1

http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/legaltranslation.htm

Difficulties Faced in Legal Document Translation

By Amit Sonawane

Legal parlance if it needs translation, needs the services of an expert

that is highly knowledgeable in legal terms and practices. Translating legal
documents needs accurate and correct translation and is one of the most
difficult among all translation work. There are many things that need legal
translation, including birth certificates, application letters, technical patent
confirmation, deposition records, financial statement, evidence documents,
litigation materials and business contracts. Translators should not only
possess general knowledge of legal terminology, they should also be well
versed in statutory requirements and the legal intricacies of foreign cultural
and legal systems.
The process
Translation per se is already a complex process that involves so many
specific skills. However, translating legal documents is more exacting, as the
ramifications of even the slightest of mistakes will involve a complex legal
process, notwithstanding the financial costs, for it to be reversed.
There are some things to keep in mind when doing legal translation.
The source text is structured to follow the legal system that conforms to its
own legal language and culture. The target text on the other hand will be
read by another person that is familiar with another language and legal
system.
There should be clearly defined duties and rights for all organizations
and individuals concerned when creating the translation. It should ensure
that these are delivered precisely in the source and target texts. Likewise it
should be remembered that the linguistic structures of the source language
might not have direct equivalents in the target language, thus it is the
responsibility of the translator to find a suitable language structure that is
similar to the source text.

Legal issues
Legal translation carries strict deadlines, because when the translated
documents are needed particularly in court, a delay might render the
document null and void. Confidentiality is an issue because almost all legal
documents contain sensitive data.
Lawyers constantly face the contrasting world of the real legal life and
the ideal look of the law, which is actually an assortment of numerous
precedents that are still subject to general interpretation, and not by
permanent statutes.
Lawyers, when dealing with international legal problems have to deal
with words that should be accurately written, which depend on good
sentence structure, syntax and word selection. That is the reason why legal
translators should have the necessary experience and knowledge of legal
terminologies of both the source and target languages. An international
lawyer will depend on the expertise of a translator to have foreign
documents translated into his own language.
More difficult form of translation
Translating legal documents in foreign languages are considered more
difficult than other technical translations. The legal terminology is what
makes it difficult because each country has its own legal terminology as well
as legal system. More often than not, this is also different from another
country even if the language they speak is identical.
Translator requirements
A legal translator must have the competencies in three areas:
competency in the target language's particular writing style, familiarity with
the pertinent terminology and general knowledge of the legal systems of the
source and target languages. There is no room for word for word translation
when translating legal documents.
Due to this, the professional translator of legal documents must be part
detective, legal scholar and linguist with the amount of research work that
needs to be done to be able to decode the source and write its actual
meaning that will never, in any circumstances, deviate from the originate
content, even if an exact translation is not possible.
Likewise, the translator must understand where the translation is to be
used as this will affect the approach when translating the document. It
definitely affects several parameters, including tone or register, syntax,
phraseology and terminology. When the source text is not well written, it is
also the job of the translator to decide whether to translate it into something
vague as the original or make it meaningful, which could be the case but was
hampered by poor writing.
Legal document translation is such a demanding task. It requires
professional legal translators that have the right academic background, and
are backed by years of legal translation expertise.

2
http://www.ccaps.net/newsletter/06-05/art_3en.htm

Issues in Legal Translation

Steven Kahaner
(...) not every man is able to give a name, but only a maker of names; and this is
the legislator, who of all skilled artisans in the world is the rarest (...)
But (...) the knowledge of things is not to be derived from names. No; they must
be studied and investigated in themselves (...) and no man of sense will like to
put himself or the education of his mind in the power of names; neither will he so
far trust names or the givers of names as to be confident in any knowledge which
condemns himself and other existences to an unhealthy state of unreality (...)
Plato, Cratylus (Jowett translation)

According to Plato, words are unreliable guides to the ideal (the goal of all
knowledge) because one cannot know how good a job the lawgiver did in
making them, and because they have subsequently been subject to change
by people who care nothing for the truth, but only for the shape of their
mouths.
Likewise, lawyers must often face a contrast between an ideal vision
of the law and the reality of legal life, which is made up more by
precedents subject to interpretation than by statutes carved in stone. These
difficulties are compounded in the cross-border context due to the additional
complexities of different languages as well as different legal systems.
In solving international legal problems, a lawyer will be dealing with
words, and the accuracy of a written legal document depends largely on
word selection, syntax and good sentence structure. According to A. Samuel
Adelo, the lawyer must then depend on a translator to render the words he
uses in a legal document into another language. Conversely, a lawyer in
international practice will often require the services of a translator to render
foreign documents (usually drafted by an attorney subject to equally
demanding requirements relating to word selection, syntax and sentence
structure) into the lawyers native language. Unfortunately, lawyers often
underrate the importance of selecting a good translator to accomplish these
important tasks.
Legal translation is often more difficult than other types of technical
translation because of the system-bound nature of legal terminology. Unlike
scientific or other technical terminology, each country has its own legal
terminology (based on the particular legal system of that country), which will
often be quite different even from the legal terminology of another country
with the same language.
In Culture Clash: Anglo-American Case Law and German Civil Law in
Translation, Sylvia A. Smith explains that the system-bound nature of legal
text means that successful translation into another language requires
competency in at least three separate areas: first, a basic knowledge of the
legal systems, both of the source and target languages; second, familiarity
with the relevant terminology; and third, competency in the specific legal

writing style of the target language. Without these competencies, the

translators rendition will be a word-for-word translation that is often
incomprehensible.
Thus, the professional legal translator must be part linguist, part legal
scholar and part detective, willing and able to search out and define legal
concepts expressed in the source language of a document that may not even
have an equivalent in the language or legal system of the target text. The
translator must firstdecode the source text and reconstruct its meaning in
the target text. In many cases, the translator is limited to finding a functional
equivalent for a word or phrase or a parenthetical explanation because an
exact translation is impossible.
A good legal translator also knows that even within the legal field
there are completely separate areas of law that require specific translation
techniques: a contractual document has little in common with a will, an
administrative certificate, a judicial decision or a statute, to name a few
examples.
The translator knows that he or she must consult not only a
monolingual legal dictionary, but also a treatise regarding the subject
matter, and that bilingual dictionaries, while useful, should be used with
caution.
The professional legal translator must understand the intended use of
the translation, which has as much bearing on his or her approach as the
text of the document itself. Terminology, phraseology, syntax, register (tone)
and a myriad of other parameters will be affected by the purpose of the
translation (e.g., is the translation for information purposes only, binding
contract language, or for submission as evidence in court?). As source-text
documents are not always well written or clear, the translator must first
decide, in the words of author Holly Mikkelson, whether the source text is
unintelligible to the laymen but not the expert, or simply unintelligible. In
this case, the translator would have to decide whether a faithful translation
of the meaningless original should be equally meaningless in the target
language, despite the pain of deliberately creating nonsensical text.
When faced with international disputes involving different languages
and legal systems, legal counsel and their clients would be well advised to
obtain the services of translators able to successfully bridge the divide of
legal systems, as well as language and culture, in order to provide literate
rather thanliteral translations.
Finally, attorneys involved in international litigation should be aware
of a recent UK case involving the translations of a partys own non-privileged
documents. In Sumitomo Corporation v Credit Lyonnais Rouse Ltd, the Court
of Appeals held that in the context of legal professional privilege, there was
no relevant distinction between a translation of an unprivileged document
controlled by the party claiming privilege and a copy of such document.
Because the translations were not original documents, privilege would only
apply under certain limited circumstances. As a result of this decision,

opposing parties will be entitled in most cases to copies of translations from

the other party upon payment of the copying fee, without sharing in what
can be substantial translation costs.

Joseph,
John
E., Indeterminacy,
Translation and the Law,
in Translation and the Law,
American
Translators
Association
Scholarly
Monograph Series.

Steve Kahaner is the Executive Director of Juriscribe

and a licensed attorney with over 10 years of
practice experience. He is a member of several bar
associations, and has served as director of a number
of non-profit associations, including The Association
of Language Companies, for which he currently
serves as Vice President. In the academic realm,
Kahaner has been a Subject Matter Expert for NYUs
Center for Foreign Languages and Translation,
teaching Spanish-to-English Legal Translation. He is
also a fan of motorcycling, scuba diving and
skydiving, but hasnt had the time to engage in any
of those activities for quite a while.

http://www.bokorlang.com/journal/21clusters.htm

Implications in Translating Economic Texts

by Guadalupe Acedo Domnguez and Patricia Edwards Rokowski, Ph.D.
University of Extremadura, Spain

lthough the general tendency is to consider translation as something that

anybody can do with the help of an adequate dictionary, the fact is that
producing a written text using another text as a basis is a much more
complex phenomenon than what is commonly believed.
we believe in the The aforementioned complexity becomes even more
necessity
of
giving evident when the text in question deals with
translation
the specialised subjects such as finance, banking, or the
importance it deserves, like. In this particular case, when words belonging to
rather than considering the so-called General English appear next to specific
it a mechanical process terms and within a specific context, they contain
that can be carried out nuances that must be accounted for in the final
with the help of a translation.
We cannot give this paper the scientific rigor it
dictionary alone

deserves without previously dealing with a fundamental concept of "text."

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), "the word text is used in linguistics
to refer to any passage of whatever length that does form a unified whole."
We add however, that not all textual segments share the same internal
structure and the same features; the context in which they are immersed will
determine, to a great extent, these differences.
The set of terms gathered together in a text and considered more or less
specific establishes a helpful context for the reader to interpret and
subsequently to translate. In other words, the translator will be able to
process and understand the information he/she has at his/her disposal.
Such a contextual aid becomes much more evident when translating a text of
an eminently economic or financial nature, making it practically impossible to
analyse outside its context.
Therefore, the nuances added by the contextual area will have the specific
mission of confirming the correct meaning of a given term, while the rest of
irrelevant entries that can be found in a specific dictionary or encyclopaedia
should be ignored.
This highlights that a translation, apart from being cohesive, must also be
coherent. The translator must take into account the contextual clues
embedded in the discourse in order to avoid ambiguities in the produced
document, as long as such ambiguity did not exist in the original one.
As Garca Yebra (1982) states, a good translator must say all and nothing but
what it is found in the original paper, and he must do so in the most correct,
natural, and elegant way.
As a consequence, the ability to understand and interpret specific information
entails some knowledge, as deep as possible, about the syntactic and
morphological structure of the foreign text, apart from establishing the lexical
relationships among the different words, relations which will differ depending
on the specific situations in which specialised texts are embedded. Discourse
markers, lexical coherence or modal verbs signal the relationship between
words and contribute to the coherence and cohesion of the text. That is to
say, the main task of the translator is to eliminate from the original text all
those textual elements which do not belong to the cultural background of the
potential reader and to produce an easy-to-understand and politically correct
document.
However, although it is necessary to recognise these guidelines, it is also
evident that any theoretical principle needs to be put into practice in order to
prove effective. The best way of doing so is by analysing a text, which is the
following
step
in
our
research.
Step I. Background Preparation
We observe that a wide variety of specific words belonging to the field of
economics, as well as a great number of noun clusters and polysemous
terms, can be found in the text. This makes, if possible, the task of both the

unspecialised reader and the translator even more difficult.

As it is already evident, Spain has gone from being a war-torn and isolated
country emerging form its Civil War (1936-39) to being a well-developed and
financially stable democracy, its success culminating with becoming a
member of the European Union. Therefore, speaking English is now an
essential requirement for taking part in a technologically and culturally
advanced society. Nowadays both students and professionals belonging to
the banking and financial sectors are compelled to deal with English texts,
which sometimes include a difficult-to-understand language if we take it out
of its natural context.
In this particular case, we have taken as a reference an article which was
entitled Into the European Market and originally published in "The Economist"
on the 25th of November, 2000. We chose this paper simply because it deals
with a relevant topic for us as Spanish citizens since it analyses the historical
evolution of Spain from the time of the dictatorship until the present day.
The translator who dedicates himself to the task of trying to convey the
meaning of a text as faithfully as possible must follow , as Garca Yebra
(1989) says, his/her own intuition which can help him/her to translate the text
in an appropriate way. As far as the text we are analysing is concerned, we
can pose the hypothesis that a translator could make use here of his/her
previous knowledge of the history of Spain which would make it easier to
translate the text in an adequate way. We find a perfect example in the noun
cluster "the long time Catalan nationalist premier," a misleading expression
to say the least, since the correct translation would be "regional leader,"
"autonomous president," or "nationalist regional head," but under no
circumstances "premier."
If the linguistic field related to economics is based on the use of universal
terms and equivalents, we need, as a consequence, to obtain a one-to-one
translation that contains no ambiguities, that is to say, an exact and precise
translation
for
an
exact
and
precise
science.
Step II. Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis
By making a quick inventory of the number of noun clusters found in the text,
we discover a reasonable number of examples in which several nouns and
adjectives are combined to designate one single concept (for example,
"short-term contracts," "after 20-odd years of sell-offs," "the debt-laden state
television service" etc.).
As Juan Demetrio Gmez and Roco Martn state (1995:114), noun clusters
can be defined as "groups of words consisting of a chain of elements, all of
them pre-modifying a final noun which is the nucleus of the series. In
addition, a well-known researcher, David Trimble, says that noun clusters are
"two or more nouns plus necessary adjectives that together make up a single
concept; that is, the total expresses a single noun idea" as found in "supplyside issue," "large but undynamic ex-state banks" or "industry-wide wage

negotiations."
Such noun clusters usually form part of both scientific and economic
documents, since it is often necessary to give a large amount of information
in a restricted space at our disposal. The problem arises when trying to
translate these expressions as correctly as possible since noun clusters to not
occur in Spanish. In English however, the more specialised the topic, the
greater the number and complexity of noun clusters. So, what can we do to
render them without altering their original sense? As we have already
mentioned, the first thing we have to do is to take into account the context in
which they are immersed as serious errors can produce an ambiguous or
erroneous translation. As a case in point, extracting the noun cluster "labour
arrangements" from a purely financial or economic context and placing it in
an agricultural context, we observe a transformation in meaning, i.e., human
resources management in the former and soil preparation in the latter, for
example.
Step III. Organizational Collocation
The widespread tendency is to start translating the last element of the group
and then continue in reverse order until we get to the first one, keeping in
mind the fact that we must produce a piece of information which can be
clearly
and
properly
understood.
Step IV. Socio-Linguistic Analysis
The process calls for cross-cultural expertise on the part of the translator, and
this is where translation becomes interpretation, and using an exact word is
not as efficient as creating the appropriate whole. In other words, an exact,
precise and concise context is the backbone of such a creative activity as
translation. For example, the noun cluster "Cajas de ahorros" and "feecharging autopistas dear to the PP" remains untranslated. The first
expression means savings banks, a concept requiring cross-cultural
knowledge which overlaps with translating skills. The second example may
require a translation of "autopistas," meaning motorways/thruways, for the
Spanish-speaking reader who, however, is unfamiliar with Spain's highway
structure. The abbreviation PP requires clarification regarding the right-wing
political party Partido Popular for which it stands. These particular examples
require interpretation for the exact translation of the concepts.
Therefore, in a step-by-step translation process, we can take as a first
example the following noun cluster taken from The Economist: "Spain's twoway trade in goods and services." Although at first sight its meaning in
English is clear, it is rather complicated to render it properly in Spanish
without altering its essence. Since the English sentence has three different
qualifiers of the noun "trade" ("Spain's," "two-way," and "(in) goods and
services," all of which would require a preposition in a literal translation into
Spanish, one solution is to replace "two-way" (which would be literally

translated as "en ambas direcciones") with the adjective "bidireccional." The

entire phrase then becomes "el comercio bidireccional de bienes y servicios
de Espaa." The phrase can be further simplified by replacing "two-way
commerce" with "compra-venta" (purchase and sale) which will result in the
phrase "la compra-venta de bienes y servicios de Espaa."
Juan Demetrio Gmez and Roco Martn (1995:115-16) who proposed an
experiment in translation to their pupils, also share such an opinion. The
conclusion they reached was that the pupils had considerable difficulties
when translating a noun series consisting of more than four words.
Furthermore, if we have the additional problem of using dictionaries which do
not contain the expected equivalence, we can conclude that this activity is
not as simple as it may appear at first.
Examples like this one are quite frequent in a linguistic field dealing with
financial and economic topics as we observed in the selected article.
As we have already stated, some words belonging to the so-called General
English, when they appear next to specific nouns or accompanying words,
acquire different meanings and nuances that must be reproduced in the final
translation.
In this particular case, once we have analysed the whole text, we find that
the word "labour" appears nine times with different meanings. This gives an
approximate idea of how complex it becomes to translate a concept several
times in the different ways intended by the transmitter. The examples
encountered are "mobile labour" (movilidad laboral) "flexible labour"
(horario de trabajo flexible/disponibilidad horaria) "labour market"
(mercado laboral/de
trabajo)
"labour
efficiency"
(eficacia en
el
trabajo/laboral) "labour arrangements" (organizacin laboral), "shedding
labour" (reduccin de la mano de obra/de la plantilla) and "labour law"
(Derecho laboral), which is different from "labour legislation" / legislacin
laboral) etc.
As can be seen, the word has a variety of possible translations depending on
the specific context that it is necessary to highlight nuances we cannot find in
a bilingual dictionary.
In fact, when we looked up these terms in one of these dictionaries, we found
that it was often nearly impossible to get more than a general sense or
meaning. In contrast, when we made use of specialised dictionaries, the
result was quite different and it was easier to find the right definition
corresponding to each of the noun phrases. However, it was still necessary to
add some cultural nuances so that the translation sounded proper in Spanish.
Such is the case of the previous examples with the word "labour." A
specialised dictionary properly renders the meanings of this word in Spanish.
The word labour in Spanish can mean, in addition to the meanings given
above, "faena," "obra," or "tarea," and the right choice makes a considerable
difference when transforming the original text into the translated text that
reaches the target-language reader. Furthermore, in financial texts, the

presence of noun clusters including the word "labour" accentuates the

difficulty of the process.
This shows that we must take into account not only the elements present in
the text, but also the entire underlying sociocultural framework, together with
a general knowledge of economics, in order to produce a good translation.
Conclusions
In this article we intended to show, in the first place, the importance of lexical
relationships between words, especially in the context of financial
translations. As we have previously seen, these relationships are fundamental
if we wish to make an appropriate textual and contextual interpretation. If
they are essential when dealing with General English, they become the
supporting element that gives clarity to an economic or financial document.
Second, the consultation of specialised reference works in specific areas, as
opposed to the use of general language dictionaries, aid the translator in
carrying out the process efficiently.
Third, we reaffirm the necessary role played by context when dealing with
documents that leave no place for ambiguity since they include clear and
straightforward concepts, which must be translated with the same scientific
rigor they had in the original text. As Halliday and Hasan say (1976 ) "context
is what goes with the text"; therefore, an accurate translation cannot be
achieved by simply putting disconnected elements together; instead,
associated elements must work together to form a coherent whole.
All in all, we believe in the necessity of giving translation the importance it
deserves, rather than considering it a mechanical process that can be carried
out with the help of a dictionary alone. It is a much more complex and
interesting activity, which involves going beyond simply linking a series of
words to produce a translation that is correctly understood by the target
audience unfamiliar with the source language.
References
Baker, Mona. In Other Words: a coursebook on translation. London:
Routledge, 1997.
Cobos Fernndez, I. & Snchez Calle, M.P. An Analysis of Nominalization in
Economic Texts, in Actas VI Congresso Luso-Espanhol de Lnguas para Fins
Especficos: Viseu, 1997.
Duff, Alan. TranslationF. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Garca Yebra, Valentn. Teora y Prctica de la Traduccin. Volumen 1. Gredos,
1989.
Garca Yebra, Valentn. Teora y Prctica de la Traduccin. Volumen 2. Gredos,
1989.
Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. Cohesion in English. London : Longman, 1976.
Higueruela, M.T. The Translation of Economic Texts with Reference to a
Comment on Laidler in Actas VI Congresso Luso-Espanhol de Lnguas para

Fins Especficos: Viseu, 1997.

Martn Osuna, R. & G. Moreno, J.D. La Traduccin de Secuencias Nominales
Complejas en el Ingls Empresarial, in Actas VI Congresso Luso-Espanhol de
Lnguas para Fins Especficos: Viseu, 1997.
Newmark, P. Approaches toTranslation. New York: Prentice Hall, 1998.
Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language & Translation. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1998.
Valero Garcs, Carmen. Apuntes sobre traduccin literaria y anlisis
contrastivo. Alcal de Henares: Universidad, Servicio de Publicaciones, 1995.

Introduction
The given work is devoted to peculiarities of official style rendering on the basis of Weather
Ford company documents. There are many choices that determine the style. Word choices,
sentence composition and sentence structure choices, and other stylistic choices such as format
help determine the style of a document. The individual style of the author is something that
cannot be dismissed. Writers of each document make the document unique by the way they
utilize their own personal writing style and method. Style and purpose affect how the audience
views the document.style of documents that are intended for an audience that you do not know or
that you are not familiar with in a business sense are usually formal in nature. The document may
be a response to a customers complaint. It may be a request for payment that is overdue. It may
be a legal document, a business report, or many other types of correspondence that are conducted
for business. It is better to use the style of a formal document when trying to convey factual or
objective information. A formal document can be strong and dynamic. When conveying negative
or unpleasant information, it is best to use a formal document.
The relevance of the study stems from the fact that the theoretical issues of translation of official
documents into Kazakh have not been studied properly yet.
Nowadays more and more agreements are made in English, for English is the nearest thing we
have to a universal business language. Joint ventures, bank loans, and trademark licenses
frequently are spelt out in this language even though it is not native to at least one of the
contracting parties. In connection with the increasing rate of translation and its difficulties, which
technical translators working in different foreign companies have to deal with, the problem of
business correspondence translation is of current interest. That is why it is extremely important
to study the stylistic peculiarities of a source text since without it an appropriate translation
cannot be achieved.object of the research is texts of business correspondence. At the current
stage of development of linguistics a business correspondence represents a great interest, owing
to the fact that it serves as one of the most important spheres of human life such as economic,
industrial and commercial relations.subject of the research is an official style rendering from
English into Kazakh on the basis of Weather Ford documents.

The goal of the work is to study stylistic features which are characteristic of official style in the
source language and peculiarities of their rendering into the target language.achieve the goal of
the work the following tasks have been set:
- to study linguistic peculiarities of official style;
- to specify general characteristics of business style;
- to consider types of business correspondence;
- to investigate the peculiarities of business document translation;
- to reveal the ways of official style rendering from English into Kazakh on the word level;
- to reveal the ways of official style rendering from English into Kazakh on the word level.
The methods of the research used to solve the tasks are as follows:
- descriptive - to systematize and describe the material and to elucidate some notions.
- comparative - to compare original texts and their translation and revealing ways of style
rendering.Ford company original business correspondence texts and their translation variants
serve as the material of the investigation. Thus, the documents under study are various types of
business letters, memorandums, contracts, etc.theoretical basis of our research is presented by
works of such prominent linguists and translators as V.N. Komissarov, I.P. Galperin, E.E.
Izraelevich, M.V. Koltunova, Y.M. Skrebnev and others.theoretical value of the investigation is
that its findings shall be of certain interest for lexicologists and translators and can be used as a
starting point in the research of stylistic peculiarities of a business correspondence text and their
rendering from English into Kazakh.practical value of the work is that the findings of the
investigation can be used in writing research papers and thesis projects on the theme of rendering
different styles in the translation process from English into Kazakh. In addition, the findings of
the research may be applied to other lexical systems of social and humanitarian spheres, which
serve contiguous to business activity professional branches (for instance, to the vocabulary of
legal relations, diplomatic communication, political practice, etc.).
Scientific newness of the work lies in a specific methodological approach to the study of new
practical material and in the analysis of the translation process of business
correspondence.research work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and
references.introduction presents the problem under research and explains the method of its
handling. It also emphasizes the relevance of the research, the goal to be solved, the newness of
the work and description of the material used.first chapter reveals the stylistic peculiarities of
official documents in English in general, to be exact, official style features, types and style of
business correspondence documents. Like other styles of language, this style has a definite
communicative aim and the main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions
binding two parties in an undertaking. Here, such characteristic features of official style

documents as high degree of the named lexicon, the nominal character of speech expressed in
high rate of verbal nouns which often designate appointed action, high rate of denominative
pretexts and prepositional combinations, development of actually writing values connected with
transition of participles in a class of adjectives and pronouns, standardization of lexical
compatability, standardization of syntactic units are considered.second chapter includes the ways
of official style renderings into Kazakh and translation analysis of the peculiar features common
to all stylistic varieties of official documents such as abbreviations, conventional symbols and
contractions, words in their logical dictionary meaning, that is official style rendering on word.
The last paragraph reveals the ways of rendering official style on structure level.the concluding
part the findings of the research are summed up.the end of the paper a complete list of references
is presented.
1. English Official Style
1.1 Socially Related Sublanguages
The use of the sublanguages fettered by formality is as wide as any other, since it is up to us what
we regard as formal. There certainly are degrees of formality. Both the Charter of the United
Nations and a business letter signed by a low-ranking official are formal, i.e. as the meaning of
the adjective formal necessarily implies devoid of any indication of private emotions (except
when the subject is directly connected with emotions - say, in congratulations and condolences)
and - what is perhaps of greater importance, or at least, quite indispensible - devoid of any trace
of familiarity. [1; 183] It must be noted here that the word familiar is used here not in the sense
of acquainted with or known to, but as The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines it,
unceremonious, ever-free, treating inferiors or superiors as equals. [2; 437]remark is that of
essence. The word officialese usually applies to over-refined, very elaborate, archaically
stereotyped sets of linguistic units which are at least slightly ridiculous due to their excessive
refinement. The term is employed here as a conventional denomination of any type or degree of
officialism, i.e. the way of speaking and writing used by people who work in government and
other offices, especially when ordinary people cannot understand it. [3; 982]very rough and
approximate gradation of sub-spheres and their respective sublanguages is as follows:) private
correspondence with a stranger;) business correspondence between representatives of a
commercial or other establishments;) diplomatic correspondence, international treaties, other
documents;) legal documents (civil law - testaments, settlements, etc.; criminal law - verdicts,
sentences, etc.);) personal documents (certificates, diplomas, etc.).to the genres enumerated are:
- superneutral features of this whole group of sublanguages;
- socially established character, which, as alluded to before, may be collectively referred to as
archaic, i.e. either obsolete or obsolescent;
predetermined lingual form in all genres mentioned, though the degree is, of necessity, different);
-clichs (different genres have stereotyped expressions of their own);
-long polysyllabic word of Latin or Greek origin, often euphemistic as compared with their
counterparts;
-periphrastic expressions where a single word might have done just as well;
-complex syntax as compared to that of commonly bookish texts;
established forms of composition that cannot be deviated from. [1; 184]main area in which

business operates officially is the administrative and legal activities. This style serves the needs
of society as a documentation of various acts of public, social, political, economic and business
relations between the government and organizations, as well as between members of society in
the official sphere of communication. Texts of this style are a huge variety of genres: the statute,
law, order, contract, instruction, the complaint, the recipe, different kinds of statements, as well
as many business genres (for example, the explanatory memorandum, biography, profile,
statistical report, etc.). The expression of faith in a business document defines the properties, the
main features of the business language and socio-organizing the use of language. Therefore, the
basic form of the implementation of this style is written. In the field of science, business and law,
the media and in politics, the language is used in different ways. For each of these spheres of
social life its subtype literary language, with a number of distinctive features at all linguistic
levels - lexical, morphological, syntactical, - is embodied. Such a subtype of the literary
language is called a functional style (register). [4; 54] Official style is embodied in the sphere of
social and legal relations realized in legislation, economy, management and diplomatic
activities.style includes informative advertising, trademark style and everyday-business speech
(statements, explanatory notes, receipts, etc.).
Organizational-administrative documentation (OAD) is the kind of business writing that best
represents its specificity. OAD is a center of business writing, the most important part of an
official style. For detailed treatment of business (the commercial sphere, diplomacy and
statesmanship, as well as a number of other particular spheres and types of speech) you can be
advised to consult comprehensive monographs by I.R. Galperin and other well-known
specialists: I.V. Arnold, V.A. Kukharenko, F.N. Morokhovsky, and others. Most linguists rely on
the classification by I.R. Galperin, because it is considered to be the most detailed. And
profound. Of course, this classification, one way or another, is supplemented, modified by
various researchers, but it remains fundamental. Analysis of any style and genre begins with the
proper classification of language styles. This is because each style of speech serves a particular
sphere of human activity, because it is diverse in its species, then therefore, subgenres that reflect
the specificity of language, it is inherent in this type of activity. According to the traditional
classification the functional style (art, publicist, news, and science fiction) includes the style of
business documents with substyles: diplomatic, business, legal and military documents. I.R.
Galperin notes that a style of language can be defined as a system of coordinated, interrelated
and interconditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific function of communication and
aiming at a definite effect. [5; 253] As any other style the style of official documents is used in
such speech genres as legislative and regulatory documents, correspondence, informational
documents and final documents.importance of selection of genres in this style is so great that
they are always marked in the title and subtitle text (application, certificate, order, etc.). The
study of the peciliarities of the original text is essential because without it a proper translation is
quite impossible. Translations and interpretations done by different translators are quite diverse
in the subject matter, language, genre affiliation, and there are, of course, different requirements
for accuracy and completeness of translation. V.N. Komissarov offers two main classifications of
the translation: the nature of translated texts and the nature of speech acts of an interpreter in the
translation process. The first classification is linked to the genre and stylistic features of the
original document, the second to psycholinguistic features of speech action in writing and oral
speech. Genre and stylistic classification of transfers results in the allocation of two functional
types of translation: literary translation and informative (special) translation. [6; 95]language of
business correspondence represented earlier periphery of official style. Today, along with the

regulated letters, all widely used independent business letters, along with official - semiofficial
(congratulatory, advertising) ones in which the expression and standard parity varies, enter into
practice of business dialogue [7; 10]. Undoubtedly, official style, as well as a whole Kazakh
language, has undergone essential changes. Its formation is closely connected with formation and
development of the Republic of Kazakhstan; the sphere of regulation of legal and economic
relations has created requirement for allocation of a special functional version of a literary
language. The regulation of relations between people, establishments, and countries have raised
the necessity of written certificates and documents, which make up the identified line of the
official style. The absence of emotionality, narrow range of a speech expression, the maximum
degree of the etiquette requirements, expressed in an abundance of etiquette signs, etiquette texts
expressing congratulation, condolence, gratitude, etc. - all of these refer to defining peculiarities
of the language of official style documents. Thus, it should be noted that characteristic features
of official style documents are as follows:
high degree of the named lexicon, for example:. Legal terms (the proprietor, the law, registration,
the property, acceptance of objects, transfer of objects, the certificate, privatization, falling, rent,
the repayment, the private affair etc.). Economic terms (the grant, expenses, purchase and sale,
the budget, the expense, the income, payment, the estimate, budget articles, an account part of
the budget etc.). Economic-legal terms (credit repayment, the property rights, term of sale of
goods, the quality certificate, etc.)
the nominal character of speech expressed in high rate of verbal nouns which often designate
appointed action, for example:
credit repayment - to extinguish the credituse - to use the creditquestion decision - to solve a
questionshipment - to ship the goodspayment delay - to delay payment
high rate of denominative pretexts and prepositional combinations, for example:the address, in
the relation to, in force, in communication, in conformity, in the account, in a course, with a view
of, on a measure, on a line, to the address, after the expiration, for the reason, at presence, etc.
development of actually writing values connected with transition of participles in a class of
adjectives and pronouns, for example:
The present rulespresent contractquotationsmeasuresappropriate referenceinadequate qualitydue
hereunder
standardization of lexical compatability: word meaning narrowing explains restriction of their
lexical compatibility, occurrence so-called regulated combinations, for example:
The control is usually assignedtransaction - consists- is madeaccount - is exposed (or is
paid)price - is establishedright - is given.happen constructive / not constructive; activity successful; necessity - insistent; discounts - considerable; disagreements - essential / insignificant
etc;
standardization of syntactic units (offers, word-combinations) which are not made as the formula
and are reproduced in the text of the document fixing an appropriate situation in socially-legal
relations, for example:
When due hereunder; according to the accepted arrangement;rendering of the technical help;case
of default of promissory notes;contract comes into force from the date of signing;move in the
order established by the law;is made by motor transport;
there is formal-logic principle of the text organization expressed in crushing of the basic theme
on subthemes, considered in points and subparagraphs for which the text is graphically split up
and which are designated by the Arabian figures, for example:
. A contract subject.

.1. The executor incurs duties on supply of the customer by a central heating and water supply.
.2. The customer in due time pays the rendered services;
Thus, the style of official documents is represented by the following substyles or variants:
- the language of business documents;
- the language of legal documents;
- the language of diplomacy;
- the language of military documents. [8; 297]other styles of language, this style has a definite
communicative aim and, accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic
means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties
in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two contracting parties.
1.2 Types of Business Correspondence
english official style rendering
Business ties are inconceivable without an exchange of the business
correspondence. Developing for centuries written business etiquette wins the
positions despite of the fact that it had such gaining in strength contenders
as a phone, telex, fax, satellite computer communication, video telephone,
etc. Nevertheless, despite advantages of oral negotiations, say, efficiency of
information interchange on the phone, it has some disadvantages like
elementary misunderstanding. What is the business correspondence itself? It
is the integral communication facility of the enterprise with the external
organizations as letters connect the organization-author to other
establishments. Through letters information interchange is carried out, offers
become, trunk-call dialogue is conducted, etc. Sometimes the directory
documentation simply confirms the facts, events which need to be taken
only into consideration. Thus, the office letter is the generalized name of
various documents under the maintenance, issued according to the State
Volume, sent by mail, by fax or other way [9; 43]. Without exaggeration it is
possible to say that it is one of the most widespread types of office
documents, and therefore, the success of the decision of concrete questions
as well as the competitive ability of the whole enterprise depends on the
accuracy of the message..V. Koltunova divides business correspondence into
three types according to its main genres of written business language:
. Business letters;
. Organizational-administrative documentation (OAD);
. Agreements (Contracts). [10; 21]
1. Business letters. The business letter is a special type of document, the
less tightly regulated than the contract or order, but without legal
significance. Business correspondence is recorded and stored in both
organizations, as the incoming and outgoing documentation. This is
important because business letters serve as a tool for regulatory, legal and
social relations between the correspondents (contractors, partners and
participants in social relations). There are several types of classification of
business letters, based not on their different approaches, but on different
qualifying signs. Business letters can be distinguished in business

correspondence by their thematic characteristics. Business letters precede

the conclusion of a contract (agreement), and are the documents that govern
the progress of its implementation. Business letters have the status of the
document. Letters can precede the arbitral tribunal, may constitute grounds
for bringing lawsuit (letter of complaint, letter of agreement). More business
letters, sometimes called office memos, solve organizational issues,
economic and legal relations between the correspondents, and also refer to
the document. On the basis of functional characteristics business letters are
divided into:
a) demanding an obligatory letter of revert: proactive business letters (letter
of request, letter of offer, letter of complaint, letter of advertisement);
b) not requiring a response: confirmation letter, letter of notice, reminder
letters, invitation letter, warning letter, letter of statement; letter of
surrender, letter of denial, cover letter, letter of guarantee; newsletter.to the
receipt of letters business letters are divided into ordinary and circular.
Circular letters are sent from one source to multiple addresses, usually
subordinate bodies (organizations).
Ordinary letters are sent to single address.form of administration can be
identified along with the traditional postal mail, facsimile transmission, the
teletype and telegraphic connections. And electronic and facsimile
connections are used to solve operational issues.the basis of structural
characteristics business letters are divided into regulated and unregulated
types.letters shall be governed by a particular model (which refers not only
to standard aspects of content, but the paper size, composition of bank
details, etc.). Regulated letters address typical issues of regular and legal
situations, and are written as a standard text drawn from the standard
syntax.letters represent the author's text working in formal and logical or
etiquette texts. It typically includes elements of the story (background),
etiquette frame and a speech act, which is a mandatory element of the
business letter. In contrast to the regulated letters, unregulated business
letters do not have a rigid structure of the text, they rarely use standard
phrases. The peculiarity of the language of this type of correspondence is
combination of official and journalistic styles: the standard language, the
pattern, expression.
2. Organizational and administrative documentation (OAD). The center of
business writing is an organizational and administrative documentation. It
just shows all the brighter features of the official style. Fulfilling a social role,
head managers in the banks use in their work such types of documents as
order, memorandum, office memos, statements, orders, job descriptions,
enforcement notes, etc. The peculiarity of these instruments is that they are
written in a strict form. The form of the document, as has been already
mentioned, is a combination and sequence of location bank details and
significant parts of the text. Among these kinds of documents order is
commonly used. With the help of orders issues concerning work
management in the enterprise, financing, planning, reporting, sales and

other production issues can be figured out. Textual execution of the order is
largely similar to that of regulated letters.
3. Agreements (contracts). Agreement is the document that establishes legal
relations between legal persons (contractors) or between the individuals and
legal persons. The nature of the transaction, conditions, terms, rights and
obligations of the parties are definitely reflected in the relevant paragraphs
of the treaty as well as aggregate information which guarantees legal force
for the document. From the viewpoint of the text formation these items
represent modules - text fragments with standard page headers provided by
a set of standard phrases. Contracts shall be made in writing in the
prescribed form and are used without changing the form of the text, or with
little editing. Sending of document can be implemented through postal,
telegraph, telex, faxes and other communications. All applications to the
contract or agreement form its integral part: specifications, calculations,
orders, statements, protocols, questionnaires, etc. Applications are the
commercial documents, which often made in the form of tables or examples
and include the specific terms of the transaction. In the module text of the
agreement, the contract includes the following information:
. Submission of the parties entering into contractual relationships provides
the full name of organizations and individuals to sign documents. In addition,
in the first module the basis on which these individuals and conditional
designations act is mentioned.
. Subject of the contract. Here the subject-matter of the agreement such as:
trade, purchase and sales, contractors, rental, applying information, etc is
stated. In the absence of a separate module cost indicates the cost of the
contract.
. The obligations of the parties clearly formulate what obligations the
contracting parties assume. In terms of communicative appropriateness, this
module should be particularly carefully considered, because any
miscalculation or voice negligence can lead to serious unintended
consequences. The rights of the parties (rights and obligations of the parties)
can be prescribed in the same module.
. Conditions and procedures for the calculations. Here the conditions of
payments to consolidated services, received goods, etc. and the order of
calculation are recorded. Often, the financial relationship is disclosed in the
estimates contained in the annex to the treaty, which is an integral part of it.
. Parties' Responsibilities. It formulates the sanctions to be applied to the
party who transgressed its obligations. If the contract does not require
detailing, the record can be made in the generalized form.
. The validity of the contract. It indicates the beginning and the end of the
contract, the order of extension or early annulment.
. Legal addresses and signatures of the parties. Here the precise postal
address and bank details of organizations, and signatures of the persons
named in the first module as well as stamps of organizations signing the
contract should be indicated.

1.3 Business Correspondence Style

Each of the subdivisions of business correspondence style has its own
peculiar terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style.
Peculiar features common to all stylistic varieties of official documents,
including business correspondence, are the following:
- use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions;
- the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning;
- absence of emotiveness;
- definite compositional pattern and design. Should be noted that the
syntactical pattern of this style is as important as the vocabulary.
Letter writing - is an essential part of communication, an intimate part of
experience. Each letter-writer has a characteristic way of writing, his style of
writing, his way of expressing thoughts, facts, etc. but it must be emphasized
that the routine of the official or semi-official business letters requires certain
accepted idioms, phrases, patterns, and grammar which are found in general
use today. Therefore certain skills must be acquired by practice, and details
of writing must be carefully and thoroughly learnt. Cheque, a contract or any
other business paper sent by mail should always be accompanied by a letter.
The letter says what is being sent so that the recipient should know exactly
what you intended to send. It is a typical business letter which some people
call routine. The letter may be short or long, it may contain some very
important and much less important information - every letter requires careful
planning and thoughtful writing. [7; 34]recent years English has become a
universal business language. As such, it is potentially an instrument of order
and clarity. But words and phrases have unexpected ways of creating binding
commitments. Writing, certainly, is not the same as casual conversation, it
bears only the same power of thoughts, reflections, and observations as in a
conversational talk, but the form may be quite different. What makes the
letter so attractive and pleasing is not always the message of the letter, it is
often the manner and style in which the message is written.
For example: I want to express to you my sincere appreciation for your note
of congratulation.r
I am sincerely happy that you were elected President of Biological Society.
you see such formulations show the attitude of the writer, his respect and
sincerity. Language of business, professional and semi-official letters is
formal, courteous, tactful, concise, expressive, and to the point. A neatly
arranged letter will certainly make a better impression on the reader, thus
good letters make good business partners. The case of scientific
correspondence the majority of letters bear mostly a semi-official character
and are concerned with different situations associated with scientific
activities concentrated around the organisation of scientific meetings
(congresses, symposia, workshops, etc.), the arrangement of visit, invitation,
publication, the exchange of scientific literature, information, etc. [11; 78]
Letters of this kind have a tone of friendliness, naturalism. Modern English
letters should not be exaggerated, overburdened, outmoded with time-worn

expressions. The key note is simplicity. Modern letters tend towards using the
language of conversational style.is not only a means of communication and
contact, but also a record of affairs, information, events, etc. So it is
necessary to feel the spirit and trend of the style in order to write a perfect
letter. Letter or contract law is a complex and vastly documented subject,
only a lawyer can deal with it on a serious level. A number of basic
principles, however, can be outlined sufficiently to mark of encounters that
require the use of specialized English. Business means working out
agreements with other people, sometimes through elaborate contracts and
sometimes through nothing but little standard forms, through exchanges of
letters and conversations at lunch. More and more agreements are made in
English, for English is the nearest thing we have to a universal business
language. Joint ventures, bank loans, and trademark licenses frequently are
spelt out in this language even though it is not native to at least one of the
contracting parties.is a business document presenting an agreement for the
delivery of goods, services, etc., approved and signed by both the Buyer
(exporter) and the Seller (importer) [12; 31]. By law contracts are made in
writing. When striking a deal, standard contracts are widely used. Standard
contracts are not a must. Some articles can be altered and supplemented
[13; 12].
The principles of purpose, style and tone transfer from one area or specialty
of writing to another, yet each document written varies depending on the
purpose of the document, on the style chosen for the document, and on the
tone the document conveys. In every area of writing, the purpose of the
document must be determined. The style of the document needs to achieve
the intended purpose of the document. Through style, the tone of the
document is conveyed. When the document is edited and revised it is
necessary to remember the purpose, style, and tone of the document. No
matter the area or specialty, each document has a purpose. The style of
each document differs from other documents depending on the purpose of
the document, the format of the document, and the area or the specialty for
which the document is written. The principle of rewriting and editing a
document before production is consistent with all documents. The method of
revision varies depending on the importance of the document, the time
frame allotted to create and produce the document, and the media used to
produce the document. The completed document conveys a unique emotion
or tone to the audience as a result of the purpose, style, media used, and
area or specialty. Produce and utilize documents for numerous purposes. The
purpose of a document you may write in the traditional business
environment may be as follows:
Providing factual information to the board of directors to give them insight
into a particular product and its production problems.
Persuading your supervisor or fellow workers to believe in your point of
view.

 Sharing your thoughts or opinions concerning the effectiveness of a

program.
Expressing concern for a specific problem in your work environment that
may be hazardous to yourself and others. Pressure in a business
environment produces the purpose that we need to write about. A faulty
product that needs internal attention may produce a purpose. A product that
is just coming out on the market and needs consumer awareness may
produce purpose. Internal planning, communicating and production
processes also produce purposes for writing.in all areas of writing, the
audience needs to be considered. To be a successful writer it is important to
assess how familiar your audience is with the topic. What is their level of
understanding and familiarity with the topic? Does your audience contain
specialists or non-specialists? Write down the characteristics of your
audience. Do a survey or profile to see how your audience will use the
document. Knowing your audience and the purpose the document has for
your audience will help you in Circumstances that exist for us to
communicate with others. Understanding exigency is essential because
without it we cannot effectively determine purpose. [13; 37]
Ultimately, style is the writer. We can't prescribe a universally preferable
style because the decisions writers make depend on the context: on the
subject or content, the purpose of the document, the readers, previous or
related documents, and the situation or climate in which the document is
produced
There are many choices that determine style. Word choices, sentence
composition and sentence structure choices, and other stylistic choices such
as format help determine the style of a document. The individual style of the
author is something that cannot be dismissed. Writers of each document
make the document unique by their way, they utilize their own personal
writing style and method. Style and purpose affect how the audience views
the document. Style of documents that are intended for an audience that
you do not know or that you are not familiar with in a business sense are
usually formal in nature. The document may be a response to a customer
complaint. It may be a request for payment that is overdue. It may be a legal
document, a business report, or many other types of correspondence that
are conducted for business. It is better to use the style of a formal document
when trying to convey factual or objective information. A formal document
can be strong and dynamic. When conveying negative or unpleasant
information, it is best to use a formal document. We should not use humor in
formal documents as a general rule. Documents are usually intended for an
audience that knows the writer. The audience may be someone we know
personally or someone we are familiar with in a business sense. Some good
document styles to use for informal documents may be memos, personal
letters, articles for a newsletter, and e-mails. We can use a more relaxed and
friendly tone in your writing style, yet still be informative. Humor in good
taste is acceptable. Client recently asked about using humor in business

writing. Humor is extremely subjective, so it should be used cautiously in

business correspondence. What is funny to us might not be to someone else.
We use humor, we risk offending the reader or creating a misunderstanding.
However, if we know your reader especially well, a dash of humor can be
refreshing. Just be certain that the humor is obvious as well as appropriate
for the reader and the topic.
Tone is the impression readers receive from your writing and the attitude
conveyed in your treatment of the subject.
Style and purpose help to achieve tone. Tone is the emotion, feeling, or
impression that you convey through your writing. Tone can be described by
many different words, positive and negative. The tone of your document
reflects whether you are positive or negative about the subject or your
audience. Style, purpose and tone work together to produce the overall
desired effect of your document for its audience.is important as we word
your business documents to consider the type of tone we want to convey to
our readers. The typical situations we will come across when conveying
information include:
. Conveying routine information and making direct requests,
. Communicating good news,
. Communicating bad news and
. Attempting to persuade which is the tone of choice for a proposal. Possible
tones include:
Being forceful - this is helpful when we want to add emphasis to our
messages
Being passive - this is helpful for conveying information up the corporate
ladder or when we have negative information to convey.
Being personal - this style is really helpful when we want to convey good
news or to persuade our reader to action.
Being impersonal - helpful when conveying bad news
Being persuasive - helpful to persuade readers to actionwording rather
than negative wording should be used to present the focus of our writing if
we want your business writing to be successful. People respond more
constructively to positive ideas. A positive emphasis will persuade readers
and create friendliness among coworkers. Some key elements that help to
establish a positive tone in writing are:
Always stress what something is rather than what something is not
Emphasize what the firm can and will do rather than what it cannot do,
Open with action rather than an apology, and avoid unpleasant facts. A
person must present any negative information in their business writing,
connecting it to a positive picture will soften the effects. Positioning of
information is also important in business writing. Good news deserves high
emphasis by placing it at the beginning and ending of paragraphs. Bad news
should be located in secondary positions such as the center of a paragraph.
Always give more space to Good News and less to Bad News. Important
aspect of business correspondence is to choose words that are neutral in

terms of gender. The pronoun he used to be the default pronoun to use

when gender was undeterminable. If you were uncertain which gender we
were writing to us would simply write Dr. Sir It may have been acceptable
in the past to inadvertently ignore women. However that is not the case
today. Today, more than ever before people may be offended by sexist words
and images. Simply put avoid the pronoun he. Here are some examples of
how to avoid sexual stereotyping.
Try to use language that is similar when stating the names of men and
woman together to show equality.
Always ensure parallel treatment of couples.
Avoid familiar clichs. And editing is an important process in writing. It is
the final process for any type of document you may produce. Editing can be
time-consuming. Deadlines and time constraints may limit the amount of
time you are able to edit a document. It is important to give yourself enough
time to review a document before rewriting and production. While
proofreading and editing a document, be aware of the purpose of the
document, make sure the style is consistent, and make sure the document
reflects the tone that you intended. A wise person knows when a document
has reached an acceptable or appropriate state and ends the rewriting and
editing process., purpose, and tone are universal tools and components in all
documents. Rewriting and editing are necessary tools whether a document is
created as a traditional business document or created as an online
document., style and tone are essential in developing a document from start
to finish in business correspondence. Editing and rewriting are also important
elements to use in business correspondence as well. But, in editing and
rewriting, purpose, style and tone must be kept in mind throughout the
process no matter which type of document is being developed. Term, style,
in this chapter refers to the shape, voice, and force of sentences. Readers do
not want to know what is going on inside a writer's mind. Instead, they want
writers to propose plans or recommend actions that will benefit the
company, and to do so as concisely as possible. Someone mentions
business correspondence around us what is the first thing that comes to
our mind? Probably we would immediately picture business letters. In spite of
the fact that business email nowadays is used much more than letters. But
business letters have been the only type of business correspondence for
much longer than any of us can remember, so business correspondence is
still associated with them more than with its any other type. And as anything
that has been there for a long time business letters just have to have very
well established rules and regulations. Letter is now used primarily for formal
correspondence with clients, customers, and others outside the company,
particularly people you have not met.
From the linguistic point of view, a contract is a type of a document, because
any agreement is a completed document fixing some information. As a type
of text, contract has its own specific characteristics. Stylistic peculiarities of
all document texts are concreteness, conciseness, clearness of the stated

idea, high capacity of information, strict logic, clear rhythm of sentences,

accenting on the main idea with the help of word repetitions, absence of
connotational information, a special system of clichs and stamps, usage of
abbreviations, conventional symbols and marks, usage of terms in their
direct semantic meaning, preferential usage of monosemantic words,
division of a text into chapters, paragraphs, points, often numbered (clear
compositional structure of a document), usage of definite syntactic models,
graphic decoration of a document: quality of paper, quantity and quality of
illustrations, size and kind of print. Main features of the style of contract are
steady system of linguistic means in the text of contract, lack of emotional
colouring, decoding character of language, usage of a special symbolic
system, definite syntactic structure. (above-enumerated items).style of
contract defines some peculiarities and techniques of its writing. Making
contracts is different in some points from writing business letters, such as an
offer, an inquiry, a complaint, etc. Some considerations important for
business letters are not important for contracts, and v.v. The main difference
is that any contract is made up by two contracting parties and contains
information about many subjects. So, all points are to be approved by both
parties. There are certain clearly definable requirements for how to write
contracts., contracts should be formal, complete, clear, concrete, correct and
concise. In contracts all possible informational details are not suitable. So,
while writing contracts we must observe all peculiarities of standard English
grammar, vocabulary use and stylistic appropriation. A formal contract or
agreement requires considerations of neatness and attractive arrangement.
Completeness of any contract suggests the scope of all significant facts that
have reference to the issue of the agreement. Actually, you are expected to
explain what, how, and when you are going to deal with your partner.next
element, - clearness, - is one of the most important, because much depends
on it. Clearness could be reached by the use of simple short words, phrases
and paragraphs where the both parties of a contract explain their intentions
and issues. Clearness of any arguments actually defines your striking a deal
or not.component which is closely connected with the previous one is
concreteness. Concreteness of a contract or an agreement is a part and a
parcel of any legal document. Besides that, the longer the document is, the
more attractive and vivid its contents should be.
The next two components are also significant. They are correctness and
conciseness. Correctness involves proper grammar use, vocabulary use,
punctuation and formal style.
Conciseness is usually achieved by the use of minimum words to express
maximum of information.it has been noted above, any contract should be
simple and clear, concise and brief. Commercial correspondence often suffers
from an old-fashioned, pompous style of English which complicates the
message and gives the reader the feeling that he is reading a language he
does not understand. Though the language of contract is perhaps the most
formal among all kinds of business correspondence, and the vocabulary of

such correspondence is very specific, which is connected with its character

and a great number of legal terms, it should not be archaic. It should be clear
enough in its meaning. Style, however, should not be too simple as it may
become discourteous and sound rude. Linguists recommend the following
stylistic devices that might make agreements and contracts more polite:
complex sentences joined with conjunctions are preferable, rather than short
sentences; passive constructions rather than active; full forms rather than
abbreviated forms, where necessary. Right tone should be neutral, devoid of
a pompous language on one hand, and an informal or colloquial language on
the other hand. Therefore, inappropriate vocabulary, idioms, phrasal verbs
are not allowed at all. Both contracting parties should not experience any
difficulties in obtaining information, they should be able to understand what
is written. Misunderstandings are caused by a lack of thought and care.
Conclusion
The style of official documents is represented by the following substyles or
variants:
- the language of business documents;
- the language of legal documents;
- the language of diplomacy;
- the language of military documents.other styles of language, this style has
a definite communicative aim and, accordingly has its own system of
interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of
communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an
undertaking and to reach agreement between two contracting parties.of the
subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions
of other variants of this style.investigation has proved that the peculiar
features common to all stylistic varieties of official documents are the use of
abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions; the use of words in
their logical dictionary meaning; absence of emotiveness; definite
compositional pattern and design. It should be noted that the syntactical
pattern of this style is as important as the vocabulary.a result of the study of
official style texts we have come to the conclusion that transformations and
translation methods used in rendering the style of official texts are
determined by the general purposefulness and genre-stylistic inhering of the
source text.
The main aim of official style rendering is to render a source information with
maximum exactness and accuracy. This aim can be achieved through logical
statement of facts, without any explicit emotionality and expression means
such as metaphor, metonymic transpositions, and other stylistic elements
which are widely used in the works of fiction.
The most typical features of official style texts are terms and terminological
phrases, special vocabulary, set expressions, various types of clichs and
abbreviations. Unlike literary texts the genre of these texts can be defined by
fixed semasiologically related linguistic means made in the form of terms. In
the given situation terms are words and word-groups used to define

particular objects and notions connected with economy, business, banking,

marketing, financing, etc. These terms precisely denote the objects and
phenomena, thus determining a univocal understanding of the translated
information. So when using a variety of translation methods and
transformations it is necessary to know the translation of the key term. In
other words, business correspondence which is, by all means, dominated by
terms and neutral common professional words can be characterized by
certain uniformity.
The research has shown that the vocabulary of business documents, i.e.
terms, clich, set expressions abbreviations can be rendered in the following
ways:
- borrowing the term from the source language and transferring it unchanged
into the source language;
transcribing and or\ transliterating the term in the source language using the
alphabet of the target language, modern tendency being that of a maximal
phonetic approximation of the technical terms in the source and target
languages;
- using a loan translation whereby the semantic components of a given term
are literally translated into their equivalents in the target language;
providing a descriptive translation of a given expression.order to solve
grammatical problems of translation translator should take into account the
necessity to keep the main idea of the source text, as well as peculiarities of
the target language. Discrepancy in grammatical systems of the two
languages and impossibility to render the meaning of one or another word
should be compensated by other grammatical, or sometimes, lexical
means.translation analysis of business correspondence has revealed that the
form of the letters and contracts are mostly stereotyped. Standardization of
business correspondence is mostly peculiar to European languages, while
the Kazakh language is not so abundant with fixed clichs, that is why,
translators have to use different transformations, particularly functional
replacement.is important to render the purport of the text as close to the
original as possible. Translation should be neither literal nor loose, although
the elements of the both translations can inevitably be found. Nevertheless,
there should not be a loss of substantial information in the target text.of
business correspondence is oriented to rendering of information, that is, it
has an informative character. For this reason one of the main challenges of a
translator during the translation of business correspondence is to keep the
informative function and the style of the source text.analyzed the translation
of business documents we have come to the conclusion that English business
texts are abundant with the usage of verbals and their constructions, which
are frequently changed into other parts of speech. Translation of English
business documents into Kazakh requires quite many translation
transformations, since the language structures of the two languages are
rather different.

Generally speaking, the translation of the verbals consists of two stages: first
it is necessary to understand its meaning and then find a corresponding way
of expressing it in Kazakh. For the purpose of translation, grammar does not
exist separately. It is not the grammatical form but the grammatical meaning
that is of primary concern for a translator or an interpreter. A mistake in
grammar (whether it is a misunderstood construction of the source language
or a wrong variant in the target language) always tells on the sense and logic
of the text. As soon as the sense and logic of the sentence stop to be
transparent it is necessary to stop and look for a mistake in the
translation.hus having made a quantitative analysis of the documents to
determine the most frequently used transformations done in their
translations, we have revealed that in translation of English business
documents into Kazakh grammatical transformations are used more
frequently than lexical ones, which proves the discrepancy of grammatical
systems of the two languages.in the period of world community integration
the significance of proper business document writing, as well as its proper
translation cannot be overestimated. The increasing role of business English
as a working language of the majority of international companies and
organizations, and frequent use of business correspondence have led to the
necessity of being able to understand and translate business documents in a
proper way which is impossible without knowing translation techniques.
References
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2. Concise Oxford Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1993. - 681p.
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8. Miram G.E., Daineko V.V., Taranukha L.A., Grischenko M.V., Gon A.M. Basic
Translation. A Course of Lectures on Translation Theory. Kyiv, 2002. - 248 p.
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c.

. Brieger N. Advanced English Contacts. London: Oxford University Press,

1993. - P. 31
. Geffner A.B. Business Letters: The Easy Way. New York: Bartons, 1998. - .
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15. Cowie A.P. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Oxford University Press,
1994. - 1581
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( ). - .: 1
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17. Tuck A. Oxford Dictionary of Business English. Oxford University Press,
1994. - 493 p.
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. English Kazakh Online Dictionary - http://www. english-kazakh.translate.ue
20. .. .
: , 2007. - 320 .
. Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English.
Oxford University Press, 1997. - 1980 p.
22. . :
-. , 2006. -320 .
23. Seksembaeva G., Turekhanov A., Turekhanova B., Turekhanova M.
English-Russian-Kazakh Dictionary of Law Terms. Almaty, 1999. - 304 p.
24. A .. .
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, 1973. - 215 .
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. / . .. . - , 1998.
Peculiarities Official Style Translation

Introduction
Activity of a translator is known for thousands of years. But initially it
appeared in oral form and served in all spheres of human activity. Since
advent of writing and written translation in the Middle Ages, mostly they
were religious literature translations. During the Renaissance translation
activity related to the translation of literary works of the past. Chiefly
translators serviced grand people and ruling elite, yet common people were
not involved in translation at all. And only at the turn of the19-20 century
appears so called informative translation, which was to serve all social

classes, and primarily business people. Therefore, considerable proportion of

informative texts represented by business documents. The term translation
itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the
product (the text that has been translated) or the process (the act of
producing translation, otherwise known as translating. Nowadays more and
more people are getting involved in the world of business relationships. As a
result of it, business people need specialists possessing knowledge of the
English language used for writing documents. Any serious deal should be
struck with the help of contracts and agreements. A written form of
agreements is a guarantee that different people, for example Buyers and
Sellers, will cooperate in accordance with a certain business strategy, and
their interests will be taken into consideration by their partners. A contract
makes clear such things as quantity and quality of goods, their prices,
delivery terms, order of payment, and other terms. Contract serves to make
a business operation smooth and logic. It also proves seriousness of
contracting parties and defines their responsibilities before each other.
An honest word of a businessman, as well, should be reflected in a contract
of a different kind. It is called intentions agreement and is a manifestation of
a wish to do business. That is, every step and stage of a business deal should
be supported in a legal way, in an official form.
The current research analyses different peculiarities of official style
translations. A translation is not just a transcription from one language to
another. It needs to render not only the meaning of the words and sentences
but also the context, more subtly, what is sometimes described in stylistic
manuals as the register of the source text - its level and style of language.
This means that the message produced by the translator should call forth a
reaction from the Target Language receptor similar to that called forth by the
original message from the Source Language receptor. The content, that is,
the referential meaning of the message with all its implications and the form
of the message with all its emotive and stylistic connotations must be
reproduced as fully as possible in the translation as they are to evoke a
similar response. Especially if we translate official documents we must
remember that the task of a translator translating official documents is to
find Target Language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in
translation as standard substitutes, filling the slots with frames fillers in
compliance with the document content.
Actuality of the work: Whose this topic as the object of investigation because
there are few works devoted to this complicated and interesting topic that
could be helpful for students, researchers and translators in their education
and work.
Taking into account the above said we stetted the following aim of our work!
I to study theoretical material related to the peculiarities of this style
translation/
To analyze some official documents and show the ways of their trouse.
To achieve this goal we also stated the following tasks:

To draw the between official style documents in the Russian and English
languages.
To investigate differences of this style documents both in Russian and
English.
To use in poetical analysis of the knowledge obtained
Practical application: Results of the analysis can be used in other philological
studies, deeper researches. It can be useful both for translators and
interpreters in their professional practice. It can be also be of an interest for
people studying this style in English and functional usage of formal and
informal styles. The results of the research may be taken into consideration
by students and instructors of English and English stylistics. Also they can be
used as material for special courses on business English for students of
linguistic and economic departments.
Structure of the work: the current issue contain introduction. Two main
chapters and conclusion. First chapter contains from theoretical basses of
official style translation. Second chapter includes analysis of stylistic and
grammar peculiarities of official style translation.
Materials used: Introducing translation studies, Jeremy Muday. Introducing
Translation studies is an introductory textbook providing an accessible
overview of the key contributions to translation studies.
Translation and translating: Theory and Practice, Roger T. Bell, Longman. This
book derives from a feeling of considerable unease and puzzlement about
the way translation has been treated, over a sustention period, by translation
theorists on the one hand and linguists on the other.
There is a clear-cut between formal and informal styles of English, but there
is no strict difference between spoken and written business English.
Obviously, businessmen do not communicate with their companions using
intricate phrases and bookish words. Still, they are obliged to use some
formal cliches which may sound strange to non-business people, but are
essential for conducting business. The style of official documents is
represented by the following sub-styles and variants:
The language of business documents;
The language of legal documents;
The language of diplomacy;
The language of military documents.
Like other style of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and,
accordingly, has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means.
The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding
two parties in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two
contracting parties.
Each of subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and
expressions, which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and
expressions of other variants of this style.
The peculiar features common to all stylistic varieties of official documents
are the following:

the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions. (They are

so many of them that there are special addenda in dictionaries to decode
them);
the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning;
absence of emotiveness;
definite compositional pattern and design.
should be also noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as important
as the vocabulary. Translation of legal, economic, diplomatic and official
business papers requires not only sufficient knowledge of terms, phrases and
expressions, but also depends on the clear comprehension of the structure of
the sentence, some specific grammar and syntactical patterns, which are
characteristics of this style. The syntactical pattern of business
correspondence style is made up from compositional patterns of variants of
this style which have their own designs. The form of a document itself is
informative, because it tells something about the matter dealt with. From the
viewpoint of its stylistic structure, the whole document is one sentence. It
looks like separate, shaped clauses often divided by commas or semicolons,
and not by full stops, often numbered. Every predicate construction begins
with a capital letter in the form of a participial or an infinitive construction.
One of the most striking features of this style is usage of words in their
logical dictionary meaning. There is no room for contextual meanings or for
any kind of simultaneous realisation of two meanings. Words with emotive
meanings are not to be found there either.
The Report
Peculiarities of translation of standard documents
Introduction
The translation of official documents is a subfield of specialized legal
translation. It requires absolute precision and the exclusive use of
professional terms approved by the relevant official bodies.
A document (noun from latin documentum [second declension, gen
documenti]: lesson, instruction, warning), is a bounded physical or digital
representation of a body of information designed with the capacity (and
usually intent) to communicate. A document may manifest symbolic,
diagrammatic or sensory-representational information.
Peculiar features of the style of official documents (it is also applicable to
technical interpretation) are its substantiveness, logicality (strict consistency,
clear connection between main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity
and subsequent lucidity and clarity. All texts of this type tend to use the
language means that contribute to satisfaction of needs of this
communication sphere.
Methodology of the research. The aim achievement of the research and
implementation of the set up tasks outlines the need in a number of
theoretical and empirical methods of research (theoretical research,
concretization, modeling, studying of specific literature, manuals,
dictionaries).

Theoretical value of the research results. The investigation, detalization of

the issues studied, theoretical value of the received results leads to the
conclusion that this research finds out the necessity to emphasize translation
of standard documents as an important branch of technical one.
The results of the research are submitted in the conclusion of the work.
1. Translation theory
Translation is a means of interlingual communication. The translator makes
possible an exchange of information between the users of different
languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating
language) a text which has an identical communicative value with the source
(or original) text (ST). This target text (TT that is the translation) is not fully
identical with ST as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by
the formal and semantic differences between the source language (SL) and
TL. Nevertheless the users of TT identify it, to all intents and purposes, with
ST - functionally, structurally and semantically.
Translation is the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language and
the production, in another language, of an equivalent text that
communicates the same message. Translation must take into account a
number of constraints, including context, the rules of grammar of the two
languages, their writing conventions, their idioms and the like.
Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all
translation events, different types of translation can be singled out
depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or
the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can
distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand,
and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other
hand.
Literary translation deals with literary texts, i. e. works of fiction or poetry
whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon
the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their
artistic quality and the translator's primary task is to reproduce this quality in
translation.
Translation of scientific and technical materials has a most important role to
play in our age of the revolutionary technical progress. There is hardly a
translator or an interpreter today who has not to deal with technical matters.
Even the "purely" literary translator often comes across highly technical stuff
in works of fiction or even in poetry. An in-depth theoretical study of the
specific features of technical translation is an urgent task of translation
linguistics while training of technical translators is a major practical problem.
In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in
the original. The predominance of the referential function is a great
challenge to the translator who must have a good command of the technical
terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give
an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in
the original. The technical translator is also expected to observe the stylistic

requirements of scientific and technical materials to make text acceptable to

the specialist.
Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary
texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to
inform the reader. However, if the source text is of some length, its
translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation.
A literary text may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative
character. Contrariwise, informative translation may comprise some
elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect. Within each group further
gradations can be made to bring out more specific problems in literary or
informative translation.
A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations,
though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we
may single out translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper
materials, of official papers and some other types of texts such as public
speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which
are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the
expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional
appeal.
1.1 Translation of official documents
The translation of official documents is a subfield of specialized legal
translation. It requires absolute precision and the exclusive use of
professional terms approved by the relevant official bodies.
Defining the specificity of technical translation, special translation theory (if
we talk about translation of official documents) studies three types of factors
which must be taken into account while describing translations of certain
type. First of all, the particular functional style of a source document itself
can influence the type of translation process and require from technical
translator use of special methods and ways. Secondly, such source
orientation can predetermine stylistic characteristics of the translation text
and, thus, necessity for choice of such means of language that characterize
the same functional style in the target language during technical translation.
And, finally, interaction of these two factors can result in appearance of
translation peculiarities themselves which are connected both with common
features and differences between linguistic signs of the same functional
styles of source and target languages and with special conditions and tasks
of technical translation from different languages.
Within each functional style we can distinguish some linguistic features
which influence on the process and the result of translation is rather
significant. For instance, in scientific-technical style, during technical
translation these features are lexico-grammatical peculiarities of scientifictechnical materials and, first of all, it is the leading role of terminology and
special vocabulary.
Translation of technical texts, including official documents, is one of the most
demanded services in the translation sphere. It's connected with modern

technical development and necessity of constant ensuring such

development.
Peculiar features of the style of official documents (it is also applicable to
technical interpretation) are its substantiveness, logicality (strict consistency,
clear connection between main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity
and subsequent lucidity and clarity. All texts of this type tend to use the
language means that contribute to satisfaction of needs of this
communication sphere.
On the vocabulary level translation of official documents, first of all, implies
use of special terminology. Terms must provide clear and accurate definition
of real objects and phenomena; establish unambiguous comprehension of
transmitted information by specialists. Uppermost, in translation the term
must be precise, i.e. it must have strictly determined meaning which can be
developed by means of logical definition that removes the place of defined
concept in the paradigm of this certain field. For the same reason the term
must be monosemantic and, in this regard, context-independent. In other
words, it must have its own precise meaning which is determined by its
definition in all its occurrences in any text, thus, person who uses the term
doesn't have to clarify its meaning in different contexts.
Term precision is directly connected with the demand that every notion
should have only one corresponding term, i.e. not to have synonymic terms
with corresponding meanings. A term should be the part of strict logical
system. Terms meanings and their definitions should conform to the rules of
logical classification which clearly distinguishes between objects and notions
and doesn't allow ambiguity or contradictoriness. Besides, any term must
have strictly objective definition with no secondary meaning which detracts
specialist's attention adding the element of subjectivity. Official documents
are written in a formal, cold or matter-of-fact style of speech. The style of
official documents or `officialese' as it is sometimes called, is not
homogeneous.
1.2 Types of standard documents
A document (noun from latin documentum [second declension, gen
documenti]: lesson, instruction, warning), is a bounded physical or digital
representation of a body of information designed with the capacity (and
usually intent) to communicate. A document may manifest symbolic,
diagrammatic or sensory-representational information. To document (verb) is
to produce a document artifact by collecting and representing information. In
prototypical usage, a document is understood as a paper artifact, containing
information in the form of ink marks. Increasingly documents are also
understood as digital artifacts. Document is the practical construct for
describing matter in different forms which retain information for a reasonable
period of time wherein it can be perceived by a sentient observing entity. The
variety usage reveals that the notion of document has rich social and cultural
aspects besides the physical, functional and operational aspects.

Standard documents include:

Documents issued by registry office:
birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child.
marriage certificate is the official record that two people have undertaken a
marriage ceremony.
divorce certificate is a one page legal document that states that two people
whom were previously husband and wife are now legally divorced.
death certificate is a document issued by a government official such as a
registrar of vital statistics that declares the date, location and cause of a
person's death.
Documents of identity:
passport is a document, issued by a national government, which certifies, for
the purpose of international travel, the identity and nationality of its holder.
driving license is an official document which states that a person may
operate a motorized vehicle, such as a motorcycle, car, truck or a bus, on a
public roadway as long as they are not under the influence of alcohol or in
some countries, using a mobile phone.
student card is a photo identification card that identifies the holder as a fulltime student.
other documents of identity
Documents about education
diploma (without supplement) is a certificate or deed issued by an
educational institution, such as a university, that testifies that the recipient
has successfully completed a particular course of study, or confers an
academic degree.
school leaving certificate is the final examination in the secondary school
system.
Certificates:
certificate of employment
certificate of studies
bank certificates
certificate of salary
certificate of residence
marriage certificate
other certificates with the volume of no more than 1000 symbols
Other documents:
licenses;
registration certificates;
certificates with the volume of no more than 1000 symbols;
certificates of property rights

medical certificates without diagnosis indication

Non-standard documents are:
student's record book;
work record card;
power of attorney;
statement;
statement (certificate) about marital status
medical certificates with diagnosis indication
extracts from medical reports etc.
supplements to diplomas
2. Peculiarities of translation of standard documents
The lexicon of the standard documents consists of common words and great
many of the special terms, which cannot be found out in the ordinary
dictionary. One part of common words is known for the pupil from school or
other original course of the English language.
There are some peculiarities of translation of some standard documents.
Notwithstanding the seeming simplicity the translation of birth certificate or
marriage certificate is no such a simple task. Too many special terms (names
of institutions, positions), which cannot be found out in the ordinary
dictionary, are used in these documents. That's why only the translator with
wide experience of translation of such documents can translate them. The
big problem is that some standard documents must be apostilied or have
notary certification what can be done only if the translation is done by the
professional translator. For example, the peculiarity of notary certification of
passport translation consists in the fact that the notary doesn't certify a copy
of passport and only confirms the translation authenticity.
Other part of common words is unknown by the pupil and represents that
basic lexical reserve, which they should acquire in learning process. This part
of common words can conditionally be subdivided on some groups:
Words, which on the first stage of tutoring usually are not studied. E. g. to
regard - , .
Words used in meanings, distinct from what pupils have acquired in original
course.
Here it is necessary to refer a great many of auxiliary words, not studied
before, "on account of" - -, due to - .
Words and word-combinations providing logical connections
separate parts of the text and providing the logic of an account.

between

E. g. to begin with -
Furthermore -
Summing up -
Differences in British English and American English
company - corporation
programme - program