Teacher sheet

Structures
Recognising structures
Structures all have one thing in common they need to safely carry the loads applied to them. The way a structure
performs depends on the form it takes and the materials used.
There are several different structural forms, including:
Simple mass structures which use their weight to support loads, e.g. a wall.
Shell structures which support their load by using their shape or geometry e.g. an igloo.
Frame structures which support their load using a combination of different members (such
as beams, columns, struts and ties all acting together), e.g. a bed.

Examining the structure of The London Eye

6

4
2

3
9

5
11

8
10

12

Rim

Hub and spindle

A-frame legs

Spoke cables

Back-stay cables

Capsules

Boarding platform

Restraint towers

Pier

10

Collision protection boom

11

Compression base

12

Tension base

Teacher sheet

Structures
Frame structures
The London Eye is an example of a frame structure. The
design has two large tapered legs that stand
20 metres apart at their base and measure over 58 metres in
length to form an A shape. If they were to stand alone the
A-frame legs would fall over but they are held upright by cable
ties. Together this tied A-frame supports a load of about
1200 tonnes (the weight of the wheel, i.e. the rim, capsules
and cables). The spindle itself is a beam member that carries
load by a bending action and cantilevers (supports from one
side only) the wheel over the River Thames.
The A-frame legs, which have been set at an incline of 65,
are stabilised by four large back-stay cables which anchor
them to the ground. The A-frame legs and the back-stay
cables are built on foundations up to 33 metres deep.
The design of the wheel part of the London Eye is similar to a
bicycle wheel, with a spindle, (i.e. axle) and a central hub
connected to the rim by cables, (i.e. spokes). The rim is a
triangular
truss (another frame structure) and supports the weight of
the capsules, each of which are connected to the rim by two
circular rings.

Shell structures
The capsules themselves are shell structures which rely on the structural form of the curved glass to provide structural
strength. The glass that provides passengers with uninterrupted views is strong enough to support the weight of passengers
should a capsule be tilted in any way.

Pupil Exercise 1
What type of structures can you identify on the London Eye?
Indicate the different types of structure on the diagram supplied.

Teacher sheet

Structures
Forces affecting structures
There are many forces affecting structures when they are subjected to loads. The materials from
which structures are built are chosen to resist these forces in order to make a successful structure.
Compression

Tension

IS

Torsion

IS

IS

SQUASHING
SQUASHING
IS
IS

IS

IS

TWISTING
TWISTING

APART
APART
IS
IS
IS

SQUASHING
SQUASHING

IS
IS
IS

TWISTING
TWISTING
TWISTING

APART
APART
APART

IS

SQUASHING

IS

IS

TWISTING

APART

LOAD

the squashing of a structure.

LOAD this type of force twists a structure.

the stretching
squashing of
of aa structure.
structure

Compression

Bending
bending occurs when a force is
applied to a structure when both
ends are supported, or one end
is fixed. The load has to get to
the end of the structure, therefore
the top section of a beam is in
compression when it bends and
the lower section is in tension.

LOAD
CoE
LOAD
n
ioG
mN
B
prD
esIsN
LOAD

Tension
BEN
DING

C
Co
n
om
o
ssssssiiio
e
n
m
p
on
e
mp
pCrrro
em
pression

Tension
B
BE
BD
IIN
EN
E
N
N
DN
NG
IG
DG
en
n
T
T
e
n
o
n
Te
en
nsion
o
nsssiTiio
SHEAR IS TRYING TO

SLICE

Shear
this is trying to slice
across a material.

IS

SHEAR IS TRYING TO
SHEAR IS TRYING TO

SHEAR
SHEAR
IS
TRYING
TO
SHEARIS
ISTRYING
TRYINGTO
TO

SLICE
SLICE

SLICE
SLICE

Teacher sheet

Structures
Forces at work on the London Eye
Note for teachers
Included below are suggestions for simple practical exercises to demonstrate the different forces for class
demonstration or for the pupils to try themselves. Pupils should record and analyse the results and draw conclusions.
This presents opportunities for links to ICT. You may wish to use the same range of materials for each test for
comparative purposes.

Compression
The steel A-frame legs are compression members and
support the weight of the wheel (about 1200 tonnes) from
one side. These legs sit on concrete plinths on top of a
reinforced concrete compression base. The compression
base is itself supported on a large number of steel and
concrete piles buried approximately 33 metres below
ground level. This structural system stabilises the
London Eye and keeps it in position.

Pupil Activity Practical demonstration

Submit a compression force to a variety of materials, e.g. card, aluminium, balsa wood, plastazote,
MDF, plywood, acrylic. Make a chart to show how each one withstands compression forces.

Teacher sheet

Structures
Forces at work on the London Eye tension
The rim is held in place to the hub of the London Eye by

anchored to the ground on a reinforced concrete

pre-stressed steel cables. The pre-stressing enables the

tension base. This base is also supported on a large

cables to carry the weight of the rim without going slack

number of special piles (called tension piles) which

at the top as the wheel rotates. The cables transmit the

anchor the base 33 metres deep into the clay that lies

load from the rim to the hub and are tension members.

beneath the site.

The inclined A-frame legs are stabilised by a set of steel

The tension base is linked to a compression base by two

back-stay cables which are also tension members.

reinforced concrete struts which distribute the load evenly

These prevent the legs from falling over into the river.

between the three points. This load distribution is an

These cables (measuring 110mm in diameter) are

effective way of stabilising a structure.

A-frame legs

from cables
Struts

base
base

on normal piles
on tension piles

Pupil Activity Practical demonstration

Cut two equal strips from a plastic bag one from the length of the bag and the other across.
Stretch the two pieces to varying lengths. Examine and record the differences in the way they look.

Teacher sheet

Structures
Forces at work on The London Eye bending
The wheel is cantilevered out over the
river on the spindle which is 23m long,
(the height of an eight storey building).
The whole load is carried on the spindle
before being transferred to the A-frame.

Load

Load

The shape of the spindle and the choice

up/down the cable

of steel from which the spindle was

fabricated were critical to resist bending

Hub

when subjected to this load. The quality

Spindle

and thickness of steel were carefully

Tension

selected to prevent cracking or

excessive deformation.

Compression

Tension

A circular hollow tube is one of the most

Cables

efficient shapes for a beam. This is the

shape used for the spindle on the

A-frame leg

London Eye, which has a tube wall up

to 230mm thick.

Pupil Activity Practical demonstration

Take a block of foam and draw centre lines along the length of each side. Bend the foam in
several ways. Record which surfaces are in compression and which are in tension.

Pupil Activity Class discussion

Is the top of the spindle of the London Eye in compression or in tension?

Teacher sheet

Structures
Forces at work on The London Eye torsion

As the rim of the wheel is turned by the rim motor drive,

the hub is subjected to a torsion load. As well as the 64
radial cables attached from the rim to the hub, a further
16 rotation cables are attached at a tangent to the hub

Rotation cable

to ensure there is no lag between the turning of the rim

and the turning of the hub. Eight rotation cables are used

Spoke cable

for each direction the wheel rotates.

More information on how these cables assist the turning
of the London Eye can be found in the Mechanisms
section.

The rotation cables are attached at a tangent to the hub.

Pupil Activity Practical demonstration

Select a variety of materials, e.g. card, aluminium, balsa wood, plastazote, MDF, plywood, acrylic.
Place one end in a vice and place a metal rod through a hole in the other end. Holding either side of the
rod attempt to twist the material once and then two or more times. Record and analyse the results.

Teacher sheet

Structures
Forces at work on The London Eye shear
The spindle (which has been designed to resist bending) also has to
resist shear forces where the load from the weight of the whole wheel
structure could cut through or shear the spindle.

Line of shear

Hub

Spindle

wheel
A-frame leg

Pupil Activity Practical demonstration

Test a variety of materials (as listed above for torsion) to see whether a pair of
scissors can cut through them. Record your findings.

Pupil Exercise 2
2a) Look at the diagram of the London Eye. Where do the different forces apply? Mark the
direction of these forces on the diagram use colour coding to differentiate the forces.
2b) Think of everyday examples to demonstrate each of the forces (compression, tension,
bending, torsion, shear).

Teacher sheet

Structures
Structural strength frame structures
Materials are selected for their properties to resist forces
and hence perform as structures.
One of the main types of material used to build the
London Eye was steel. Some of the pieces were cast
from molten steel (for example the hollow steel tube of
the spindle). In other cases the steel was joined up by
welding or bolting sections together.
One of the best examples of this is the rim. It is made
from hundreds of steel tubes welded together to form a
triangular truss. The geometry of the tubes help to
strengthen the rim. Many different designs were
considered before agreeing on the final configuration.
For more information on the matereials used to build the
Eye see the Materials section of this resource.

Triangulation

Tie

Triangles are one of the most effective ways of forming a

in tension

structure from individual members. To create triangles,

Load

individual members called struts and ties are joined

together in a geometry of triangular shapes. The struts

Strut

carry compression and the ties carry tension. Triangulated

in compression

frames carry loads in a different way to beams.

Pupil Exercise 3
3a) Build a simple box from straws and push in one corner. Record what happens. Now glue
members from corner to corner of the box and repeat the exercise and record your findings.
3b) Replace the straws with ties made of cotton and repeat the exercise.

Teacher sheet

Structures

Pupil Exercise 4
4a) Triangulation has been used to strengthen the steel rim of the London Eye. Can you think of any
other ways in which triangulation has been used to strengthen the structure of the London Eye?
4b) Look at the design of the triangular truss used on the London Eye. Create a model of a small
section of this rim using art straws.
4c) Plan and design a second truss using a different configuration of triangles.
Devise a test to assess which of the two structures is strongest.

Extension activity

Pupils to build a completely circular truss.

Experiment with cotton or string cables to hold the rim in place to a hub.

Structural strength shell structures

Shell structures gain their strength by their shape. This can be demonstrated simply by using paper.

Pupil Exercise 5
Using sheets of A4 paper, investigate different ways of strengthening sheet materials by rolling,
folding and corrugation. Devise the most effective weight to support an eraser. Record your
actions and analyse your findings.

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Teacher sheet

Structures
Static and dynamic loads
Structures are designed and built to support different types of loads.
The loads that a structure might be required to support are classed as either
static or dynamic loads. Loads can be applied either vertically or
laterally (horizontally).
A static load is a stationary, non-moving weight whereas a dynamic or moving
load produces larger forces on the structure. The type of load a structure is
designed to support will be a deciding factor in the way it is designed.
An example of a static load is books on a bookshelf (non moving) and a typical
example of a dynamic load is a car travelling over a bridge (a moving load).

Dynamic loads are calculated as mass multiplied by

acceleration as the mass moves. Therefore if a mass is
accelerating at over 10m/second2, the dynamic load
exceeds the static weight, since the acceleration due to
gravity (i.e. 1g) = just under 10m/s2

The loads carried by the Eye

Even when the London Eye is turning, its moving load is not considered
dynamic as the acceleration is not sufficiently significant. The primary dynamic
load on the London Eye is from gusts of wind; this wind load is applied
horizontally, whereas the loads from all the mass of the capsules, structure etc
act in a vertical direction.

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Teacher sheet

Structures
Designing the capsules to carry a moving load
The capsules that carry passengers are fixed to the
outer rim of the London Eye. To ensure maximum
passenger comfort it was decided that, rather than
relying on gravity to keep the capsules level, they
would be fitted with a motorised stability system.

Each capsule is supported on two circular bearings. These bearings have a toothed rail against which the cogs of a motor
drive mechanism can turn. This in-built stability system keeps the capsules level as the rim rotates. Sensors respond to
movement of the load, so even if all the passengers were to move to one side of the capsule, the drive system can keep
the capsule level.
More information on the capsule stability system is provided in the Mechanisms and Systems and Controls sections of this resource.

Weather conditions and structural stability

The wind was the most important environmental

Mass spring damper

factor that had to be considered when the

Spring

London Eye was designed.

Mass on low friction wheels

The London Eye is designed to withstand winds

of a speed equal to the worst storm anticipated
to occur once in a period of 50 years.
Each capsule is aerodynamically shaped for least

Rim truss

wind resistance and 64 mass-spring dampers

are fixed around the rim to prevent any vibration.
These are positioned above each capsule on
either side. Without this system the capsules
would have moved approximately 1.5 metres in
normal wind conditions. It is certain that

Cables

Cables

passengers would have then been affected by

motion sickness as the capsule swayed from
side to side during windy conditions.

This shows the workings of a mass-spring damper, 64 of which are

fixed around the rim of the London Eye to prevent vibration

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Teacher sheet

Structures

Pupil Exercise 6
Pupils use their knowledge of structures to plan and design a bridge.
6a) In groups of three, create two identical bridges between two desks (gap of 20cm exactly)
using only 10 sheets of A4 paper, scissors and masking tape. Start by brainstorming and
sketching your initial ideas and record all the changes you make.
Using one of the bridges, test for the greatest weight this structure can safely support? Record your
findings and record the ways in which you have improved the strength of your structure.
6b) Once you have found the maximum weight the first bridge can safely carry, drop the same
weight from a height of 20cm onto the second bridge. Record what happens and suggest why?
6c) Repeat this exercise but this time build your bridge structure from drinking straws or other
construction materials available. Record your findings. Explore the use of triangulation to
strengthen your structure.

Pupil Exercise 7
7a) Plan and build a cardboard structure to support a cardboard turning wheel.
7b) Increase the weight of the wheel by using different materials to form the wheel and evaluate how you
need to adapt your structure to support the increased weight.
Keep a design folio to record how your designs develop and the reasons for any changes you have made.

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