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org/wiki/Electric_power_t
ransmission
Electric power transmission
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"Electric transmission" redirects here. For vehicle transmissions, see diesel-electric transmission.

Two-circuit, single-voltage power transmission line; "Bundled" 4-ways

Electric-power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating power
plants to electrical substations located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local wiring
between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power
distribution. Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become transmission
networks. The combined transmission and distribution network is known as the "power grid" in
North America, or just "the grid". In the United Kingdom, the network is known as the "National
Grid".
A wide area synchronous grid, also known as an "interconnection" in North America, directly
connects a large number of generators delivering AC power with the same relative frequency, to
a large number of consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North
America (the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, the Quebec Interconnection
and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid), and one large grid for most of
continental Europe.

The same relative frequency, but almost never the same relative phase as ac power interchange is
a function of the phase difference between any two nodes in the network, and zero degrees
difference means no power is interchanged; any phase difference up to 90 degrees is stable by
the "equal area criteria"; any phase difference above 90 degrees is absolutely unstable; the
interchange partners are responsible for maintaining frequency as close to 60.0000 Hz as is
practical, and the phase differences between any two nodes significantly less than 90 degrees;
should 90 degrees be exceeded, a system separation is executed, and remains separated until the
trouble has been corrected.
Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in
the 1990s, many countries have liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that
have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.
[1]

Contents

1 System

2 Overhead transmission

3 Underground transmission

4 History

5 Bulk power transmission

o 5.1 Grid input
o 5.2 Losses
o 5.3 Subtransmission
o 5.4 Transmission grid exit

6 High-voltage direct current

7 Capacity

8 Control
o 8.1 Load balancing
o 8.2 Failure protection

9 Communications

10 Electricity market reform

11 Cost of electric power transmission

12 Merchant transmission

13 Health concerns

14 United States government policy

15 Special transmission
o 15.1 Grids for railways
o 15.2 Superconducting cables
o 15.3 Single wire earth return
o 15.4 Wireless power transmission

16 Security of control systems

17 Records

18 See also

19 References

20 External links

System
Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single
phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. High-voltage direct-current
(HVDC) technology is used for greater efficiency at very long distances (typically hundreds of
miles (kilometers)), or in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50 km)).
HVDC links are also used to stabilize and control problems in large power distribution networks
where sudden new loads or blackouts in one part of a network can otherwise result in
synchronization problems and cascading failures.

Diagram of an electric power system; transmission system is in blue

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (120 kV or above) to reduce the energy losses in longdistance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground
power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is
sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.
A key limitation of electric power is that, with minor exceptions, electrical energy cannot be
stored, and therefore must be generated as needed. A sophisticated control system is required to
ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand. If the demand for power exceeds the
supply, generation plant and transmission equipment can shut down, which in the worst case may
lead to a major regional blackout, such as occurred in the US Northeast blackout of 1965, 1977,
2003, and other regional blackouts in 1996 and 2011. It is to reduce the risk of such a failure that
electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national or continent wide
networks thereby providing multiple redundant alternative routes for power to flow should such
equipment failures occur. Much analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the
maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to
ensure spare capacity is available should there be any such failure in another part of the network.

Overhead transmission

3-phase high-voltage lines in Washington State

Four-circuit, two-voltage power transmission line; "Bundled" 2-ways

A typical ACSR. The conductor consists of seven strands of steel surrounded by four layers of
aluminium.
Main article: Overhead power line
High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is
nearly always an aluminum alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel
strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter, yields
only marginally reduced performance and costs much less. Overhead conductors are a
commodity supplied by several companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes
are regularly used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Conductor
sizes range from 12 mm2 (#6 American wire gauge) to 750 mm2 (1,590,000 circular mils area),
with varying resistance and current-carrying capacity. Thicker wires would lead to a relatively
small increase in capacity due to the skin effect, that causes most of the current to flow close to
the surface of the wire. Because of this current limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle
conductors) are used when higher capacity is needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high
voltages to reduce energy loss caused by corona discharge.
Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower
voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered subtransmission voltages, but are
occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for
distribution. Voltages above 765 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different
designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.

Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, the design of these lines requires
minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions, such as high
wind and low temperatures, can lead to power outages. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots
(43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and
loss of supply.[2] Oscillatory motion of the physical line can be termed gallop or flutter depending
on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.

Underground transmission
Main article: Undergrounding
Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of overhead power
lines. Underground cables take up less right-of-way than overhead lines, have lower visibility,
and are less affected by bad weather. However, costs of insulated cable and excavation are much
higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and
repair. Underground lines are strictly limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less
overload or re-rating than overhead lines. Long underground AC cables have significant
capacitance, which may reduce their ability to provide useful power to loads beyond 50 miles.
Long underground DC cables have no such issue and can run for thousands of miles.

History
Main article: History of electric power transmission

New York City streets in 1890. Besides telegraph lines, multiple electric lines were required for
each class of device requiring different voltages
In the early days of commercial electric power, transmission of electric power at the same
voltage as used by lighting and mechanical loads restricted the distance between generating plant
and consumers. In 1882, generation was with direct current (DC), which could not easily be
increased in voltage for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example,

lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used
different generators and circuits.[3][page needed]
Due to this specialization of lines and because transmission was inefficient for low-voltage highcurrent circuits, generators needed to be near their loads. It seemed, at the time, that the industry
would develop into what is now known as a distributed generation system with large numbers of
small generators located near their loads.[4]
In 1886, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, a 1 kV alternating current (AC) distribution system
was installed. That same year, AC power at 2 kV, transmitted 30 km, was installed at Cerchi,
Italy. At an AIEE meeting on May 16, 1888, Nikola Tesla delivered a lecture entitled A New
System of Alternating Current Motors and Transformers, describing the equipment which
allowed efficient generation and use of polyphase alternating currents. The transformer, and
Tesla's polyphase and single-phase induction motors, were essential for a combined AC
distribution system for both lighting and machinery. Ownership of the rights to the Tesla patents
was a key advantage to the Westinghouse Company in offering a complete alternating current
power system for both lighting and power.
Regarded as one of the most influential electrical innovations, the universal system used
transformers to step-up voltage from generators to high-voltage transmission lines, and then to
step-down voltage to local distribution circuits or industrial customers.[3] By a suitable choice of
utility frequency, both lighting and motor loads could be served. Rotary converters and later
mercury-arc valves and other rectifier equipment allowed DC to be provided where needed.
Generating stations and loads using different frequencies could be interconnected using rotary
converters. By using common generating plants for every type of load, important economies of
scale were achieved, lower overall capital investment was required, load factor on each plant was
increased allowing for higher efficiency, a lower cost for the consumer and increased overall use
of electric power.

Nikola Tesla's alternating current polyphase generators on display at the 1893 World's Fair in
Chicago. Tesla's polyphase innovations revolutionized transmission
By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area, electricity
production cost was reduced. The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the
varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital investment cost was reduced,
since stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider
geographic area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or minemouth coal, could be exploited to lower energy production cost.[3]

The first transmission of three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891
during the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. A 25 kV transmission line,
approximately 175 km long, connected Lauffen on the Neckar and Frankfurt.
Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914,
fifty-five transmission systems each operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest
voltage then used was 150 kV.[5]
The rapid industrialization in the 20th century made electrical transmission lines and grids a
critical infrastructure item in most industrialized nations. The interconnection of local generation
plants and small distribution networks was greatly spurred by the requirements of World War I,
with large electrical generating plants built by governments to provide power to munitions
factories. Later these generating plants were connected to supply civil loads through longdistance transmission.[6]

Bulk power transmission

A transmission substation decreases the voltage of incoming electricity, allowing it to connect

from long distance high voltage transmission, to local lower voltage distribution. It also reroutes
power to other transmission lines that serve local markets. This is the PacifiCorp Hale
Substation, Orem, Utah, USA
Engineers design transmission networks to transport the energy as efficiently as feasible, while at
the same time taking into account economic factors, network safety and redundancy. These
networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit breakers, switches and
transformers. The transmission network is usually administered on a regional basis by an entity
such as a regional transmission organization or transmission system operator.
Transmission efficiency is greatly improved by devices that increase the voltage, (and thereby
proportionately reduce the current) in the line conductors, thus allowing power to be transmitted
with acceptable losses. The reduced current flowing through the line reduces the heating losses in
the conductors. According to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of
the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of two will lower the energy lost to conductor
resistance by a factor of four for any given size of conductor.
The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's
law for conductor size, which states that the size is at its optimum when the annual cost of energy

wasted in the resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At
times of lower interest rates, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal; while, when
metals are expensive, thinner conductors are indicated: however, power lines are designed for
long-term use, so Kelvin's law has to be used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the
price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates for capital.
The increase in voltage is achieved in AC circuits by using a step-up transformer. HVDC
systems require relatively costly conversion equipment which may be economically justified for
particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity point to point
transmission. HVDC is necessary for the import and export of energy between grid systems that
are not synchronized with each other.
A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission lines, and substations. Energy is
usually transmitted within a grid with three-phase AC. Single-phase AC is used only for
distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase induction motors. In the 19th
century, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three wires with
unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver little or
no benefit.

The synchronous grids of the European Union

The price of electric power station capacity is high, and electric demand is variable, so it is often
cheaper to import some portion of the needed power than to generate it locally. Because loads are
often regionally correlated (hot weather in the Southwest portion of the US might cause many
people to use air conditioners), electric power often comes from distant sources. Because of the
economic benefits of load sharing between regions, wide area transmission grids now span
countries and even continents. The web of interconnections between power producers and
consumers should enable power to flow, even if some links are inoperative.
The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric demand is known as
the base load and is generally served by large facilities (which are more efficient due to
economies of scale) with fixed costs for fuel and operation. Such facilities are nuclear, coal-fired
or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as concentrated solar thermal and geothermal
power have the potential to provide base load power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar

photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered as supplying
"base load" but will still add power to the grid. The remaining or 'peak' power demand, is
supplied by peaking power plants, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost
sources, such as combined cycle or combustion turbine plants fueled by natural gas.
Long-distance transmission of electricity (thousands of kilometers) is cheap and efficient, with
costs of US$0.0050.02/kWh (compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$0.01
0.025/kWh, retail rates upwards of US$0.10/kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous
suppliers at unpredicted highest demand moments).[7] Thus distant suppliers can be cheaper than
local sources (e.g., New York often buys over 1000 MW of electricity from Canada).[8] Multiple
local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can make the transmission grid
more fault tolerant to weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.

A high-power electrical transmission tower, 230 kV, double-circuit, also double-bundled

Long-distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to be used to displace
fossil fuel consumption. Hydro and wind sources cannot be moved closer to populous cities, and
solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are minimal. Connection costs
alone can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically sensible. Costs
can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but various proposals for massive infrastructure
investment in high capacity, very long distance super grid transmission networks could be
recovered with modest usage fees.

Grid input
At the power stations, the power is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV
and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up
by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by the
transmission system and by country) for transmission over long distances.

Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance, which
varies depending on the specific conductors, the current flowing, and the length of the
transmission line. For example, a 100 mile 765 kV line carrying 1000 MW of power can have
losses of 1.1% to 0.5%. A 345 kV line carrying the same load across the same distance has losses
of 4.2%.[9] For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the
resistive losses in the conductor. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the

current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the I2R losses by a factor of 100, provided
the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional
area) is reduced 10-fold to match the lower current, the I2R losses are still reduced 10-fold. Longdistance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At
extremely high voltages, more than 2,000 kV exists between conductor and ground, corona
discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors.
Measures to reduce corona losses include conductors having larger diameters; often hollow to
save weight,[10] or bundles of two or more conductors.
Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 6.6% in 1997[11] and 6.5% in
2007.[11] By using underground DC transmission, these losses can be cut in half.[citation needed]
Underground cables can be larger diameter because they do not have the constraint of light
weight that overhead conductors have. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy
between power produced (as reported by power plants) and power sold to the end customers; the
difference between what is produced and what is consumed constitute transmission and
distribution losses, assuming no theft of utility occurs.
As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for direct-current transmission was determined to
be 7,000 km (4,300 mi). For alternating current it was 4,000 km (2,500 mi), though all
transmission lines in use today are substantially shorter than this.[7]
In any alternating current transmission line, the inductance and capacitance of the conductors can
be significant. Currents that flow solely in 'reaction' to these properties of the circuit, (which
together with the resistance define the impedance) constitute reactive power flow, which
transmits no 'real' power to the load. These reactive currents, however, are very real and cause
extra heating losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of 'real' power (transmitted to the load)
to 'apparent' power (sum of 'real' and 'reactive') is the power factor. As reactive current increases,
the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For transmission systems with low
power factor, losses are higher than for systems with high power factor. Utilities add capacitor
banks, reactors and other components (such as phase-shifting transformers; static VAR
compensators; physical transposition of the phase conductors; and flexible AC transmission
systems, FACTS) throughout the system to compensate for the reactive power flow and reduce
the losses in power transmission and stabilize system voltages. These measures are collectively
called 'reactive support'.

Subtransmission

danger subtransmission line above

subtransmission line, wood H-frame construction

Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at relatively lower
voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main transmission
voltage, because the equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations
connect with this high voltage. It is stepped down and sent to smaller substations in towns and
neighborhoods. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a single line failure
does not cut off service to a large number of customers for more than a short time. Loops can be
"normally closed", where loss of one circuit should result in no interruption, or "normally open"
where substations can switch to a backup supply. While subtransmission circuits are usually
carried on overhead lines, in urban areas buried cable may be used. The lower-voltage
subtransmission lines use less right-of-way and simpler structures; it is much more feasible to put
them underground where needed. Higher-voltage lines require more space and are usually aboveground since putting them underground is very expensive.
There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and
distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV and 138 kV are
often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly
used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became
distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of
power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point to point.[12]

Transmission grid exit

At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to
commercial and residential users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of subtransmission (33 kV to 132 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the
energy is transformed to low voltage (varying by country and customer requirementssee Mains
electricity by country).

High-voltage direct current

Main article: High-voltage direct current

High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long
distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is to be
transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and
it is less expensive to use direct current instead of alternating current. For a very long
transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the
additional cost of the required converter stations at each end.
HVDC is also used for submarine cables because over about 30 kilometres (19 mi) lengths AC
cannot be supplied[citation needed]. In these cases special high-voltage cables for DC are used.
Submarine HVDC systems are often used to connect the electricity grids of islands, for example,
between Great Britain and mainland Europe, between Great Britain and Ireland, between
Tasmania and the Australian mainland, and between the North and South Islands of New
Zealand. Submarine connections up to 600 kilometres (370 mi) in length are presently in use.
HVDC links can be used to control problems in the grid with AC electricity flow. The power
transmitted by an AC line increases as the phase angle between source end voltage and
destination ends increases, but too large a phase angle will allow the systems at either end of the
line to fall out of step. Since the power flow in a DC link is controlled independently of the
phases of the AC networks at either end of the link, this phase angle limit does not exist, and a
DC link is always able to transfer its full rated power. A DC link therefore stabilizes the AC grid
at either end, since power flow and phase angle can then be controlled independently.
As an example, to adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between Seattle and
Boston would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two regional electrical grids. This is
an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can become disrupted when AC system
components fail and place unexpected loads on the remaining working grid system. With an
HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would: (1) Convert AC in Seattle into HVDC; (2)
Use HVDC for the 3,000 miles of cross-country transmission; and (3) Convert the HVDC to
locally synchronized AC in Boston, (and possibly in other cooperating cities along the
transmission route). Such a system could be less prone to failure if parts of it were suddenly shut
down. One example of a long DC transmission line is the Pacific DC Intertie located in the
Western United States.

Capacity
The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line is limited. The origins of the limits
vary depending on the length of the line. For a short line, the heating of conductors due to line
losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the
ground, or conductors and equipment may be damaged by overheating. For intermediate-length
lines on the order of 100 km (62 mi), the limit is set by the voltage drop in the line. For longer
AC lines, system stability sets the limit to the power that can be transferred. Approximately, the
power flowing over an AC line is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and
current at the receiving and transmitting ends. Since this angle varies depending on system
loading and generation, it is undesirable for the angle to approach 90 degrees. Very

approximately, the allowable product of line length and maximum load is proportional to the
square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or phase-shifting transformers are used on long
lines to improve stability. High-voltage direct current lines are restricted only by thermal and
voltage drop limits, since the phase angle is not material to their operation.
Up to now, it has been almost impossible to foresee the temperature distribution along the cable
route, so that the maximum applicable current load was usually set as a compromise between
understanding of operation conditions and risk minimization. The availability of industrial
distributed temperature sensing (DTS) systems that measure in real time temperatures all along
the cable is a first step in monitoring the transmission system capacity. This monitoring solution
is based on using passive optical fibers as temperature sensors, either integrated directly inside a
high voltage cable or mounted externally on the cable insulation. A solution for overhead lines is
also available. In this case the optical fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire of overhead
transmission lines (OPPC). The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR) or also called Real
Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution enables not only to continuously monitor the temperature
of a high voltage cable circuit in real time, but to safely utilize the existing network capacity to
its maximum. Furthermore it provides the ability to the operator to predict the behavior of the
transmission system upon major changes made to its initial operating conditions.

Control
To ensure safe and predictable operation the components of the transmission system are
controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency,
load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost
effective performance for the customers.

Load balancing
The transmission system provides for base load and peak load capability, with safety and fault
tolerance margins. The peak load times vary by region largely due to the industry mix. In very
hot and very cold climates home air conditioning and heating loads have an effect on the overall
load. They are typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in midmornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. This makes the power requirements
vary by the season and the time of day. Distribution system designs always take the base load
and the peak load into consideration.
The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to match the loads
with the generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to the load, to prevent overloading
failures of the generation equipment.
Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be
controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized power generation, only local
control of generation is necessary, and it involves synchronization of the generation units, to
prevent large transients and overload conditions.

In distributed power generation the generators are geographically distributed and the process to
bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled. The load control signals can either be
sent on separate lines or on the power lines themselves. Voltage and frequency can be used as
signalling mechanisms to balance the loads.
In voltage signaling, the variation of voltage is used to increase generation. The power added by
any system increases as the line voltage decreases. This arrangement is stable in principle.
Voltage-based regulation is complex to use in mesh networks, since the individual components
and setpoints would need to be reconfigured every time a new generator is added to the mesh.
In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission
system. In droop speed control, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in
line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.)
Wind turbines, vehicle-to-grid and other distributed storage and generation systems can be
connected to the power grid, and interact with it to improve system operation.[citation needed]

Failure protection
Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail gracefully rather than all at
once. Brownouts occur when the supply power drops below the demand. Blackouts occur when
the supply fails completely.
Rolling blackouts (also called load shedding) are intentionally engineered electrical power
outages, used to distribute insufficient power when the demand for electricity exceeds the supply.

Communications
Operators of long transmission lines require reliable communications for control of the power
grid and, often, associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing protective relays at
each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of power into and out of the
protected line section so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and
the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from short circuits and
other faults is usually so critical that common carrier telecommunications are insufficiently
reliable, and in remote areas a common carrier may not be available. Communication systems
associated with a transmission project may use:

Microwaves

Power line communication

Optical fibers

Rarely, and for short distances, a utility will use pilot-wires strung along the transmission line
path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred since availability is not under
control of the electric power transmission organization.
Transmission lines can also be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or PLC. PLC
signals can be easily received with a radio for the long wave range.
Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the overhead
shield wires. These cables are known as optical ground wire (OPGW). Sometimes a standalone
cable is used, all-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable, attached to the transmission line cross
arms.
Some jurisdictions, such as Minnesota, prohibit energy transmission companies from selling
surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a telecommunications common carrier. Where the
regulatory structure permits, the utility can sell capacity in extra dark fibers to a common carrier,
providing another revenue stream.

Electricity market reform

Main article: Electricity market
Some regulators regard electric transmission to be a natural monopoly[13][14] and there are moves
in many countries to separately regulate transmission (see electricity market).
Spain was the first country to establish a regional transmission organization. In that country,
transmission operations and market operations are controlled by separate companies. The
transmission system operator is Red Elctrica de Espaa (REE) and the wholesale electricity
market operator is Operador del Mercado Ibrico de Energa Polo Espaol, S.A. (OMEL) [1].
Spain's transmission system is interconnected with those of France, Portugal, and Morocco.
In the United States and parts of Canada, electrical transmission companies operate
independently of generation and distribution companies.

Cost of electric power transmission

The cost of high voltage electricity transmission (as opposed to the costs of electric power
distribution) is comparatively low, compared to all other costs arising in a consumer's electricity
bill. In the UK, transmission costs are about 0.2p/kWh compared to a delivered domestic price of
around 10p/kWh.[15]
Research evaluates the level of capital expenditure in the electric power T&D equipment market
will be worth $128.9bn in 2011.[16]

Merchant transmission

Merchant transmission is an arrangement where a third party constructs and operates electric
transmission lines through the franchise area of an unrelated utility.
Operating merchant transmission projects in the United States include the Cross Sound Cable
from Shoreham, New York to New Haven, Connecticut, Neptune RTS Transmission Line from
Sayreville, N.J., to Newbridge, N.Y, and Path 15 in California. Additional projects are in
development or have been proposed throughout the United States, including the Lake Erie
Connector, an underwater transmission line proposed by ITC Holdings Corp., connecting
Ontario to load serving entities in the PJM Interconnection region. [17]
There is only one unregulated or market interconnector in Australia: Basslink between Tasmania
and Victoria. Two DC links originally implemented as market interconnectors, Directlink and
Murraylink, have been converted to regulated interconnectors. NEMMCO
A major barrier to wider adoption of merchant transmission is the difficulty in identifying who
benefits from the facility so that the beneficiaries will pay the toll. Also, it is difficult for a
merchant transmission line to compete when the alternative transmission lines are subsidized by
other utility businesses.[18]

Health concerns
Main article: Electromagnetic radiation and health
Some large studies, including a large United States study, have failed to find any link between
living near power lines and developing any sickness or diseases, such as cancer. A 1997 study
found that it did not matter how close one was to a power line or a sub-station, there was no
increased risk of cancer or illness.[19]
The mainstream scientific evidence suggests that low-power, low-frequency, electromagnetic
radiation associated with household currents and high transmission power lines does not
constitute a short or long term health hazard. Some studies, however, have found statistical
correlations between various diseases and living or working near power lines. No adverse health
effects have been substantiated for people not living close to powerlines.[20]
There are established biological effects for acute high level exposure to magnetic fields well
above 100 T (1 G). In a residential setting, there is "limited evidence of carcinogenicity in
humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in
particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency
magnetic field above 0.3 T (3 mG) to 0.4 T (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential
power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 T (0.7 mG) in Europe and
0.11 T (1.1 mG) in North America.[21][22]
The Earths natural geomagnetic field strength varies over the surface of the planet between 0.035
mT - 0.07 mT (35 T - 70 T or 0.35 G - 0.7 G) while the International Standard for the
continuous exposure limit is set at 40 mT (40,000 T or 400 G) for the general public.[21]

Tree Growth Regulator and Herbicide Control Methods may be used in transmission line right of
ways[23] which may have health effects.

United States government policy

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of
the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (March
2013)

Historically, local governments have exercised authority over the grid and have significant
disincentives to encourage actions that would benefit states other than their own. Localities with
cheap electricity have a disincentive to encourage making interstate commerce in electricity
trading easier, since other regions will be able to compete for local energy and drive up rates. For
example, some regulators in Maine do not wish to address congestion problems because the
congestion serves to keep Maine rates low.[24] Further, vocal local constituencies can block or
slow permitting by pointing to visual impact, environmental, and perceived health concerns. In
the US, generation is growing four times faster than transmission, but big transmission upgrades
require the coordination of multiple states, a multitude of interlocking permits, and cooperation
between a significant portion of the 500 companies that own the grid. From a policy perspective,
the control of the grid is balkanized, and even former energy secretary Bill Richardson refers to it
as a third world grid. There have been efforts in the EU and US to confront the problem. The US
national security interest in significantly growing transmission capacity drove passage of the
2005 energy act giving the Department of Energy the authority to approve transmission if states
refuse to act. However, soon after the Department of Energy used its power to designate two
National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors, 14 senators signed a letter stating the DOE
was being too aggressive.[25]

Special transmission
Grids for railways
Main article: Traction power network
In some countries where electric locomotives or electric multiple units run on low frequency AC
power, there are separate single phase traction power networks operated by the railways. Prime
example are the countries of Europe, which utilize the older AC technology based on 16 2/3 Hz.

Superconducting cables
High-temperature superconductors (HTS) promise to revolutionize power distribution by
providing lossless transmission of electrical power. The development of superconductors with
transition temperatures higher than the boiling point of liquid nitrogen has made the concept of
superconducting power lines commercially feasible, at least for high-load applications.[26] It has
been estimated that the waste would be halved using this method, since the necessary
refrigeration equipment would consume about half the power saved by the elimination of the

majority of resistive losses. Some companies such as Consolidated Edison and American
Superconductor have already begun commercial production of such systems.[27] In one
hypothetical future system called a SuperGrid, the cost of cooling would be eliminated by
coupling the transmission line with a liquid hydrogen pipeline.
Superconducting cables are particularly suited to high load density areas such as the business
district of large cities, where purchase of an easement for cables would be very costly.[28]

Location
Carrollton, Georgia
Albany, New York[30]
Long Island[31]
Tres Amigas
Manhattan: Project Hydra
Essen, Germany[32][33]

HTS transmission lines[29]

Length (km) Voltage (kV) Capacity (GW)
0.35
0.6

34.5
130

0.048
0.574
5

10

0.04

Date
2000
2006
2008
Proposed 2013
Proposed 2014
2014

Single wire earth return

Main article: Single-wire earth return
Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line
for supplying single-phase electrical power for an electrical grid to remote areas at low cost. It is
principally used for rural electrification, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water
pumps. Single wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables.

Wireless power transmission

Main article: Wireless energy transfer
Both Nikola Tesla and Hidetsugu Yagi attempted to devise systems for large scale wireless power
transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s, with no commercial success.
In November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a
cable climber 1 km vertically using a ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to
1 kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010, NASA contracted with private companies to
pursue the design of laser power beaming systems to power low earth orbit satellites and to
launch rockets using laser power beams.
Wireless power transmission has been studied for transmission of power from solar power
satellites to the earth. A high power array of microwave or laser transmitters would beam power
to a rectenna. Major engineering and economic challenges face any solar power satellite project.

Security of control systems

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of
the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (March
2013)

The Federal government of the United States admits that the power grid is susceptible to cyberwarfare.[34][35] The United States Department of Homeland Security works with industry to
identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks, the
federal government is also working to ensure that security is built in as the U.S. develops the
next generation of 'smart grid' networks.[36]

Records

Highest capacity system: 6.3 GW HVDC Itaipu (Brazil/Paraguay) (600 kV DC)[37]

Highest transmission voltage (AC):

o planned: 1.20 MV (Ultra High Voltage) on Wardha-Aurangabad line (India) under construction. Initially will operate at 400 kV.[38]
o worldwide: 1.15 MV (Ultra High Voltage) on Ekibastuz-Kokshetau line
(Kazakhstan)

Largest double-circuit transmission, Kita-Iwaki Powerline (Japan).

Highest towers: Yangtze River Crossing (China) (height: 345 m or 1,132 ft)

Longest power line: Inga-Shaba (Democratic Republic of Congo) (length: 1,700

kilometres or 1,056 miles)

Longest span of power line: 5,376 m (17,638 ft) at Ameralik Span (Greenland, Denmark)

Longest submarine cables:

o NorNed, North Sea (Norway/Netherlands) (length of submarine cable: 580
kilometres or 360 miles)
o Basslink, Bass Strait, (Australia) (length of submarine cable: 290 kilometres or
180 miles, total length: 370.1 kilometres or 230 miles)
o Baltic Cable, Baltic Sea (Germany/Sweden) (length of submarine cable: 238
kilometres or 148 miles, HVDC length: 250 kilometres or 155 miles, total length:
262 kilometres or 163 miles)

Longest underground cables:

o Murraylink, Riverland/Sunraysia (Australia) (length of underground cable: 180

kilometres or 112 miles)

See also
Energy portal

General:

Technical:

Distributed generation

Conductor marking lights

Electricity distribution

Double-circuit transmission line

Green power grid

Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP)

Overhead power line

Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)

Power outage

Geomagnetically induced current, (GIC)

Grid-tied electrical system

Electricity market:

Electricity market

High-voltage direct current (HVDC)

Dynamic demand (electric

power)

List of high voltage underground and submarine

cables

Demand response

Load profile

List of energy storage projects

Power line communications (PLC)

Radio frequency power transmission

Submarine power cable

Three-phase electric power

Wheeling (electric power transmission)

Transport:

Traction power network

References
Notes

1.

"A Primer on Electric Utilities, Deregulation, and Restructuring of U.S.

Electricity Markets" (pdf). United States Department of Energy Federal Energy
Management Program (FEMP). May 2002. Retrieved December 27, 2008.

2.

Hans Dieter Betz, Ulrich Schumann, Pierre Laroche (2009). Lightning: Principles,
Instruments and Applications. Springer, pp. 202203. ISBN 978-1-4020-9078-3.
Retrieved on May 13, 2009.

3.

Thomas P. Hughes (1993). Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society,

18801930. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 119122. ISBN 0-80184614-5.

4.

National Council on Electricity Policy. "Electricity Transmission: A primer" (pdf).

5.

Bureau of Census data reprinted in Hughes, pp. 282283

6.

Hughes, pp. 293295

7.

Paris, L.; Zini, G.; Valtorta, M.; Manzoni, G.; Invernizzi, A.; De Franco, N.; Vian,
A. (1984). "Present Limits of Very Long Distance Transmission Systems" (pdf). CIGRE
International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, 1984 Session, 29th
August-6th September. Global Energy Network Institute. Retrieved March 29, 2011. 4.98
MB

8.

"NYISO Zone Maps". New York Independent System Operator. Retrieved

January 10, 2014.

9.

American Electric Power, Transmission Facts, page 4:

http://www.aep.com/about/transmission/docs/transmission-facts.pdf

10.

California Public Utilities Commission Corona and induced currents

11.

"Where can I find data on electricity transmission and distribution losses?".

Frequently Asked Questions Electricity. U.S. Energy Information Administration.
November 19, 2009. Retrieved March 29, 2011.

12.

Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty, Standard Handbook for Electrical

Engineers (15th Edition) McGraw-Hill, 2007 ISBN 978-0-07-144146-9 section 18.5

13.

Raghuvir Srinivasan (August 15, 2004). "Power transmission business is a natural

monopoly". The Hindu Business Line. The Hindu. Retrieved January 31, 2008.

14.

Lynne Kiesling (August 18, 2003). "Rethink the Natural Monopoly Justification
of Electricity Regulation". Reason Foundation. Retrieved January 31, 2008.

15.

What is the cost per kWh of bulk transmission / National Grid in the UK (note
this excludes distribution costs)

16.

The Electric Power Transmission & Distribution (T&D) Equipment Market 2011
2021

17.

How ITC Holdings plans to connect PJM demand with Ontario's rich renewables,
Utility Dive, Dec. 8, 2014, http://www.utilitydive.com/news/how-itc-holdings-plans-toconnect-pjm-demand-with-ontarios-rich-renewables/341524/

18.

Fiona Woolf (February 2003). Global Transmission Expansion. Pennwell Books.

pp. 226, 247. ISBN 0-87814-862-0.

19.

Power Lines and Cancer, The Health Report / ABC Science - Broadcast on June
7, 1997 (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)

20.

Electromagnetic fields and public health, World Health Organization

21.

"Electromagnetic fields and public health". Fact sheet No. 322. World Health
Organization. June 2007. Retrieved January 23, 2008.

22.

"Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Power" (PDF). National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. June 2002. Retrieved January 29, 2008.

23.

Transmission Vegetation Management NERC Standard FAC-003-2 Technical

Reference Page 14/50. http://www.nerc.com/docs/standards/sar/FAC-0032_White_Paper_2009Sept9.pdf

24.

National Council on Electricity Policy. "Electricity Transmission: A primer" (pdf).

p. 32 (41 in pdf).

25.

Wald, Matthew (August 27, 2008). "Wind Energy Bumps Into Power Grid's
Limits". New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved December 12, 2008.

26.

Jacob Oestergaard et al. (2001). "Energy losses of superconducting power

transmission cables in the grid". IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 11:
2375. doi:10.1109/77.920339.

27.

600m superconducting electricity line laid in New York

28.

Superconducting cables will be used to supply electricity to consumers

29.

Superconductivity's First Century

30.

Albany HTS Cable Project

31.

High-Temperature Superconductors

32.

High-Temperature Superconductor Technology Stepped Up

33.

Operation of longest superconducting cable worldwide started

34.

BBC: Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'

35.

CNN: Video

36.

Reuters: US concerned power grid vulnerable to cyber-attack

37.

38.

"Energy Systems, Environment and Development". Advanced Technology

Assessment Systems (Global Energy Network Institute) (6). Autumn 1991. Retrieved
December 27, 2008.
"India Steps It Up". Transmission & Distribution World. January 2013.

Further reading

Grigsby, L. L., et al. The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press.
(2001). ISBN 0-8493-8578-4

Hughes, Thomas P., Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 18801930,

The Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore 1983 ISBN 0-8018-2873-2, an excellent
overview of development during the first 50 years of commercial electric power

Reilly, Helen (2008). Connecting the Country New Zealands National Grid 1886
2007. Wellington: Steele Roberts. pp. 376 pages. ISBN 978-1-877448-40-9.

Pansini, Anthony J, E.E., P.E. undergrounding electric lines. USA Hayden Book Co,
1978. ISBN 0-8104-0827-9

Westinghouse Electric Corporation, "Electric power transmission patents; Tesla

polyphase system". (Transmission of power; polyphase system; Tesla patents)

The Physics of Everyday Stuff - Transmission Lines

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Electric power transmission.
Look up grid electricity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Japan: World's First In-Grid High-Temperature Superconducting Power Cable System Link broken

A Power Grid for the Hydrogen Economy: Overview/A Continental SuperGrid

Global Energy Network Institute (GENI) The GENI Initiative focuses on linking
renewable energy resources around the world using international electricity transmission.

Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE), the association of

transmission system operators in continental Europe, running one of the two largest
power transmission systems in the world

Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and
Magnetic Fields (2002) by the IARC Link Broken.

A Simulation of the Power Grid The Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power
Grid (TCIP) group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign has developed
lessons and an applet which illustrate the transmission of electricity from generators to
energy consumers, and allows the user to manipulate generation, consumption, and power
flow.

Map of U.S. electric power generation and transmission

Maps

Electric power transmission systems (worldwide) based on Openstreetmap-Data

https://hitechtabai.wordpress.com/2012/04/27
/power-system-loss-one-of-the-7-wonders-inour-electricity-bill/
Power System Loss One of the "7 Wonders"
in our Electricity Bill
By Jun Tariman April 27, 2012 electrical pilferage electricity theft eletricity EPIRA ERC HVDC
system loss VECO

1 Vote
Dont mistakenly understood the 7 Wonders in the title of this post as something outstanding
or astonishing. In the contrary, it makes you wonder why its there in our monthly electricity bill
and shouldered by many consumers.
SYSTEM LOSS
The EPIRA (Electric Power Industry Reform Act/RA 9136) is not mentioning the System Loss
nor the Anti-Electricity and Electric Transmission Lines/Materials Pilferage Act of 1994 (RA
7832) is discussing thoroughly about it. So, what the hell is a SYSTEM LOSS?
System Loss is an operational cost in the power generation that is pass on to the consumers at a
rate determined by the Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC) every year and collected by the
power utility companies in its monthly bill to the consumers.

In this VECO electric bill,the Systems Loss is shown as part of the Generation and Transmission
Charges.
Still confused how the System Loss became part of our monthly bill? Thanks to the EPIRA and
the RA 7832 for allowing power utilities to recover that operational cost by passing it on to
consumers. The ERC, as the implementing agency of the EPIRA, determines every year the

ceiling how much System Loss shall be collected by the power companies like VECO (Visayan
Electric Company). The rate is now pegged at 8.5% from as high as 14.5% of the total System
Loss incurred by a power company.
Our monthly electricity bill is now unbundled by means of segregating the various components
in the electricity bill such as generation, transmission and distribution. It gives us also the chance
to be informed how much are we paying in every aspect of our electrical consumption including
the taxes.
7 WONDERS
In our monthly bill, there are seven (7) operational costs that have been passed on to the
consumers. Here are the rates for each charge and the sample costs for each charge based on my
bill above which totalled to P435.74:

System Loss Charge @ P0.9853/kWh (P212.82)

Subsidy on Lifeline Charge @ P0.0986/kWh (P21.30)

Senior Citizen Subsidy Rate @ P0.0002/kWh (P0.04)

Missionary Electrification @ P0.1163/kWh (P25.12)

Environmental Charge @ P0.0025/kWh (P0.54)

ICERA (Incremental Currency Exchange Rate Adjustment) @ P0.0159/kWh (P3.43)

Local Franchise Tax and Value Added Taxes @ 12% for Generation, Transmission,
System Loss, Distribution, Others (P122.49)

Subsidy on Lifeline Charge, is used by our power company (VECO) to defray the discount given
to small electricity consumers or those who consumed below 100kWh every month. If your
consumption is higher than 100kWh youll be part of those subsidizing the bills of the small
consumers. So, VECO is not the one giving the discount! lol

Chart from VECO website.

Senior Citizen Subsidy Rate, is also used by VECO to defray the discount given to consumers
who are Senior Citizens. So, old folks must be thankful to the rest of the consumers not to
VECO.
Missionary Electrification, is also used by VECO in providing electricity to Unviable Areas
where there are less consumers like the mountain and remote areas. So, mountain folks must be
thankful to their counterparts in the flat lands.
Environmental Charge, is not clear how VECO used this fund. Im just guessing they might used
it to defray the expenses in protecting the environment from possible destruction by their
operations.
ICERA, is the mechanism allowed by ERC that is used to recover the increase in principal
payments of foreign denominated loans that may be brought about by the peso devaluation. If
the current exchange rate shows that the peso is devaluating, then more ICERA charge shall be
paid by the consumers in order for VECO to recover that additional amount added to their loans.
Local Franchise Tax, is collected by VECO to recover the local franchise tax imposed by the
local government in your city or municipality from 1994-2000, which was not passed on the
consumers. So, the consumers are made to pay the Franchise Tax.
Value Added Tax, as we all knew is a pass-it-on tax aimed to ensure tax collection. VECO is able
to recover their paid input taxes by charging it to us in the form of VAT. Unfortunately, the
ordinary consumers has no one to pass on the VAT ending him the one paying partly VECOs
taxes to the government.

HOW SYSTEM LOSS OCCUR?

The System Loss we help paying for VECO is both technical and non-technical system losses. It
is the electricity that is lost during the distribution of power from the generating plants to
VECOs receiving point up to our electrical meters.
I tried also scanning the 100-page Implementing Rules and Regulations of the EPIRA but there is
no mention about System Loss. Its not even included in the Definition of Terms. So, i have to
scan this technical report on Losses in Electric Power Systems at the School of Electrical
Engineering of the Purdue University in Indiana to know more about System Loss.

According to the report, losses in the transmission system could incur due to the resistance of the
conductors like electrical wires used in transmitting the power. This is line resistance. The losses
can be reduced by increasing the voltage level that the line is carrying but would incur
substantial expenses in transformers and insulators.
Transmission lines would incur high losses when carrying full load of current while the
electricity demand of the area served is only modest. In order to reduces losses, transformers are
employed in carrying electricity. However, transformers have also losses on its own.
Another contributor in System Loss during transmission is the use of AC Transmission System.
To reduce losses, transmission system used the High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
Transmission System which allows high voltage transmission and is only limited by the amount
of heat that the line can tolerate.
In summary, System Loss is too complex to be understood by the consumers. What most of us
thought of System Loss are the pilferages of electricity like electrical theft which VECO maybe
charging us to recover the losses. Understanding all of those charges i enumerated above would
derive a conclusion that VECO is really doing business without spending much losses. :(

http://business.inquirer.net/109847/nea-taps-jica-expertise-to-reduce-systemslosses-of-power-cooperatives

NEA taps JICA expertise to reduce systems losses of power cooperatives

Philippine Daily Inquirer

7:17 PM | Wednesday, February 27th, 2013
More News from Amy R. Remo

MANILA, PhilippinesThe state-run National Electrification Administration has tapped Japan

International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for a technical cooperation project aimed at reducing
systems losses and improving the operational efficiencies of electric cooperatives.
JICA also tapped the expertise of the Tokyo Electric Power Co. (Tepco) for the project entitled,
System Loss Reduction for Philippine Electric Cooperatives, NEA said in a statement issued
on Wednesday.
NEA stressed the significance of bringing down the systems lossesor power lost either in
transmission through power lines or pilferageas this would be a comprehensive approach to
mitigate the total amount of energy losses from power generation to distribution. This will
likewise bring down the cost of systems loss charges, which are being billed to end power
consumers.
One of the key outputs of technical project was the System Loss Reduction Manual, which
aims to develop the technical capability and planning strategies of both the NEA and the electric
cooperatives, in reducing distribution system losses. This manual is being launched on Thursday,
through a final workshop being conducted for about 80 electric cooperatives.
Takahiro Sasaki, chief representative of JICA Philippines, said he expected the project to serve as
a means to attain the desired end of a better system loss management of local electric
cooperatives.
The manual and the forum are just tools to face the challenges of effective system loss
management. Electric cooperatives should make extensive use of the manual to better manage
their system losses for the benefit of the general public, Sasaki said.

We enjoin all electric cooperatives to make use of the Manual on System Loss Reduction to
help them in their technical operation, thus ensuring the continuing reduction of their system
losses, added NEA Administrator Edita S. Bueno.
NEA previously established the System Loss Reduction Program (SLRP) through which the
electric cooperatives system losses are closely monitored. On the national average, the system
loss has always been within the cap of 13 percent as set by the Energy Regulatory Commission.
Currently, roughly 70 percent of the electric cooperatives have system losses below the 13percent cap, while 19 other electric coops have posted single-digit system losses.
With the System Loss Reduction Manual as a tool, more electric cooperatives are expected to
reduce their losses and improve their technical performance, the NEA added.

Read more: http://business.inquirer.net/109847/nea-taps-jica-expertise-to-reducesystems-losses-of-power-cooperatives#ixzz3WnzyYhFk

Follow us: @inquirerdotnet on Twitter | inquirerdotnet on Facebook

http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/total-losses-in-power-distribution-andtransmission-lines-1

Home / Technical Articles / Total Losses in Power Distribution and Transmission Lines (1)
Total Losses in Power Distribution and Transmission Lines (1)
Posted Aug 19 2013 by jiguparmar in Transmission and Distribution with 20
Comments

Total Losses in Power Distribution and Transmission Lines (on photo: Power sunset over
Kampala City, Uganda)
Introduction

Power generated in power stations pass through large and complex networks like transformers,
overhead lines, cables and other equipment and reaches at the end users. It is fact that the unit of
electric energy generated by Power Station does not match with the units distributed to the
consumers. Some percentage of the units is lost in the distribution network.
This difference in the generated and distributed units is known as Transmission and
Distribution loss. Transmission and Distribution loss are the amounts that are not paid for by
users.
T&D Losses = (Energy Input to feeder(Kwh) Billed Energy to Consumer(Kwh)) / Energy
Input kwh x 100

Distribution Sector considered as the weakest link in the entire power sector.
Transmission Losses is approximate 17% while Distribution Losses is approximate
50%.

There are two types of Transmission and Distribution Losses:

1. Technical Losses
2. Non Technical Losses (Commercial Losses)

1. Technical Losses

The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors, equipment used for
transmission line, transformer, subtransmission line and distribution line and magnetic losses in
transformers.
Technical losses are normally 22.5%, and directly depend on the network characteristics and the
mode of operation.
The major amount of losses in a power system is in primary and secondary distribution lines.
While transmission and sub-transmission lines account for only about 30% of the total losses.
Therefore the primary and secondary distribution systems must be properly planned to ensure
within limits.

The unexpected load increase was reflected in the increase of technical

losses above the normal level

Losses are inherent to the distribution of electricity and cannot be eliminated.

There are two Type of Technical Losses.

1. Permanent / Fixed Technical losses

Fixed losses do not vary according to current. These losses take the form of
heat and noise and occur as long as a transformer is energized

Between 1/4 and 1/3 of technical losses on distribution networks are fixed
losses. Fixed losses on a network can be influenced in the ways set out below

Corona Losses

Leakage Current Losses

Dielectric Losses

Open-circuit Losses

Losses caused by continuous load of measuring elements

Losses caused by continuous load of control elements

2. Variable Technical losses

Variable losses vary with the amount of electricity distributed and are, more precisely,
proportional to the square of the current. Consequently, a 1% increase in current leads to an
increase in losses of more than 1%.

Between 2/3 and 3/4 of technical (or physical) losses on distribution networks
are variable Losses.

By increasing the cross sectional area of lines and cables for a given load,
losses will fall. This leads to a direct trade-off between cost of losses and cost
of capital expenditure. It has been suggested that optimal average utilization
rate on a distribution network that considers the cost of losses in its design
could be as low as 30 per cent.

Joule losses in lines in each voltage level

Impedance losses

Losses caused by contact resistance.

Main Reasons for Technical Losses

1. Lengthy Distribution lines

In practically 11 KV and 415 volts lines, in rural areas are extended over long distances to feed
loads scattered over large areas. Thus the primary and secondary distributions lines in rural areas
are largely radial laid usually extend over long distances.
This results in high line resistance and therefore high I2R losses in the line.

Haphazard growths of sub-transmission and distribution system in to new

areas.

Large scale rural electrification through long 11kV and LT lines.

2. Inadequate Size of Conductors of Distribution lines

The size of the conductors should be selected on the basis of KVA x KM capacity of standard
conductor for a required voltage regulation, but rural loads are usually scattered and generally
fed by radial feeders. The conductor size of these feeders should be adequate.
3. Installation of Distribution transformers away from load centers

Distribution Transformers are not located at Load center on the Secondary Distribution System.
In most of case Distribution Transformers are not located centrally with respect to consumers.
Consequently, the farthest consumers obtain an extremity low voltage even though a good
voltage levels maintained at the transformers secondary.
This again leads to higher line losses. (The reason for the line losses increasing as a result of
decreased voltage at the consumers end therefore in order to reduce the voltage drop in the line
to the farthest consumers, the distribution transformer should be located at the load center to
keep voltage drop within permissible limits.)
4. Low Power Factor of Primary and secondary distribution system

In most LT distribution circuits normally the Power Factor ranges from 0.65 to 0.75. A low
Power Factor contributes towards high distribution losses.
For a given load, if the Power Factor is low, the current drawn in high And the losses
proportional to square of the current will be more. Thus, line losses owing to the poor PF can be
reduced by improving the Power Factor.
This can be done by application of shunt capacitors.

Shunt capacitors can be connected either in secondary side (11 KV side) of

the 33/11 KV power transformers or at various point of Distribution Line.

The optimum rating of capacitor banks for a distribution system is 2/3rd of

the average KVAR requirement of that distribution system.

The vantage point is at 2/3rd the length of the main distributor from the
transformer.

A more appropriate manner of improving this PF of the distribution system

and thereby reduce the line losses is to connect capacitors across the
terminals of the consumers having inductive loads.

By connecting the capacitors across individual loads, the line loss is reduced
from 4 to 9% depending upon the extent of PF improvement.

5. Bad Workmanship

Bad Workmanship contributes significantly role towards increasing distribution losses.

Joints are a source of power loss. Therefore the number of joints should be kept to a minimum.
Proper jointing techniques should be used to ensure firm connections.
Connections to the transformer bushing-stem, drop out fuse, isolator, and LT switch
etc. should be periodically inspected and proper pressure maintained to avoid
sparking and heating of contacts.

Replacement of deteriorated wires and services should also be made timely to avoid any cause of
leaking and loss of power.
6. Feeder Phase Current and Load Balancing>

One of the easiest loss savings of the distribution system is balancing current along threephase circuits.
Feeder phase balancing also tends to balance voltage drop among phases giving three-phase
customers less voltage unbalance. Amperage magnitude at the substation doesnt guarantee load
is balanced throughout the feeder length.
Feeder phase unbalance may vary during the day and with different seasons. Feeders are
usually considered balanced when phase current magnitudes are within 10.Similarly, balancing
load among distribution feeders will also lower losses assuming similar conductor resistance.
This may require installing additional switches between feeders to allow for appropriate load
transfer.
Bifurcation of feeders according to Voltage regulation and Load.
7. Load Factor Effect on Losses

Power consumption of customer varies throughout the day and over seasons.
Residential customers generally draw their highest power demand in the evening hours. Same
commercial customer load generally peak in the early afternoon. Because current level (hence,
load) is the primary driver in distribution power losses, keeping power consumption more level
throughout the day will lower peak power loss and overall energy losses.
Load variation is Called load factor and It varies from 0 to 1.

Load Factor = Average load in a specified time period / peak load during that time period.

For example, for 30 days month (720 hours) peak Load of the feeder is 10 MW. If the feeder
supplied a total energy of 5,000 MWH, the load factor for that month is (5,000 MWh)/ (10MW x
720) =0.69.
Lower power and energy losses are reduced by raising the load factor, which, evens out feeder
demand variation throughout the feeder.
The load factor has been increase by offering customers time-of-use rates. Companies use
pricing power to influence consumers to shift electric-intensive activities during off-peak times
(such as, electric water and space heating, air conditioning, irrigating, and pool filter pumping).
With financial incentives, some electric customers are also allowing utilities to
interrupt large electric loads remotely through radio frequency or power line carrier
during periods of peak use. Utilities can try to design in higher load factors by
running the same feeders through residential and commercial areas.
8. Transformer Sizing and Selection

Distribution transformers use copper conductor windings to induce a magnetic field into a grainoriented silicon steel core. Therefore, transformers have both load losses and no-load core
losses.
Transformer copper losses vary with load based on the resistive power loss equation (P loss =
I2R). For some utilities, economic transformer loading means loading distribution transformers to
capacity-or slightly above capacity for a short time-in an effort to minimize capital costs and still
maintain long transformer life.
However, since peak generation is usually the most expensive, total cost of ownership (TCO)
studies should take into account the cost of peak transformer losses. Increasing distribution
transformer capacity during peak by one size will often result in lower total peak power
dissipation-more so if it is overloaded.
Transformer no-load excitation loss (iron loss) occurs from a changing magnetic field in the
transformer core whenever it is energized. Core loss varies slightly with voltage but is essentially
considered constant. Fixed iron loss depends on transformer core design and steel lamination
molecular structure. Improved manufacturing of steel cores and introducing amorphous metals
(such as metallic glass) have reduced core losses.
9. Balancing 3 phase loads

Balancing 3-phase loads periodically throughout a network can reduce losses significantly. It can
be done relatively easily on overhead networks and consequently offers considerable scope for
cost effective loss reduction, given suitable incentives.

10. Switching off transformers

One method of reducing fixed losses is to switch off transformers in periods of low demand. If
two transformers of a certain size are required at a substation during peak periods, only one
might be required during times of low demand so that the other transformer might be switched
off in order to reduce fixed losses.
This will produce some offsetting increase in variable losses and might affect security and
quality of supply as well as the operational condition of the transformer itself. However, these
trade-offs will not be explored and optimized unless the cost of losses are taken into account.
11. Other Reasons for Technical Losses

Unequal load distribution among three phases in L.T system causing high
neutral currents.

leaking and loss of power

Over loading of lines.

Abnormal operating conditions at which power and distribution transformers

are operated

Low voltages at consumer terminals causing higher drawl of currents by

inductive loads.

Poor quality of equipment used in agricultural pumping in rural areas, cooler

air-conditioners and industrial loads in urban areas.

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8 important definitions to quantify Load Diversity

October 31, 2014
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Article Tags //
distribution network, distribution transformers, load factor, power distribution,
technical losses, total losses, transformers, transmission, transmission lines,
Filed Under Category //

Transmission and Distribution

About Author //

Jignesh Parmar
jiguparmar - Jignesh Parmar has completed his B.E(Electrical) from Gujarat University. He is
member of Institution of Engineers (MIE),India. Membership No:M-1473586.He has more than
12 years experience in Transmission -Distribution-Electrical Energy theft detection-Electrical
Maintenance-Electrical Projects (Planning-Designing-Technical Review-coordination
-Execution). He is Presently associate with one of the leading business group as a Assistant
Manager at Ahmedabad,India. He has published numbers of Technical Articles in "Electrical
Mirror", "Electrical India", "Lighting India", "Industrial Electrix"(Australian Power Publications)
Magazines. He is Freelancer Programmer of Advance Excel and design useful Excel base
Electrical Programs as per IS, NEC, IEC,IEEE codes. He is Technical Blogger and Familiar with
English, Hindi, Gujarati, French languages. He wants to Share his experience & Knowledge and
help technical enthusiasts to find suitable solutions and updating themselves on various
Engineering Topics.

http://www.davaolight.com/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&catid=122:march14&id=1952:knowing-systemloss-charge-and-how-it-can-lower-down-electricity-bill

Knowing system loss charge and how it can lower down electricity bill

Paying utility bills every month is like a way of life. But, most people
do not really pay attention to the charges that make up the bill.
In Davao Light and Power Co. and in all distribution utilities, the

electricity bill is unbundled. Meaning, various components of

electricity tariffs are itemized and segregated for transparency to
paying customers. However, not all customers understand these
charges. One best example of these is the system loss charge.
System loss is simply the difference between the power purchased
from energy sources and the power sold to customers. It is
attributed to two components; technical and non-technical losses.
Technical losses occur naturally and consist mainly of power
dissipation or heat generated in electricity system components such
as transformers, transmission and distribution lines. Meanwhile,
non-technical losses are caused by actions external to the power
system and an example of which is electricity theft.
Under the R.A. 9136 or Electric Power Industry Reform Act (EPIRA)
Law of 2001, electric utilities like Davao Light can recover the power
lost through the system loss charge. However, a utility can only
recover up to a set ceiling of 8.5% as implemented by the Energy
Regulatory Commission (ERC). Otherwise, the distribution utility
absorbs the system loss in excess of the cap.
Even so, Davao Light only charges its customers the actual system
loss which is lower than the cap. Hence, Davao Light customers pay
less in terms of amount per kWh. As of February 2013, Davao Light's
cumulative system loss is only at 7.29% which is lower compared to
other electric utilities and cooperatives.
For example, with Davao Light's system loss at 7.29%, the
residential customer with a monthly consumption of 175 kWh
currently saves P11.71 or P140.52 in a year. This would not have
been enjoyed by him had the company system loss exceeded the
mandated cap.
To sustain a below cap system loss, Davao Light continuously
invests in state-of-the-art equipment and upgrades its systems. It
also is serious in its campaign against electricity theft or pilferage.
These strategies are of significance to the electric utility as it does
not want to pass on its inefficiency to its customers.

he ASKDLPC BILL text broadcast of Davao Light and Power Company is currently
unavailable to its customers due to some technical problems since last March 23.
The electric distribution utility is working closely with its telecommunication service
providers at the moment in order to restore the SMS service at the earliest possible
time.
Davao Light apologizes to those customers who will be affected by the temporary
unavailability of this text messaging service.
For your billing inquiries and concerns, you may call us at 229-DLPC (3572) or email us
at davaolight@aboitiz.com.

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