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Riga Technical University

03.09.2014 14:19

RTU Course "Civil Aviation Engines"


15E01 Aeronautikas tehnoloiju katedra

General data
Code
Course title
Course status in the programme
Course level
Course type
Field of study
Responsible instructor
Volume of the course: parts and credits points
Language of instruction
Possibility of distance learning
Abstract
Goals and objectives of the course in terms of
competences and skills
Structure and tasks of independent studies
Recommended literature
Course prerequisites
Courses acquired before

TAD521
Civil Aviation Engines
Compulsory/Courses of Limited Choice
Undergraduate Studies
Professional
Transport
Ilmrs Ozoli
1 part, 3.0 Credit Points, 4.5 ECTS credits
LV, EN, RU
Not planned
Large and small contour ratio two rotor and three rotor two dual turbo engine features. Some
company engine operating and design features.
To master aero gas turbine engine construction and system. To study the Pratt & Whitney, General
Electric, Rolls-Royce, SNECMA aero engines.
To work with literature and internet. To master in detail particular gas turbine engine system
construction and operation.
Apgstamo dzinju tehniskie apraksti.
Gas turbine engine theory and design.

Course outline
Theme
The turbofan structure. Systems of the turbofan. Automatic control system of the turbofan.
The turboprop structure. Systems of the turboprop. Automatic control system of the turboprop.
Instrumentation and diagnostic equipment.
Pratt & Whitney engines.
General Electric engines.
CFM International engines.
Rolls-Royce engines.
International AeroEngines engines.
Snecma engines.
Learning outcomes and assessment
Learning outcomes
A student knows gas turbine engine construction and parameters.
A student is able to calculate gas turbine engine main parameters.
A student knows the turboprop engine construction and parameters.
A student is able to calculate turboprop engine main parameters.
A student knows turbofan engine construction and parameters.
A student is able to calculate turbofan engine main parameters.
A student knows Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, SNECMA, and the joint
companies' engine constructions and operating features.
Study subject structure
Part
Semester
Autumn
Spring
1.
*
*

CP

ECTS

3.0

4.5

Summer

Hours per Week


Lectures
Practical
1.0
2.0

Hours
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
4
4

Assessment methods
Practical lessons, test, exam.
Practical lessons, test, exam.
Practical lessons, test, exam.
Practical lessons, test, exam.
Practical lessons, test, exam.
Practical lessons, test, exam.
Practical lessons, test, exam.

Lab.
0.0

Test

Tests
Exam
*

Work

Turbine Engines

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Rolls-Royce Trent 800

Developed from the RB211, the Trent covers a thrust range of 71,000 lb to 92,000 lb thrust, with the capability
to grow beyond 100,000 lb. The Trent 800 features a 110 inch diameter wide-chord fan, high flow compressors
and Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC).
Detailed engineering design began in 1988 to meet the propulsion requirements of the Airbus A330 (Trent 700)
and Boeing 777 (Trent 800). The Trent first ran in August 1990, and in January 1994 a Trent 800 demonstrated
a world record thrust of 106,087 lb.
The engine entered service in March 1995 in the Airbus A330.

M15

Gas Turbine Engine

15.1

Fundamentals

15.1.1

Laws of Thermodynamics

15.1.2

Principles and Working Cycles of Gas Turbine Engines

15.2.

Engine Performance

15.2.1

Working Cycle and Airflow of a Gas Turbine

15.2.2

Gas Turbine Performance

15.3

Inlet

15.3.1

Inlet Ducts

15.4

Compressors

15.4.1

Construction and Operation of Compressors

15.5

Combustion Section

15.5.1

Fundamentals of Combustion Chambers

15.6

Turbine Section

15.6.1

Fundamentals and Types of Turbines

15.7.

Exhausts

15.7.1

Exhaust Systems

15.8

Bearings and Seals

15.8.1

Bearings

15.8.2

Seals

15.9

Lubricants and Fuels

15.9.1

Turbine Engine Lubricants

15.9.2

Turbine Engine Fuels

15.10

Lubrication Systems

15.10.1 Application and Components of Lubrication Systems

15.11

Fuel Systems

15.11.1

Function of a Fuel System

15.11.2

Control of a Fuel System

15.11.3

Application of a Fuel System

15.11.4

Full-authority Digital Engine Control

15.12

Air Systems

15.12.1

Application of Internal Air Systems

15.12.2

Ice Protection Systems

15.13

Starting and Ignition Systems

15.13.1

Starting Systems

15.13.2

Ignition Systems

15.14

Typical Engine Monitoring Instruments

15.15

Power Augmentation Systems

15.15.1

Methods of Thrust Augmentation

15.16

Turboprop Engines

15.16.1

Basics and Characteristics of Turboprop Engines

15.17

Turboshaft Engines

15.17.1

Typical Helicopter Turboshaft Engine

15.18

Auxiliary Power Units

15.18.1

Introduction to Aircraft Auxiliary Power Units

15.18.2

Description of a Typical APU

15.19

Powerplant Installation

15.19.1

Powerplant Structures

15.19.2

Flexible Fluid Lines

15.19.3

Control Cables and Pulleys

15.19.4

Wiring

15.19.5

Rules of Powerplant Removal and Installation

15.20

Fire Protection Systems

15.20.1

Engine Fire Detection Systems

15.20.2

Engine Fire Extinguishing Systems

15.21.1 Engine Monitoring


15.21.2

Ground Operation

15.22.1 Preservation and Depreservation

15.1.1.5 Isothermal Process and Entropy


The ratio of heat, applied to a substance, to temperature results in a change of entropy.
The following formula applies to isothermal processes:
Q12 = S21
T
where:
Q12 = the symbol of the heat change applied to the substance
S21 = changed entropy S2 S1.
Note:

S1 and S2 are the entropies before and after process completion;


s1 and s2 are the respective entropies per kg mass.

By re-arrangement of the latter formula the following is obtained:


Q12 = S21 * T = (S2 S1) = m * T(s2 s1)
This formula makes evident why thermodynamic processes are often plotted on
temperature/entropy diagrams (T/s diagrams). When a T/s diagram in conjunction with
isothermal processes is used, the heat applied in the process, Q12, is represented by the
projection of the T = constant' temperature curves onto the entropy axis. Hence, it is
represented by a perfect square.

As previously discussed, isobaric melting and evaporation processes take place at


constant temperatures. Therefore, such processes are isobaric and isothermal as well,
and are processes where the above given formula provides a square. However, outside
the processes ruled by latent heat, the 'T = constant' curves in an h/s diagram continue
at varying steepness. For these regions, the heat balance formulas are applicable, too.
However, the inclination of the temperature curves makes evident that the infinitesimal
formula:
S = Q
T

is applicable to the caloric state. This formula shows that entropy must be understood as
the ratio of infinite small amounts of heat to the absolute temperature at which the heat
is gained or lost by a substance.

15.1.1.6 Adiabatic Process


In an adiabatic process, no heat is added to the working substance, or removed from it.
Accordingly, the applied heat and the entropy change are zero, subject to the applied
formula:
Q12/T = 0/T = 0 = S21
Adiabatic processes are performed in turbo-machines, like in turbines where the
working substance is expanded, and in turbo-compressors where the working substance
is compressed. Performance curves of the true adiabatic processes are shown in Figure 7
as full-line curves, where the initial caloric stages are marked by the points 1 and the
final caloric states by the points 2.
A true adiabatic process is not attainable in a machine. Figure 7, details a) and b), show
the real expansion and compression curves as broken lines, w/here the initial caloric
states are marked by the points '1' and the final caloric states by the points 2.
Comparison of the ideal processes and of the actual processes shows that the enthalpy

differences wR = h10 h12 (in the expansion case and wR = h12 h10 (in the
compression case) are not available for use. They must be additionally investigated. In
both cases, this has the effect of an entropy increase s12, This shows that the processes
are not reversible.

Figure 7. Entropy Change as a Result of Imperfect Adiabatic Processes

The Brayton Cycle


The Brayton Cycle forms the basis of operation of the gas turbine engine. To get any
heat engine to do work we must first raise the energy level of the working fluid, in this
case, air. We do this by releasing the heat energy in fuel to raise the energy level of the
air.
In a gas turbine engine, air is drawn in, compressed, heated at constant pressure and
accelerated during its subsequent expansion to create a reaction force, the spent gases
then reduce to their original energy levels outside the engine. The process is continuous
and is called the Brayton Cycle. Heat is continuously added to the air in the combustion
chamber to replace the heat energy and pressure potential energy being converted to
kinetic energy during expansion, consequently the pressure and temperature of the air
in the combustion chamber remains constant. The process is a constant pressure cycle.

Figure 1.1 - The Theoretical Gas Turbine Cycle (Brayton Cycle)


1 - 2 Compression,
2 - 3 Heat addition at constant pressure,
3 4 Expansion,
4 1 Heat rejection at constant pressure.

Figure 1.2 The Practical Gas Turbine Cycle (Brayton Cycle)


0 1 Adiabatic compression with friction in the intake
1 - 2 Adiabatic compression with friction in the compressor
2 - 3 Heat addition with slight pressure loss in the combustion chamber
3 - 4 Adiabatic expansion with friction through the turbine
4 5 Adiabatic expansion with friction through the exhaust section
5 0 Heat rejection at constant pressure in the atmosphere.

15.1.2 Basic Physics. Mechanics.


Potential and Kinetic Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work and both work and energy are measured in
Joules.
We are going to consider one type of energy for now, namely mechanical energy. The
two principal forms are potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy (PE) results from the influence of gravity on mass due to its position, or
it can result from the state of a body, for example, as elastic potential energy stored in a
spring or as pressure potential energy stored in a compressed gas bottle. If you raise a
mass of a substance to any height you will produce potential energy. You did not get this
for nothing, however, as you would need to use work to raise the mass. If you compress
a gas you store rap potential energy but you have to do work, or use heat energy to
achieve this.

You can calculate the potential energy due to gravity quite easily by multiplying the
mass of a body in kilograms by the acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/s2 and then
multiply by the height.
Potential Energy = Mass x Gravity x Height
= 1000kg x 9.81m/sec2 x 20m
= 196200J or 196.2kJ
Kinetic energy (KE) results from the motion of a mass. If a mass of substance is
travelling at a given velocity it will possess kinetic energy. You will soon be aware of this
if you stand in its way! Again, you do not get this energy for nothing. You would have to
expend energy to accelerate the mass to that velocity in the first place. Kinetic energy is
very easy to calculate. The formula is:
Kinetic Energy = Half the Mass multiplied by the Velocity squared
=1/2 mv2.

Newtons Laws of Motion


First Law:
A body will continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is
acted upon by an external force.
If you observed a book resting on the surface of a level tabletop you would be more than
a little, disturbed if it suddenly moved of its own accord. Assuming you did not believe
in supernatural forces you would say that such an event is impossible. You would be
right! The weight of the book acting vertically downwards is being reacted by an equal
and opposite force being exerted vertically upwards by die tabletop. The book is in
equilibrium and will stay that way indefinitely unless you decide to either pick it up or
move it. To do either of those things you would have to apply another force.

Second Law:
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and will
take place in the direction of the force.
Consider the example of the book on die tabletop. It sits at rest and then you deliver a
hard blow to the left hand side of the book with your hand. The book will accelerate
smartly to your right. The harder you strike it, the faster it will travel to the right, in the
direction of your applied force.

Third Law:
To every action there will be an equal and opposite reaction.
We must now examine the nature of a force. It is the product of mass (kg) and
acceleration (m/sec/sec) and is expressed in Newtons.
The force required to accelerate 10kg of air at a rate of 20m/s2
Force = mass x acceleration = 10kg x 20 m/s2 = 200N

The Relationship between Force, Work, Power,


Energy, Velocity and Acceleration
A force is the product of mass (kg) and acceleration (m/s2). It is expressed in Newtons
(N) in the SI system. I would like you to think for a moment about a book resting on a
very smooth, level tabletop. If you applied a force to the left hand side of the book,
sufficient to overcome friction, the book would slide to the right. It would change its
velocity from zero to a new velocity. A change of velocity over time is called
acceleration. So, if the book reached a steady final velocity of 2m/s after 2 seconds, the
acceleration would have been:
Acceleration = Final velocity (v) - initial velocity (u)
Time (t)
= 2 m/s - 0 m/s
2s
= 1 m/s2

Now, if the book has a mass of 2kg, then the force you applied was
Force = Mass x Acceleration
= 2kg x 1 m/s2
= 2N

Figure 1.3 The Problem Book

Now you can calculate the work you did.


Work is the product of force (N) and distance (m) and is expressed as the joule (J) in the
SI system. So:
Work = Force x Distance = 2N x 5M = 10J
The rate of doing work is called power and is expressed as the watt (W) in the SI system.
Power is the product of force (N) and distance (m) divided by the time(s).
Distance moved during acceleration to 2 m/s
S = u t + 1/2 at2
= 0+1/2 x 1 m/s2 x 2 s x 2 s = 2m
Time to reach 2 m/s over 2m was given as 2sec
Time to move the final 3m:
Time = Distance
Speed
= 3m
2 m/s
= 1.5 sec
Therefore, total time to move book 5m was 3.5sec

So, the power


Power = Force x Distance
Time
= 2N x 5m
3.5 s
= 2,86Watt
Kinetic energy' is the product of half the mass and the velocity squared.
So:
Kinetic energy = mv2 = 1/2 x 2kg x 2 m/s x 2m/s = 4j

Application to a Simple Pure Turbo-Jet Engine


The big pure turbo-jet engine shown in the illustration below is being ground rested in
still air conditions. The engine consumes 260kg of air into its intake every second and
accelerates the air to an outlet velocity of 500m/s.

F = ma = 260 kg x 500 m/s2 = 130 kN


Figure 1.4 Thrust
Acceleration (a) = Final velocity (v) - Initial velocity (u)
Time(t)
a = 500 m/s - 0 m/s
1 sec
= 500 m/s2

Force = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)


= 260kg x 500 m/s2
= 130,000N or 130kN
Newtons Third law states that to every force there is an equal and opposite force.
Therefore, there is a forward acting reaction force in the engine of 130 kN Thrust!

Well, try calculating the work done by this force! The engine is in a stationary aircraft
so it is not moving forward. Work is the product of force and distance moved so, this
engine is doing no work.
Now try calculating the power. Power is the product of force and distance divided by
time. Again, there is no forward movement so there is no power.
I would like you to now consider the same engine fitted in an aircraft that is flying at
300m/s and consuming the same, mass of air per second.

Acceleration (a) = Final velocity (v) - initial velocity (u)


Time (t)
a = 500 m/s - 300m/s
1 sec
= 200 m/s2
Force = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)
= 260kg x 200 m/s2
= 52,000N or 52kN
Take note: As the forward speed of the aircraft increases, the thrust decreases?
Can you understand that if this aircraft flew at 500m/s there would be no trust! Of
course, if it reduced speed, thrust would re-appear and push the speed up again. If you
can see this, well done!
This is getting easier! But can you now calculate the work done on the aircraft and the
power when it is flying at 300m/s? Of course you can.
Work = Force x Distance = 52,000 N x 300 m/s = 15,600,000J = 15.6MJ
Power = 15.6MJ divided by 1 sec = 15.6MW

So, as aircraft speed increases, the engine loses thrust and gains power. This is getting
easy now, so lets try calculating the energy in the exhaust flow when the aircraft was
stationary.
KE = mv2 = x 260kg x 500 m/s x 500 m/s = 32,500,000 J = 32.5MJ
The engine would have had to use at least that amount of heat energy to produce that
result in the exhaust gas flow. Of course, it had to use more hear energy than that as a
lot of energy, about two thirds, is taken up by the turbines before the exhaust flow ccurs.

Total thrust 130kN


KE 32.5 MJ
Cruise 1.5 m

Figure 1.5 - Energy Requirement for a 130 KN Turbo-Jet Engine

Now for something really interesting! Consider that the engine is now a turbo-propeller
engine on a ground test in still air. The propeller is taking 650kg of air and accelerating
it to 200m/s in the slipstream.
Acceleration = Final velocity(v) - Initial velocity (u)
Time (t)
v u = 200 m/s - 0 m/s
t
1 sec
= 200 m/s2
Force = Mass x Acceleration = 650kg x 200 m/s2
= 130,000 N = 130kN
The same thrust as our pure turbo-jet engine! What about the energy in the slipstream?
KE = mv2
= x 650kg X 200 m/s x 200 m/s
= 13,000,000J
= 13MJ

Total Thrust 130kN


KE 13 MJ
Cruise 0.6 m
Figure 1.6 Energy Requirement for a130kN Turbo-Propeller Engine

Have you spotted it? The propeller is producing the same thrust as the pure turbo-jet
engine but look at the energy! It is 40% of the pure turbojet engines energy level! The
turbo propeller engine does not need to use anywhere near as much heat energy to
produce the same thrust as a pure turbo-jet engine, is easy to understand, look at mv2,
the v2 says it all.
In brief:
The energy required to accelerate a small mass of air to a high velocity is greater than
the energy required to accelerate a large mass of air to a low velocity.

The answer lies in the speed you wish to fly at. No aircraft can fly, in level flight, faster
than the slipstream of its engines. There would be no thrust. Propeller engines, due to
the problem of shock stall on their blades at high forward speeds, cannot operate
efficiently above 350kts. This is a bit slow for long haul flights but who cares on short
haul? Maybe you understand now why virtually all short-haul aircraft have propellers.
It's the cheapest form of thrust production.

But, as the speed of sound in air is 331m/s at sea level, pure turbo-jets with their high
exhaust velocities are inefficient for sub-sonic airspeeds of say Mach 0.75. They are
more suited to speeds above Mach one.
How to solve the dilemma? Look at the illustration of the by-pass engine figure 1.7. It
utilizes a fan to accelerate a large mass of air to a low velocity and a core engine to
accelerate a small mass of air to a high velocity.
Take the average of the cold stream and the hot stream exhaust velocities
and you have it.
The average is designed to meet the desired cruising speed of the aircraft. By design, the
by-pass ratio is matched to the aircraft's desired performance. High by-pass is for
subsonic to low transonic transport aircraft. Lower by-pass is for high transonic to
supersonic aircraft. The cold stream by-pass flow provides the majority of the thrust.
For example, a high by-pass engine gains around 70% of its thrust from the fan cold
stream. The lower energy requirement means that smaller core engines can be used and
fuel consumption is radically reduced.

Figure 1.7 - Energy Requirement for a 130kN high By-Pass Turbo-Fan Engine
Lets have a look at the facts of the by-pass engine. A high by-pass engine has a cold
stream mass flow of 500kg/s and a hot stream flow of l00kg/s. The cold stream exhaust
velocity is 200m/s and the hot stream exhaust velocity is 300m/s.
Cold stream thrust = mass x acceleration = 500 kg/s x 200 in/s = l00kN
Hot stream thrust = mass x acceleration = 100 kg/s x 300 m/s = 30kN
Total thrust is 130KN of which 70% is produced by the cold stream.

Energy requirement is:


Cold = mv2 = x 500kg x 200 m/s x 200 m/s = 10MJ
Hot = mv2 = x 100kg x 300 m/s x 300 m/s = 4.5MJ
Total energy requirement is 14.5MJ compared with 32.5MJ for the pure turbo-jet and
13MT for the turbo-propeller engine. It is a compromise and suits an aircraft flying at
250m/s or Mach 0.75

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