i uci Dr. C. Rajendra KumarPublished by S.B. Nangia for APH PUBLISHING CORPORATION 4435-36/7, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110 002 Tel. 23274050 23285807 Fax © 91-011-23274050 Email: aphbooks@vsnI.net 2008 © Author Printed in India at Balaji Offset New Delhi1 Meaning, Types and Process of Research MEANING OF RESEARCH Research is an intensive and purposeful search for knowledge and understanding of social and physical phenomena. Research is a Scientific activity undertaken to establish something, a fact, a theory, a principle or an application. It is an academic activity. Research in Common Parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Infact, research is an art of scientific investigation. Research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. Definition of Research The Term ‘research ‘ has been defined by several experts which are enumerated below: |, According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested, solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making, deductions and reaching conclusions, and at last carefully listing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. 2. Redman and Mary define research as systematized effort to gain new knowledge.we Research Methodology D.Sleringer and M.Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge ends in constructions of theory or in the practice of an art. John W. Best defines research as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may leave to development of generalizations, principles or theories result in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Webster’s Twentieth century dictionary defines the term Research as a careful, patient, systematic, diligent inquiry or examination in some filed of knowledge undertaken to establish facts a principles. Advanced learner’s Dictionary of current English lays down the means of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially throughout search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution toa problem in research. The system approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. An examination of the above definition leads to draw the follow characteristics of Research. Research is a systematic in inquiry. 2. Research is an investigation into a subject or specific field of knowledge. 3. Research is undertaken to establish facts or principles. 4. Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. Purpose of Research Many do research for various purposes. However, the main purpose tesearch is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The purpose of research is to find out the truth whichMeaning, Types and Process of Research 3 is hidden and which has not been discovered so far. While there are some researchers who do research to counter the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, there are some researchers who have undertaken research work on account of direction of government, curiosity about new things to create social awareness social thinking and social awakening ete., We may think of research purpose as falling into a number of following broad grouping. 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or a group 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. 4. To test ahypothesis ofa casual relationship between variables. HUMAN KNOWLEDGE All human knowledge is knowledge of a man himself, which he was above to experience through natural environment. According to HUNT, E.F and Colander D.C. Human knowledge is classified into three major fields 1, Natural Science 2. Social Science 3. Humanities While Natural Science deals with material environment in which man is placed, social science in the field of human knowledge that deals with all the aspects of the group life of a man. The humanities deals with certain aspects of human culture life through religion, philosophy, music, art and literature. Social Science Social Science today is such a vast and complex field that includes economics, history, geography, political science, sociology, psycho anthropology. Social science is defined by Random Hose dictionary as the study of society and social behavior, a science or filed of study as history and economics dealing with an aspect of society or forms of social activity. Webster’s Dictionary defines social science as the study of people4 Research Methodology and how they live together as families, tribes, communities , races etc.. and several studies as history. economics, civics etc dealing with the structure of society and the activity of its members. RELEVANCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH The problem of relevance arises because research is financed by public expenditure and thus in the ultimate analysis by people at large. Social scientists have considered the issue of relevance arising mainly because of the following features of social sciences 1. Principles of Adequacy and validity 2. Social Responsibility 3. Ethical thinking RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY To know the difference between research methods and research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods. techniques that are used for conducting of research. Research methods or techniques, thus refer to the methods the researcher use in performing research operations. In other words , all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, is to arrive ata solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this view research methods can be put into the following three groups. |. Inthe first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These methods wil! be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solutions. 2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns. we The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained. Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of research.Meaning, Types and Process of Research 5 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research * problems. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we are study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not and what would they mean and indicate and why, Research also needs to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain problems and others will not. All the means that it is necessary for the researchers to design his methodology for his problem as the some may differ from problem to problem. Research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of research methoddlogy. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also, consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular methods or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the research himself or by others. RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD Research can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of , the reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur”. Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical consideration the ideal of science is to a achieve a systematic inter relations of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical , arguments from accepted postulates _ . and a combination of these three in varying proportions”. In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly.and accurately so that their possible alternatives, become clear. Further logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable phenomena. It becomes possible for the researcher or the6 Research Methodology scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. The Scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under. 1. Itrelies on empirical evidence. 2. It utilizes relevant concepts. 3. It is committed to only objective considerations. 4. It presupposes ethical neutrality i.e. it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct statements about populations objects. 5. It results into probabilistic predictions, 6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in testing the conclusions through replication. 7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed scientific theories. Thus, “The scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective procedure. “Accordingly, scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method i.e. a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified a method wherein the research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and method that implies internal consistency. TYPES OF RESEARCH The basic types of research are as follows: Descriptive Vs Analytical Descriptive research includes surveys and fact findings enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs, as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the terms ex-post fact research for descriptive research ‘studies. The main characteristics of this method are that the research has no control over the variables; he can only report what hasMeaning, Types and Process of Research 7 happened or what is happening. Most ex-post fact research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measures such items as for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data, Ex-post fact studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey method of all kinds, including comparative and corelational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. Applied or Fundamental Research Research can either be applied (action) research or fundamental (or basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial business organizations, ‘whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generations and with the formulation of a theory “Gathering Knowledge’s sake is termed “pure or “basic” research. Difference between pure research and applied research: Pure Research Applied Research 1. Aims to illuminate the theory Aims to solve a problem by by enriching the basic of a enriching the field of discipline application of a discipline 2. Studies a problem usually froin Often several disciplines the focus of one discipline collaborate for solving the problem . 3. Seeks generalizations Often studies individual cases without the objective to generalize 4. Tries to say why things happen Tries to say how things can be : changed 5. Works on the hypotheses that Recognizes that other variables variables not measured remains are constant by changing, constant 6. Reports in technical language —__ Reports in common language of discipline8 Research Methodology Quantitative Vs Qualitative Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that.can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind, For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior, we quite often talk of “Motivation Research”, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association teSts, sentence, completion tests, story completion test and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion researches i.e., research, designed to find out how people fee! or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim isto discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Though such research we can analyses the various factors which motivate people to behave ina particular manner or which make a people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists. Conceptual Vs Empirical Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophiers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones on the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observatory alone, after without due regard for system and theory. It is data based research coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experimental type of research, In such research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such research the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies in today considered to be most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis. Experimental Vs Non-Experimental Research According to another classification, research can be either experimental research or non-experimental research. Experimental research make changes’ in independent variables and studies their effects onMeaning, Types and Process of Research 9 ‘dependent variables under controlled conditions. The variables which is supposed to be the cause of change is known as the independent variable and the variable that varies as a consequence of change is called the dependent variable in time. It is the variable we predict to thus in a study where it is hypothesized that the sales man who are paid in a salary basis, the independent variable is the basis compensation (Salary or Commission) and the dependent to which the changes in sales performance can: be attributed to the form of compensation and the extend they can attributed to chance or to some other variable Non-experimental research is one which the research simply measures the present level of the independent variable. For example, if researcher wants to list the hypothesis whether increased autonomy of a job increases the level of satisfaction of workers, he may carry this out in two ways. First, he may take an existing job and redesign it to vary its levels of autonomy and see if these are cnacomitant variations in workers level of job satisfaction. This is conducting an experiment in which he actually manipulates autonomy, the study’s independent variable. Second, he may look at incumbents in jobs that differed in terms of autonomy all see if job with greater autonomy have given greater level of job satisfaction to their incumbents. This is conducting a non-experimental study (an Ex-post facto research ) where he is comparing the experienced job satisfactory level for the individuals on the several jobs to know if at all job autonomy is related to job satisfaction. Difference between experimental and non-experimental research Experimental Research Nan-experimental research 1. This type of research always In this type of research it is not begins with some hypothesis essential to always have a which the research wants to test hypothesis. All exploratory researcher and many descriptive researcher do not have any hypothesis. 2. Data generated by this research Data generated by this type of are used to establish cause-and research are not helpful in affect relationship between two establishing the cause and variables, On the basis of these effect relationships between data one can predict changes in variables. They can be used the independent variable. only to describe certain relationships without showing their functional interdependence.10 Research Methodology CROSS - SECTIONAL STUDY A Cross-Sectional study is one which collects data about various variables of the sample at one point of time in order to uncover relationships existing among those variables. Thus a Study to examine the relationship between job satisfactory and style of leadership or between similarity of automobile preferences between husbands and wives’ and the amount of time the couples has been married is Cross-Sectionals study. LONGITUDINALSTUDY A longitudinal or panel study is one which collects data about the same sample over a period of time so that possible relationships among variables can be revealed by examining the changes that take place during that time. In the area of marketing, a ‘consumer panel’ is an example of longitudinal study in which the same sample of household is studied for ‘one or more aspects of consumer behavior for a duration of time. In a sense, it is a type of time series study. HISTORICAL RESEARCH Historical research is a critical evaluates and examinations of past events developments and experiences. A historical investigator, also like other investigators, collects data, evaluates the data for validity and interprets the data. TYPES OF RESEARCH STUDIES RESEARCH [Experimental Non-Experimental Explanatory Descriptive State « Dynamic Historical Cross Sectional Longitudinal or Panel StudyMeaning, Types and Process of Research il RESEARCH Pure | Applied ( Aims at enriching the (Airis at enriching the theory) field of Applications, Eg; Action research Research Process The research process consists of number of closely related activities as shown in chart. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. At time, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken. If subsequent procedure have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constant by anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guide line regarding the research process : 1. Formulating the research problem Extensive literature survey Developing the hypothesis Preparing the research design Determination of sample design Collecting the data Execution of the project Analysis of data eer aneen Hypothesis testing 10, Generalizations and interpretation and 11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write of conclusion reached.Research Methodology RESEARCH PROCESS Define research Problem t R eview of the literature 1 Formulate hypotheses ——___ + Research Design ' Determining Sample Design Analysis of data (Test hypotheses) Interpret and Report A brief description of the above stated steps Research Problem. There are two types of research problem, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researches must single out the problem he wants the study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem,Meaning, Types and Process of Research 13 thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from and analytical point of view. 2. Extensive literature survey. Once the problem is formula‘ed, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexes journals and published or unpublished bibliographies and the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in had should be carefully studied. 3. Developing the hypothesis. After extensive literature survey researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypothesis are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which test must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which tests must be conducted in the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and the keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facts of the problem. It also indicated the type of data required and the type.of methods of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used. Preparing the research design The research problem having been formuJated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would/be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as14 Research Methodology efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purpose may be grouped into four categories viz., (i) Exploration (ii) Description (iii) Diagnosis and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects ofa problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration, But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situations of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed. Determining Sample design - All the items under consideration is any field of inquiry constitute ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the “population” is known as census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such as inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observation increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a survey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, Census inquiry is not possible in practice, under many circumstances. For instance blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. A brief mentions of the important sample designs is as follows: 1. Deliberate sampling. Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the Universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population elements and selected for inclusion in the sample based on the case of access, it can be called Convenience sampling. On the other hand, in Judgment sampling the researcher’s judgment is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the populations. Judgment samples is used quite frequently in qualitative research when the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations.Meaning, Types and Process of Research 15 2. Simple random Sampling. This type of sampling is also as © chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery, using the random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each items is assigned a numbers from | to 1500. Then 300 five digit random number are selected from the table. Systematic sampling. In some instances the most practical way of sam pling is to selectevery 15" name ona list, every 10" house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this * type is known as systematic sampling. Stratified sampling. If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogenous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this technique this population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping sub-populations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random samples, is known as stratified random sampling. Quota sampling. In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual starter is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different stratum, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgment. This is called quota sampling. Cluster sampling and Area sampling. Cluster sampling involves group the population and then selecting the groups in the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. The clustering approach can however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of filed work, specially in-the case personal interviews.16 Research Methodology Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of those smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in those small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the lost of the population concerned. 7. Multi-Stage Sampling. This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within terms, 8. Sequential Sampling. This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control. In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed samples. Collecting the data In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. These are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerable in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either though experiments or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can collected by any one or more of the following ways:Meaning, Types and Process of Research 17 1. By observation. This method implies the collection of information by way of investigations own observation, without interviewing the respondents. 2. Through personal interviews. The researchers follows a right procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through persons interviews: 3, Through telephonic interviews. This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself. 4. By mailing of questionnaires. The researcher and the respondents do not come in contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaire are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. 5. Through schedules. Under this method the enumerations are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules, Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Execution of the Project Ifthe execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the projects proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine — processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded, A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the surveys much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical controls so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre defined standard of accuracy. Analysis of Data After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the applications of those18 Research Methodology categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operators is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in form of tables. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of various statistical measures, Hypothesis — Testing After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a positions to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual questions which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Generalizations and Interpretation Ifa hypotheses is tested and upheld. Several times, it may be possible for the researchers to arrive at generalization i.e., to build a theory. Asa matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalization. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new question which in turns may lead to further researches. Preparation of the report or the thesis Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following. . The layout of the report should be as follows 1. the preliminary pages 2. — the main text and 3. the end matter. In its preliminaries. pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgments and forward. Then these should be a table contents followed by a test of tables and list of graphs and charts if any given in the report.Meaning, Types and Process of Research 19 The main test of the report should have the following parts. Introduction. It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the reséarch, The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. Summary of findings. After introduction these would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized. Main report. The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken down into readily identifiable sections. Conclusion. Towards the end of:the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact it is the final summons up. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e. list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research reports.2 PLANNING RESEARCH Research Problem Identifying a suitable research problem is one of the most important but a difficult phase of research process. A research problem is exactly that a problem that someone would like to research. A problem can be anything that a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling a difficulty of some sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not linking as well as it might problems involve areas of concern to researchers, conditions they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they seek answers. “A problem well put is half-solved,” thus goes an old saying, ‘How’ is the immediate question. Stefan Nowak gives an approach to this : a research problem is no more and no less than a certain question or set of questions to which the research is to provide an answers. It follows from the above that to put well a research problem, the research must look analytically at various expects of the problem and raise questions about the same. Thus the research question serveas the focus of the researcher’s investigation for which he attempts to find out answers. A research problem, in general refers to some difficulty which researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical a practical situation and wants to obtain a solutions for the same. Basic Concepts in problem Identification R.L. Ackost visualized five components of a research problem. In other words research problem may be identified on the basis of these five components. © These must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or a problemPlanning Research 21 @ These must be some objectives to be attained at the end © Alternative means or courses of action to meet the objectives must be available, © — The researcher must provide answer for the relative efficiency of the alternative means that are available to pursue the objective. © There must be some environments to which the difficulty pertains. -Selecting the Problem The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may taken form a research guide in this connection. Nevertheless, every research must find out his own solvation for research problem cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher's mind like a plant springing from it own seed. Sources of Problem The beginners face the problem of identifying the problem and locating it. The following are the possible sources of problem: ® Research students themselves may discover acres of diamonds in their own backyards and a inquisitive and imagination mind may discover the problem areas which is interesting and worthwhile research project. ® Problems confronted in various functional areas of management lend themselves to investigation Eg. |. Investor’s perception on corporate securities 2. Employees counseling in an industrial unit. @ — Technological changes and changes in economic / monetary / industrial Policies are constantly bringing forth new problems. and new opportunities for research. © — Classroom lectures/ discussions / seminar reports / discussions with fellow students and professors will suggest may stimulating problems to be solved. @ Textbooks, research reports / articles, annual reports of the industrial / most institutions will suggest additional areas of needed research.22 Research Methodology @ Most students feel insecure as they approach the choice of a research problem they wonder if the problem they may have in mind in significant enough and feasible. Need of Defining the Problem Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researchers to be on he track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like : what data are to be collected ? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. ‘Techniques involved in defining a problem How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a Herculean task however, it isa task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operations. The usual approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question and set up techniques and procedures for throwing light in the questions concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. The techniques for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after other (i) Statement ofthe problem in a general way (ii) Understanding the nature of the problem (iii) Surveying the available literature; (iv) developing the ideas through discussions and (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition. 1. Statement of the problem in a general way. First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose the researcher must immense himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is called pilot survey. 2. Understanding the nature of the problem. The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and naturePlanning Research f 23 clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it will those who first raised it is order to find out how the problem originally come about and with what objections in view. Ifthe researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to take a general statement concerning the problem. Surveying the available literature. All literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem in given. This means that the researcher must be well conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.” This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps In the theories, on which the existing theories applicable to the problem understudy are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. Developing the ideas through discussions. Discussions concerning a problem after produces useful information, various new ideas can be developed through such as exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in a same area or in working on similar problems, This is quite often known as an experience survey people with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. Rephrasing the research problem. Finally, the research must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment has been defined discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined rephrasing the problem into analytically or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypothesis.24 Research Methodology Review of literature in the field of Corporate Management : The review of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness valuated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggest new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the valuable material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it. Besides, the researcher for precisely formulating the problem may as well make the bibliographical review of studies, already made in one’s area of interest. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contents to the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provider a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher. In research report, review of literature may be lengthy section, In a research proposal, it i8 a partial summary of previous work, related to the hypothesis or focus of the study. The researcher is tying to show here the major trends in previous research and opinion on the topic and understands their relevance to the study being planned. Key question to ask at this point 1. Have I surveyed and described relevant studies rebited to the problem.? 2. Have | surveyed existing experts opinion of the problem? Have | summarized the existing state of opinion and research on the problem.? w Hypothesis Testing When we have to proceed towards some destination, the path of which is not known to us, what we generally do is to form an idea, however, ‘vague about the direction in which the place is likely to be located , Then we start mistakes; change our routes at times but if we proceed cautiously and insight direction we are bound to reach our destination. If we had absolutely no idea of even direction in which our desired place is located, our any idea about the possible road that might lead towards it, we are bound to be caught in wideness and shall never be able to reach anywhere.Planning Research 25 The above illustration is a typical example of any research work, In scientific research, we have to make new discoveries, but we cannot proceed in complete ignorance. We must have some idea as to new aspects that are likely to be discovered or new deductions likely to be arrived at. Then of course, we proceed to find out whether the ideas conceived are true. They may be totally correct or only partially or may be altogether false, but they do help us to get going. These primary ideas which guide study may be termed as hypothesis. Definition of Hypothesis According to George Alend berg “ A hypothesis is tentative generalizations the validity of which remains to be tested”. In its most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes the basis for a action or investigation. Goode and Hatt have defined it as “ a proposition which can be put to test determine validity”. A hypothesis is not the same as theory, although the two are closely related according to William H. George theory is elaborate hypothesis. The hypothesis actually emerges from the theory. It is a generalization drawn from the theory itselfand when has been tested and found correct it becomes a part to the theory itself. Thus, theory in its early form is only a hypothesis and two are inter-dependable upon each other. Need for Hypothesis While a hypothesis is useful it is not always indispensable. In physical science the hypothesis is most often necessary but in social sciences useful facts may be discovered, organized and presented purposefully even without a hypothesis other than the one which might incidentally be suggested in the course of investigation. Thus it is desirable to have hypothesis. Types of Hypothesis In social sciences as in physical sciences hypothesis are of different kinds depending upon the level of their refinement from common sense statements to complex abstract ones. Very broadly there are two types : The Crude and the Refined. Crude hypothesis is a very low order of abstraction, and largely perhaps even only indicates the kind of data to be gathered and does not very often lead to any higher theoretical research in the nature of a law or a theory. The descriptive method of research is very largely of this type. The Refined type, on the other hand, is more significant in research the degree of significance depending on the level26 Research Methodology of abstraction underlying the hypothesis. Hypothesis may be further classified into descriptive or relational. Descriptive hypothesis are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form or distribution of the variable. Eg: The current unemployment rate in India exceeds 35% of the work force. It is a proposition about the size of the unemployed group when a statement describes the relationship between two variables, it is called a relational proposition. Eg: “Families with higher incomes spend more recreation” Explanatory Hypothesis are relational propositions which strongly imply state the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. NULL HYPOTHESIS AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS The null hypothesis is a very useful tool in testing the significance of difference. In its simplest form, the hypothesis assets that those in no real difference in the sample and the population in the particular matter under consideration. Hence the work “null” which means invalid void or amounting to nothing and that the difference found is a accidental and unimportant arising out of fluctuations of sampling. The null hypothesis is a key to the legal principle that a man is innocent until he is proved guilty. It constitutes a challenge; and the functions of the experienced use to give the facts a chance to refute or fail to refute this challenge. For example, if we want to find out whether extra coaching has benefited the students or not, we shall set up a null hypothesis that “extra coaching has not benefited the students”. Similarly if we want to find out whether a particular drug is effective in curing malaria, we will take the null hypothesis that, “ the drug is not effective in curing the malaria”. The rejections of null hypothesis indicate that the differences are due to chance. Since many practical problems aim at establishment of statistical significance of differences, rejections of null hypothesis may thus indicate success in statistical project. As against the null hypothesis, the alternative hypothesis specifies those values that the research believes to hold true and of course, he hopes that the sample data lead to acceptance of this hypothesis as true. The alternative hypothesis may embrace whose range of values rather than single point. Now a days it is usually accepted common practice not to associate any special meaning to the null or alternative hypothesis butPlanning Research 27 merely to let these terms represent to different assumptions about the population parameter. However, for statistical convenience, it will make a difference as to which hypothesis is called the null hypothesis and which is called the alternative. The null and alternative hypothesis are distinguished by the use of two difference symbols, Ho representing the null hypothesis and Ha the have statistical significances and the acceptance of the null hypothesis indicates the differences. alternative hypothesis. Thus, a psychologist who: wishes to test whether or not a certain class of people have a mean 1.Q higher than 100 might establish the following null and alternative hypothesis. Ho : m= 100 (null hypothesis) Ha: M # 100 (alternative hypothesis) Or, if he is interested in testing the difference between the mean 1.Q of two groups, this psychologist may like to establish the null hypothesis that the two groups have equal means (m,—m, = 0) and the alternative, - hypothesis that their means are not equal ((m, -m,# 0). = HO :ml-—m2=0 (null hypothesis) HQ: ml —m2 # 0( alternative hypothesis) Testing the Hypothesis Testing the hypothesis means subjecting it to some sort of empirical scrutiny to determine if it is supported or refuted by what the researcher observes. There are two pre-requisites to test hypothesis. 1. areal social situation is needed that will suffice as a reasonable testing ground. 2. the investigation should make sure that the hypothesis is testable. There are two fairly important means of testing hypothesis : 1. the study of hypothesis for logical consistency ; and 2. the study of hypothesis for agreement with the fact. The study of hypothesis for logical consistency in phase of thinking. It consists of checking the logical character of the reasoning by which the consequences of hypothesis are deduced for verification. In the second place the study of hypothesis for logical consistency involves checking it for agreement with the already known laws of nature. It must not conflict with the highest and simplest laws of good thinking and it must not disagree«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Planning Research 31 given to it. As a result many researches do not serve the purpose for which they are undertaken. In fact, they may even give misleading conclusions. Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in rendering the research exercise futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations. The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others’for their comments and critical evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study. Preparation of the design A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, the research design in the conceptual structures within which research is conducted, it constitutes the blue prints for the collections, measurements and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do form writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the find analysis of data. More explicitly the design decisions happen to be in respect of : . 1. What the study is about? 2. What is the study made? 3. What is its scope? 4 What are the objectives of the study? ey What are the propositions to be tested? a What are the major concepts to be defined operationally? 7. Onthe basis of what criteria or measurements, the operational definition be made? 8. When or What the study will be conducted? 9. What is the reference period of the study? 10. What methodology is to be used? 11. What kinds of data are needed? 12. What are the sources of data? 13. What is the Universe from which the sample has to be drawn?«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Sampling Design 39 optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also an acceptable, confidence level for the estimate. Parameters of interest. In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the population of persons with some characteristics in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the population. These may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept. Budgetary Constraint. Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of non-probability sample. Sampling procedure. Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e, he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample designs out of which the researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error. SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE In appropriate sampling frame. If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias. Defective measuring device.Ifthe measuring device i is constantly in error, it will result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such as measuring device.40 Research Methodology Non- respondents. If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated. Indeterminacy principle. Sometimes we find the individuals act differently when kept under observation that what they do when kept in non-observed situation. For instance if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in course ofa work study on the basis of which the average lengths of time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle may also be a course of a systematic bias. Natural bias in the reporting of data. Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually adownward bias in the income data collected by government taxation department, where we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social organization. People in. general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status in their affluence. Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the correct answer then revealing their true feelings. Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction, their nature happens to be equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population. Sampling error can be measured fora given sample design and size. The measurement of samples error is usually called the ‘precision of the sampling plan.’ If we increase in the size of the précised can be improved. But increasing the size of the sample has its own limitations viz., a large sized sample increases the cost of collecting data and also enhances the systematic bias.Sampling Design 4 Characteristics of a Good Sample Designs 1. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. 2. Sample design must be such which result in a small sampling, error. 3. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study. 4, Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way. 5. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence. TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis and the element selection techniques on the representation basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-probability sampling in non-random sampling. On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted. When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the team ‘restricted sampling’. Representation Basis Element Selection Probability Sampling | Non-probability Techniques Sampling Unrestricted Sampling = |_ arto iininminer Simple Random Haphazard Sampling or Sampling Convenience Sampling Complete Random | Purposive ‘Sampling Sampling (Cluster, | (sueh as quota sampling. Restricted Sampling Systematic. Stratified | judgment sampling) Sampling et Non-Probability Sampling Non-probability sampling is that sample procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling42 Research Methodology is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling and judgment sampling. Market researchers and opinions pollster are well known for their use of Quota sampling. Once the make-up of the sample has been decided (the mix according to gender, age, social class, for example) the choice of the actual sample is left to the interviewers. In a’sense, quota sampling use a stratified sample, but nowhere in the process a sample selected is there truly randomness, however much the interviewer may feel subjectively that proceeding is a random manner. Thus it is not possible to quantify sampling error. Inspite of this weakness, however quota sampling provides an attractive approach for gaining opinion on a very inside range of aspects of general public interest from a very wide range of the public. It is easy to see the reasons. It is simple administratively, and usually cheap in terms of lost and time on the part of the researcher. Most attractive of all however, is that no sampling frame is needed. The Judgment sampling for instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for extensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the entire state, Thus, the judgment of the organization of the study plays an important part in this sample design. There are other so-called ‘ method of non-probability samples convenience sampling is self-explanatory — it is opportunistic and allows aresearcher to generate a sample that may be broadly based to low cost. It is also not uncommon for a academic staff to use student groups in this way in their research, Purposive sampling, possibly used concerned with the choice ofa sample explicitly because of particularly interesting features of each element. It needs to be stressed that for all the academic respectability of probability samples, much research published in scholarly management journals is based upon samples that are non-probability samples. Probability Sampling Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusive in the sample. It is so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the vehicle group not deliberately but by some mechanical process, Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assumed in terms of«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page 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unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Research Methodology Dr. C. Rajendra Kumar About the Book There is hardly shortage of simple guiding books on the research methodologies for post graduate students and medium and small organizations who wish to understand research methodology. The need of hour is to understand what is research and its process in management by students and middle management executives, The books already available are to take Philosophical approach and are short on practical details, particularly in connection with empirical research data. Others take a cook book approach that fails to provide an overarching perspective. Quite frequently these days everyone taking of research both in academic institutions and commercial organizations. Several research studies are undertaken and accomplished year after year. Keeping all this in view, the present book has been written with clear objective viz, students in management studies and small and medium size organizations in developing understanding the most appropriate research methodology for their research studies. It is hoped that the humble effort made in the form of this book will guide the students and executives. The approach and most of the substance of the book based upon more than two decades of practical experience of marketing and research studies. 4435-36/7, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj New Delhi-110 002 E-mail: aphbooks(@vsnl.net = APH PUBLISHING CORPORATION | | 476813)" 304eee