Chapter 2-Geology & Exploration, UTM

Fundamentals Of Petroleum Engineering
SKPP 1313
CHAPTER 2:
GEOLOGY AND EXPLORATION

ASSOC. PROF. ISSHAM ISMAIL
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Engineering
Universiti Technologi Malaysia
SKPP 1313: FUND. OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
COURSE CONTENTS
Rock Types
Parameters Controlling Petroleum Occurrence
Migration of Petroleum
Entrapment of Petroleum
Oil Exploration Methods
CHAPTER 2: GEOLOGY & EXPLORATION
(2)
Issham ismail
Rock Types: Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks - derived from the Latin word ignis meaning

fire fire rock.
Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form directly from

the cooling of magma. This is an exothermic process (it loses
heat) and involves a phase change from the liquid to the
solid state.
(3)
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Rock Types: Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks can form either on the surface (extrusive

igneous rocks from larva flow ), or deep in the crust
(intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks)
Igneous rocks are given names based upon two things:

composition (what they are made of) and texture (how big
the crystals are).
Texture relates to how large the individual mineral grains

are in the final, solid rock. In most cases, the resulting grain
size depends on how quickly the magma cooled. In general,
the slower the cooling, the larger the crystals in the final
rock.
(4)
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Igneous Rock (contd)
The other factor is composition: the elements in the magma

directly affect which minerals are formed when the magma
cools.
Example of Igneous Rocks: Granite, Diorite & Gabbro

(intrusive), and Basalt, Rhyolite & Andesite (extrusive).
Granite
Basalt
(5)
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Rock Types: Sedimentary Rock
Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the

deposition of material at the Earth's surface and within
bodies of water. This material is accumulated and
compacted and cemented together secondary rock.
Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that

cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle and
accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution.
Particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are

called sediment - formed by weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks.
(6)
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Sedimentary Rock (contd)
There are three main types of sedimentary rocks: clastic,

chemical and organic sedimentary rocks.
Clastic sedimentary rock:
Clastic sedimentary rocks are accumulations of clasts - little

pieces of broken up rock which have compacted and
cemented.
Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, rock

(lithic) fragments, clay minerals, and mica.
Example of clastic sedimentary rocks are sandstone, shale,

siltstone and conglomerate classified based on the size of
the particles.
(7)
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Clastic Sedimentary Rock
Sandstone
Shale
Siltstone
Conglomerate
(8)
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Mississippi
River delta
(satellite
imagery)
Continental environment
(9)
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Chemical Sedimentary Rock
Chemical sedimentary rock:
Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral

constituents in solution become supersaturated and
inorganically precipitate.
Many of these form when standing water evaporates,

leaving dissolved minerals behind. Thick deposits of salt
and gypsum can form due to repeated flooding and
evaporation over long period of time.
(10)
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Chemical Sedimentary Rock (contd)
Example of chemical sedimentary rocks are gypsum,

dolomite, halite (rock salt), sylvite and barite.
Gypsum
Dolomite
(11)
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Organic Sedimentary Rock
Organic sedimentary rock:
any accumulation of sedimentary debris caused by organic

processes. Many animals use calcium for shells, bones, and
teeth. These bits of calcium can pile up on the seafloor and
accumulate into a thick enough layer to form an "organic"
sedimentary rock.
Example of organic sedimentary rocks are coal and coquina.
Coal
Coquina
(12)
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Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
(13)
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Rock Types: Metamorphic Rock
The metamorphics get their name from "meta" (change)

and "morph" (form).
Any rock can become a metamorphic rock. All that is

required for the rock to be moved into an environment in
which the minerals which make up the rock become
unstable and out of equilibrium with the new
environmental conditions.
In most cases, this involves burial which leads to a rise in

temperature and pressure. The metamorphic changes in the
minerals always move in a direction designed to restore
equilibrium.
Common metamorphic rocks include slate, schist, gneiss,

marble and quartzite.
(14)
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Metamorphic Rock
Slate
Schist
Marble
Gneiss
(15)
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The Rock Cycle
(16)
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Parameters Controlling Petroleum Occurrence

1. Source Rocks
Source rock refers to rocks from which hydrocarbons have

been generated or are capable of being generated.
They are organic-rich fine grained sediments that may have

been deposited in a variety of environments including deep
water marine, lacustrine and deltaic, and under low energy,
reducing conditions.
The most important factor in the generation of petroleum in

source rock is temperature: 225o to 350oF (107o and 176oC) the hydrocarbon window.
(17)
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Parameters Controlling Petroleum Occurrence (contd)
The action of heat on the insoluble organic matter (kerogen)

contained in source rocks leads to the formation of oil and
gas.
2. Reservoir Rocks
A petroleum reservoir is a porous and permeable rock in

communication with a mature source bed.
Sandstones and carbonate rocks form the overwhelming

majority of reservoirs world-wide.
Under special circumstances, igneous and metamorphic

rocks can also act as petroleum reservoirs.
(18)
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Parameters Controlling Petroleum Occurrence (contd)

3. Traps
A traps is an arrangement of rock layers that contains an

accumulation of hydrocarbons, yet prevents them from
rising to the surface.
The trap consists of an impermeable layer of rock above a

porous, permeable layer containing the hydrocarbons.
It can be structural traps or stratigraphic traps or

combination of these factors. Structural traps occur when
the reservoir formation deforms. Stratigraphic traps are
those where porosity or permeability has changed within a
formation.
(19)
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Migration of Petroleum
Oil and gas move out of the source beds and accumulate in
the reservoir rocks.
The transfer from source rocks to reservoir rocks is called

primary migration.
Movement of petroleum within the porous and permeable

reservoirs beds is known as secondary migration.
The primary cause of primary migration is compaction and

diffusion due to differing concentrations of fluids in source
rock and the surrounding rock there is a tendency to
diffuce. diffuse
(20)
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Migration of Petroleum (contd)
The more permeable silt and sand bodies within

compacting shale are the main channels of fluid migration.
The primary cause of secondary migration is buoyancy
forces. These forces are proportional to the density
difference between hydrocarbon and water.
Primary migration is slow and proceeds over short
distances, while secondary migration is faster and can
proceed over very long distances (more than one-hundred
kilometers).
(21)
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Direction of fluid migration into anticline
Migration from an interbedded shale-sand sequence

(22)
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Migration into a pinnacle reef
Migration into stratigraphic traps

(23)
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(24)
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(25)
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Entrapment of Petroleum
Oil, gas and water slowly migrate through permeable rocks,

driven by natural forces of gravity (buoyancy) and pressure
gradients.
When they meet an impermeable barrier, they can go no

further, so oil and gas accumulate. This barrier is generally
referred to as a trap.
Varying densities make the gas phase rise, while the water
settles to the lowest point, and the oil remains in the
middle.
Traps may be classified according to the manner in which

they are formed, and categorized as structural trap,
stratigraphic trap and combination trap.
(26)
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Structural Traps
By far the greatest number of fields

discovered world-wide and the
largest proportion of total proven
reserves are associated with
structural traps.
Structural traps result from a local

deformation such as folding and/or
faulting of the rock layers.
Faulting can also produce traps by

juxtaposing a reservoir against an
impervious stratum.
(27)
Anticlinal oil traps
Structural oil trap caused

by faulting
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Draping or compaction over a buried

hill, carbonate reef also produces
traps on a smaller scale.
Sediment draping
(28)
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Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are depositional in nature. This means

they are formed in place, often by a body of porous
sandstone or limestone becoming enclosed in shale. The
shale keeps the oil and gas from escaping the trap, as it is
generally very difficult for fluids (either oil or gas) to migrate
through shales.
Stratigraphic trap is a general term for traps that are formed

as a result of a lateral and vertical variation in the thickness,
texture, porosity and lithology of the reservoir rock, or a
break in its continuity. A permeable reservoir rock changes
to a less permeable or to an impermeable rock.
(29)
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Stratigraphic Traps (contd)
Examples of this type of trap are pinchout type and

truncated type.
(30)
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Combination Trap
The geometry of this type of trap

is the result of a combination of
tectonic processes and changes
in lithology.
A common trap that would be an

example of a Combination Trap is
a salt dome.
Salt dome
(31)
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Petroleum Traps
(32)
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Oil Exploration Method
In the early days of petroleum, most oil

finds were the result of digging or drilling
near known oil and gas seeps or of
accidental finds while drilling for water.
A good definition of a seep is ''the surface expression of a

migration pathway, along which petroleum is currently
flowing, driven by buoyancy from a sub-surface origin'.
At the most basic level,

this demonstrates that
the basin contains a
generating source rock
and hence a viable
petroleum system.
(33)
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Surface Geology
Remote Sensing Method
The selection of effective exploration targets is an important

step to achieve success in oil exploration.
Remote sensing refers to using infrared or other means to

map an area.
This method is used to study the basic of petroleum

geological conditions.
The remote sensing images have characteristics of realty

and provide accurate visual data for directly determining
geometric shapes of sedimentary basins.
(34)
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Surface Geology Remote Sensing (contd)
The remote sensing techniques are more effective and

useful for understanding and studying those basins in the
out-of-the-way mountains and remote deserts.
Remote sensing equipments can be carried by airplanes or

by satellites.
Companies using remote sensing data, however, still need

traditional exploration information to pinpoint the location
of commercial deposits.
(35)
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Surface Geology Remote Sensing (contd)

The visible bands penetrate water and show
suspended sediment in surface water.
Volcanic mountains are visible around the
lake.
The edge of the Andes Mountains is seen

flanked by extensive alluvial fans that form
relatively flat surfaces
The White Sands are dunes composed of
gypsum sand blown from a nearby dry lake
bed. In this image the gypsum dunes
appear light blue, and the sand source area
is dark blue.
(36)
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Geophysical Exploration
1. Magnetic Methods
Sedimentary rocks generally have a very small magnetic

susceptibility compared with igneous or metamorphic rocks,
which tend to have a much higher magnetite (a common
magnetic mineral) content.
By conducting a magnetic survey over a given area, a

prospector can determine where oil-bearing sedimentary
rock is more likely to be found.
The magnetometer is used to measure the magnitude of

the earth's total magnetic field over a large area.
(37)
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Geophysical Exploration Magnetic (contd)
A magnetometer can be towed behind a

ship or an airplane to cover large areas. It
transmits data to a device on board which
records the information onto paper or
magnetic tape.
A development of airborne magnetics is

the micromagnetic technique for oil
exploration. An airplane tows a
micromagnetometer from a low altitude,
normally about 300 ft above the ground. It
detects micromagnetic anomalies, or
deviations from the norm.
Geologist use these data to predict the

characteristics of the overlying sediments.
(38)
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2. Gravity Methods
The Earth's gravitational attraction varies slightly from one

place to another on the Earth's surface. Some of this
variation occurs because the Earth is not a perfect sphere,
and some is related to differences in elevation on the
Earth's surface.
For example, in north-central Kansas, there is an anomaly

known as the Midcontinent Gravity High where the Earth's
gravity is about 0.006% greater than normal.
In gravity prospecting, geophysicists measure variations in

the force of gravity from rocks up to a few miles beneath
the earth's surface.
(39)
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Geophysical Exploration Gravity (contd)
Different types of rocks have different densities, and the

denser rocks have the greater gravitational attraction.
If the higher-density rock formations are arched upward in a

structural high, such as an anticline, the Earth's gravitational
field will be greater over the axis of the structure than along
its flanks.
A salt dome, on the other hand, which is generally less

dense than the rocks into which it is intruded, can be
detected from the low value of gravity recorded compared
with that measured on either side.
(40)
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These aircrafts are installed

with gravity system which can
reduce cost of operations.
Courtesy of Fugro Airbone Survey
(41)
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3. Seismic Methods
Seismic reflection, a powerful technique for underground

exploration, has been used for over 60 years. It will give more
precise details on the formations beneath the surface.
Seismic waves are essentially sound waves that travel

underground at velocities of 2 to 4 miles per second (3 to 6 km
per second), depending upon the type of rock through which
they pass.
The reflections are recorded by detecting instruments

responsive to ground motion (geophones). They are laid along
the ground at distances from the shot point which are
generally small compared with the depth of the reflector.
(42)
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Geophysical Exploration Seismic (contd)
Variations in the reflection times from place to place on the

surface usually indicate structural features in the strata
below.
From the geophones, the wave will be send through cables

to a recorder.
The recorder, a seismograph, amplifies and records the

wave characteristics to produce a seismogram.
Seismograms generate a seismic section, which is a twodimensional slice from the surface of the earth downward.
The information from a seismic survey indicates the types of

rock, their elative depth, and whether a trap is present
(43)
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Onshore Seismic Operation

Onshore seismic operation
(44)
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Offshore Seismic Operation
(45)
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Offshore Seismic Operation (contd)
(46)
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Offshore Seismic Operation (contd)
(47)
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Interpretation Seismic Data
(48)
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Interpretation Seismic Data (contd)
2-D Seismic Interpretation

(49)
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(50)
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(51)
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These enlargements with highresolution seismic clearly show the

channelling system within the
reservoir as well as the location of
saturated sand
(52)
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Sub-Surface Geophysical Exploration

Well Correlation
Consists of establishing correlations by

matching strata, rock hardness or softness,
and electrical and radioactivity data to
determine the origin, composition and
distribution of rock strata.
Electrical logs, radioactivity logs, and acoustic

logs help geologists predict where oil bearing
strata occur.
Sample logs, compiled from well cuttings and

cores, are used to identify key beds and
lithologic sequences.
(53)
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Well Correlation
Core samples are taken from the top

to the bottom of a well and shows
rock in sequential order as it appears
in the ground.
Core samples also provide information

on porosity, permeability, and
saturation of rock in the well.
Cuttings are not a continuous record

like core samples, but provide a
means for identifying sections within
larger thick layers through fossil and
mineral deposits.
(54)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID
(55)
MOHD FAUZI HAMID

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Fundamentals Of Petroleum Engineering

GEOLOGY AND EXPLORATION

SKPP 1313: FUND. OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING