be sheet, board or spray-applied
liquid. The deck detailing should allow continuity of waterproong
across central reservations, verges, service bays and under kerbs.
Arrises (external corners) should be chamfered and llets should
be formed at internal angles. All waterproong systems must be
protected using a tinted asphalt layer before the nal surface is laid.
Exposed surfaces, such as deck sots, fascias, concrete parapets and
parapet plinths may be contaminated with salt water carried by wind
or from trac spray. Impregnation, when new, with silane or a similar
product can give protection for a limited period. However, factorymade precast pre-tensioned beams have an excellent durability
record even without any such treatment.
Figure 35: Spray application of waterproong membrane
28
In the past, mastic asphalt has been used extensively for waterproong
bridge decks, but it requires good weather conditions if it is to be laid
satisfactorily, so is rarely used now. Preformed bituminous sheeting
is less sensitive to laying conditions, but moisture trapped below the
sheeting may cause subsequent lifting.
Some bridges have relied upon the use of a dense, high-quality

concrete to resist the penetration of water without an applied
waterproong layer. It can be advantageous to include silica fume or
other very ne powdered addition in the concrete.
Hot-bonded heavy-duty reinforced sheet membranes, if properly

laid, provide a completely watertight layer. These sheets are made
in thicknesses of 34mm and have good puncture resistance, so it
is not necessary to protect the sheet membrane from asphalt laid
on top.
Sprayed acrylic and polyurethane waterproong membranes are
also used. These bond to the concrete deck surface with little or
no risk of blowing or lifting. A tack coat must be applied over the
membrane, and a protective asphalt layer is laid before the nal
surfacing is carried out.
13. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING

Communication is the key to success. It is important that the main
and/or specialist concrete contractor(s) form a close relationship
with the ready-mixed concrete supplier from an early stage. Regular
liaison and progress meetings should be held both before and
during the concreting programme to ensure a smooth and eective
operation.
A concrete pump may be used for the more inaccessible bridge

sections and the larger pours; the mix design will probably
need some adjustment to ensure the concrete can be pumped
eciently
13.1 Concrete specications

A complete understanding of the specication is necessary to
establish criteria such as compressive strength, size and type of
aggregate, admixtures and workability. The requirements of BS 8500
must be followed. Also, knowledge of the relevant bridge codes, e.g.
BS 5400 Part 4 and Highways Agency design standards for bridges
such as BD24 and BD57 will be particularly relevant.
BS 8500 requires that the cover to reinforcement be increased by
15mm for cast in-situ reinforced concrete members to give the
desired durability for 120 years. Precast prestressed beams also need
extra cover but only 5mm.
13.2 Formwork and reinforcement

To ensure that the concrete is poured with the minimum of diculty
the size, type and position of formwork needs to be assessed
together with the density of reinforcing steel (or other materials) and
the depth of cover specied. This will ensure easier placement and
compaction and will maximise durability.
How the concrete is to be placed into the formwork is a crucial factor
to the ready-mixed supplier, for example:
Small barrows or skips invariably mean longer discharge times

and possible disruption to deliveries
Figure 36: Concrete pumped into position
13.3 Size of pour and rate of supply

Plant, transport and labour requirements to meet the demands of the
operation need to be established. This will be particularly important
on the larger pours that may be required for the construction of a
bridge, e.g. mass foundations, bridge deck.
Contingency plans need to be agreed to safeguard continuity of
supply in the event of plant or transport failure. This will be especially
29
important when structural elements such as piers constructed as

cold joints would not be acceptable in such components.
13.4 Weather conditions
Routes for the ready-mixed trucks to the site and the provision of
safe, sound access on site should be cleared with the appropriate
authorities and site management.
Agreement should be reached with site management on acceptable

weather conditions for the placement of concrete and the measures
necessary to counter the extreme conditions which may be
experienced on a bridge in exposed locations, e.g. wind, ice.
13.5 Testing and curing

It is in everybodys interests to ensure that qualied personnel are
available to carry out the standard testing procedures to British
Standards.
Freshly placed concrete must be given adequate protection from
rapid surface drying or temperature variations for as long as possible
to maximise its performance and appearance. This is an important
factor in achieving the high standards of durability required for a
bridge.
Figure 37: Ready-mixed concrete being delivered
14. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

All bridges should be inspected regularly, to ensure that they are in a
satisfactory condition and to locate any potential sources of trouble.
Detailed inspections, called Principal Inspections, are normally
required every six years with general inspections at more frequent
intervals.
Proper attention to waterproong, joint design and detailing, and
drainage from the deck, can prevent many of the problems that
have caused deterioration of concrete bridges in the past. Adequate
cover to reinforcement is vital, so care must be taken during design,
specication and construction, to ensure that sucient cover is
provided.
Other methods are available for improving the corrosion resistance
of reinforcement, and the nished concrete can be treated with
sealing compounds to reduce the penetration of water and de-icing
salts.
Bridges are normally designed to require minimal maintenance.
However, it will be necessary to carry out routine inspections of
drainage channels and down pipes, joints and bearings. Checks
on the movement of abutments, piers and walls should be made
regularly, and foundations in water courses must be inspected for
damage due to scour. Such inspections require access, and this
must be anticipated in the design and detailing of the structure. A
programme of inspections at regular intervals should be planned
and any defects revealed must be attended to without delay.
30
15. HEALTH AND SAFETY

All bridges should be designed so that they perform safely and can
be built in a manner that minimises risk to both the construction
team and the public.
Safety factors are built into the design code requirements to cover
the variability of loading and material properties for in-service and
ultimate conditions.
The Construction Design and Management (CDM) Regulations are a
legal obligation for all organisations involved with the construction
process: client, designer, contractors and suppliers. A Planning
Supervisor needs to be appointed and a Health and Safety le
provides essential information for each organisation throughout
the construction process and during the maintenance life of the
structure.
16. FUTURE TRENDS

Todays requirements for durable, continuous, integral bridges will
lead to increased use of precast concrete in bridge structures. The
bridge deck is one area that may be exploited by incorporating a
new range of prestressed concrete T or even double-T beams in the
design. With such decks, in-situ concrete would be required only as a
topping to stitch the beams together.
The trend towards private Design Build Finance and Operate (DBFO)
road contracts with pay-back periods of up to 25 years, underlines
the requirements for low-maintenance bridges. An examination of
the likely costs over the lifespan of a bridge (whole-life costing) is
now considered an essential part of the overall equation. The use
of precast concrete elements, with their advantages of quality,
speed and ecient construction, will have a considerable benecial
impact.
31
17. FURTHER READING

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE. ACI 343R-88, Analysis and Design
of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures. ACI, Detroit, 1988, 162 pp.
WELTMAN, A.J. & HEAD, J.M. Site Investigation Manual. CIRIA Special
Publication 25. CIRIA, London, 1983, 144 pp.
CIRIA. Report 155, Bridges Design for Improved Buildability. CIRIA,

London, 1996.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6031: 1981. Code of Practice

for Earthworks. BSI, London, 1981, 86 pp.
CIRIA. RP490: Buildability of Bridges. CIRIA, London, year.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5400. Steel, Concrete and

Composite Bridges. Part 1: General Statement, Part 2: Specication
for Loads, Part 4: Code of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges,
Part 5: Code of Practice for Design of Composite Bridges. BSI, London,
1978-1990.
CLARK L.A. Concrete Bridge Design to BS 5400. Construction Press,

Longman, London, 1983.
TECHNICAL GUIDES published by Concrete Bridge Development
Group. TG1: Integral Bridges (1997), TG2: Guide to Testing and
Monitoring The Durability of Concrete Structures (2002), TG3: The Use
of Fibre Composites in Concrete Bridges (2000), TG4: The Aesthetics of
Concrete Bridges (2001), TG5: Fast Construction of Concrete Bridges
(2005), TG6: Guide to the Use of High Strength Concrete in Bridges
(2005), TG7: Guide to the Use of Self-Compacting Concrete in Bridges
(2005), TG8: Guide to the Use of Lightweight Concrete in Bridges
(2006)
Further technical guides in preparation: TG9: Assessment of Concrete
Bridges (2) (due 2006), TG10: Design Example of Integral Bridges to
EC2 (due 2006)
CONCRETE SOCIETY/CONCRETE BRIDGE DEVELOPMENT GROUP.
Durable Post-tensioned Concrete Bridges, Technical Report 47
(Second Edition), The Concrete Society, Camberley, 2002, 69 pp.
The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations, SI
1994/3247, HMSO, London, 1994.
HAMBLY, E.C. Bridge Deck Behaviour, 2nd edn. E. & F. Spon, London,
1991, 313 pp.
HAMBLY, E.C. Bridge Foundations and Substructures. HMSO, London,
1979, 93 pp.
HAMBLY, E.C. & NICHOLSON, B. Prestressed Beam Integral Bridges.
Prestressed Concrete Association, Leicester, 1991, 29 pp.
LEE, D.J. & RICHMOND, B. Bridges. Civil Engineers Reference Book, Ed.
L. S. Blake. Chapter 18. Newnes-Butterworth, London, 1988, 71 pp.
LlEBENBERG, A.C. Bridges. Handbook of Structural Concrete, Eds F. K.
Kong et al. Chapter 36. Pitman, London, 1983, 168 pp.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ASSOCIATION. Precast Bridge Beams
Product Information Sheets.
PRITCHARD, B. Bridge Design for Economy and Durability. Thomas
Telford, London, 1992, 192 pp.
READY-MIXED CONCRETE BUREAU. The Essential Ingredient. British
Cement Association, Camberley, 19931997.
SOUBRY, MA. CIRIA Report C543. Bridge Detailing Guide. CIRIA,
London, 2001.
TOMLINSON, M.J. Foundation Design and Construction. Pitman
Publishing Limited, London, 1980, 793 pp.
32
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500. Concrete

Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1, Part 1: Method of
Specifying and Guidance for the Specier, Part 2: Specication for
Constituent Materials and Concrete. BSI, London, 2002.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT. Manual of Contract Documents for
Highway Works.
Volume 1. Specication for Highway Works.
Volume 2. Notes for Guidance on the Specication for
Highway Works.
Volume 4. Bills of Quantities for Highway Works. DoT,
London.
HIGHWAYS AGENCY. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 1. Highway Structures Approval Procedures and
General Design.
BA 41, The Design and Appearance of Bridges.
BA 42, The Design of Integral Bridges.
BD 24, The Design of Concrete Highway Bridges.
Use of BS 5400: Part 4: 1990.
BD 57, Design for Durability.
Many construction activities are potentially dangerous so care

is needed at all times. Current legislation requires all persons to
consider the eects of their actions or lack of action on the health
and safety of themselves and others. Advice on safety legislation may
be obtained from any of the area oces of the Health and Safety
Executive.
All advice or information from the Concrete Bridge Development
Group is intended for those who will evaluate the signicance and
limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and
application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss
resulting from such advice or information is accepted. Readers
should note that all publications are subject to revision from time to
time and should, therefore, ensure that they are in possession of the
latest version.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO

Taiwan High Speed Rail Project

For all enquiries and recruitment opportunities,

Tony Gee and Partners

Specialists in providing bespoke solutions for their clients on

For more information contact:

01932 868277 tgp@tgp.co.uk

Scott Wilson is an international consultancy

where the best get better

Designing creative solutions

...adding value and making the

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

Concrete Bridge Development Group

Published for and on behalf of the

Although the Concrete Bridge Development Group (limited by

Printed by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, UK.

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

Substructures and foundations...................................................................................11

Pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete......................................................17

Precast concrete in bridge construction................................................................18

History of pre-tensioned concrete beams in bridges....................................20

Durability and detailing.....................................................................................................21

Inspection and maintenance.........................................................................................26

Health and safety....................................................................................................................27

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

2.1 Slab bridges

Figure 1: Slab bridge on A30, Bagshot, Surrey

2.2 Beam and slab bridges

Figure 2: Beam and slab bridge at Oyster Creek, Gambia

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

will aect the substructures and vice versa, so a full appreciation of

2.3 Framed bridges

2.6 Long-span bridges

Slabs and abutments are often connected monolithically to form a

For short spans, a concrete culvert can be used as a simple form of

2.4 Concrete arches

Continuity is the structural connection of adjacent spans of a bridge

Segmental bridges are made from precast concrete units, stressed

Figure 3: Arch bridge - Scammonden, M62, Yorkshire

2.5 Integral bridges and continuous construction

Figure 4: Precast balanced cantilever bridge - A39, Bideford, Devon

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

expressed in the deck support structure (bankseats, abutments, piers

Even with standard prestressed bridge beams, there is ample

Precast beam and

Figure 5: Typical deck sections

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

4.1 Deck types

Figure 6: Medway Bridge - In-situ balanced cantilever bridge

Figure 7: Launched deck, Taiwan High Speed Rail

4.2 Construction methods for longer spans

Figure 8: Segmental construction

Figure 9: Span by span construction - A16, Brebant, Holland

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

Figure 10: Incremental launch - Ceirog Viaduct, North Wales

Figure 11: Incremental launch - Pushing ram, Medway Bridge

4.3 Span ranges for concrete bridges

Figure 12: Cable-stayed bridge - Dee Crossing, North Wales

Segmental balanced cantilever

Inverted T beams cast into slab

Segmental balanced cantilever

Cable stayed bridges by