Professional Documents
Culture Documents
System
Author(s): David E. Bowen and Cheri Ostroff
Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Apr., 2004), pp. 203-221
Published by: Academy of Management
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20159029
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HRM-FIRMPERFORMANCE
UNDERSTANDING
LINKAGES:THE ROLE OF THE "STRENGTH"
OF THEHRMSYSTEM
DAVID E. BOWEN
The American
Thunderbird,
Graduate
School
of International
Management
CHERI OSTROFF
Teachers
Columbia
College,
University
on the intermediate
has
Theory
building
lagged
linkages
HRM and firm performance.
We
introduce
ship between
HRM system"
and describe
the metafeatures
of an HRM
climate,
organizational
uals
share
strength
accumulate
In recent
scholars
have
to examining
years
of attention
tween
to affect
HR practices
and
on research
evidence
Based
clear
that
ing increasingly
component
important
more
zation
become
competitive
a
However,
swered:
that can
How
a great
be
linkage
the
help
and
HRM
an
These
questions
the
effects
manifest
unan
call
for
theory
of more
development
. .
and
refinement
models
comprehensive
this
a high
given
Hochwarter,
of
type
priority
research
Harrell-Cook,
Buckley,
should
by HRM scholars
on
lationship,
perspectives.
approach.
a focus
We
One
have
1999:
thank
Blake
HRM
Ashforth,
State
re
performance
two
assumed
on a systems
based
often
has been
in this area
Research
on separate
has moved
practices
and
of Business,
College
then associate
editor
from
em
Arizona
for AMR,
considering
examined
the particular
"fit" between
various
HRM practices
and the organization's
competi
tive strategy
&
1994; Wright
(e.g., Miles & Snow,
in this view
is the notion
Snell,
1991). Embedded
that organizations
must
also horizontally
align
their various
toward their strate
HRM practices
be
the HRM-firm
scholars
by
A second approach
has been the strategic
per
on
which
has taken on different
HRM,
spective
in the literature
(Ferris et al., 1999). In
meanings
one strategic-based
researchers
have
approach,
394).
In research
& Sch?ler,
lackson,
on
trend in research
to
has been
linkage
formance.
(Ferris,
& Frink,
1996; Huselid,
is, the dominant
of
aggregation
HRM practices
(Ferris, Arthur, Berkson,
Kaplan,
& Frink,
Harrell-Cook,
1998), rather than by ex
the effects
of individual
HRM practices
amining
on firm performance
& Huselid,
(e.g., Delaney
& Doty,
1996; Delery
1996) or on individual
per
1998).
themselves?.
attributes
take
More specifically,
if there is indeed an impact of
HRM systems on firm performance,
how do these
effects occur? What are the mechanisms
through
these
rewarded.
the HRM-firm
performance
a systems
view
of HRM
or
the overall
configuration
organi
a
achieve
formance?
which
are expected
and
individual
employee
& Becker,
1997). That
to firm per
contribute
how
of the
"strength
in a strong
that result
system
in which
individ
situation,"
to a more macro
focus on
pioyee
performance
set of HRM practices
the overall
and firm perfor
mance
1992; Huselid,
1995; Huselid
(e.g., Arthur,
devoted
remains
question
does
organizational
larger
help explain
effectiveness.
firm performance.
to datef it is becom
is one
the HR system
effective
advantage
"strong
behaviors
of what
interpretation
can
of the HRM system
The
deal
to Mischel's
analogous
a common
responsible
the construct
that practices
must
gic goal and
complement
one another
to achieve
the firm's business
strat
& lackson,
& Snell,
1987a,b; Wright
& McWilliams,
McMahan,
1994).
logic is that a firm's HRM practices
must develop
and
skills, knowledge,
employees'
motivation
such that employees
in ways
behave
to the implementation
that are instrumental
of a
egy (Sch?ler
1991; Wright,
The guiding
203
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204
Academy
of Management
have
researchers
strategy.
particular
Similarly,
with
the as
taken a contingency
perspective,
that the effectiveness
of the HR system
sumption
on
contextual
features
such as indus
depends
or
firm
size,
try,
policies
(e.g.,
manufacturing
1995; Youndt,
MacDuffie,
Snell,
Dean,
& Lepak,
1996).
within
the strategic
related
per
approach
on
set
to
HRM
the overall
how
spective
pertains
is generally
with
of HRM practices
associated
A
and competitive
firm performance
advantage
et
Central
here is the resource
al., 1999).
(Ferris
based
1991) such that, col
perspective
(Barney,
a firm's human
are believed
resources
lectively,
to have
provide
in ways
to copy
ties of
process
vantage
tutable
for competitors
them difficult
that make
(Boxall,
1996). More
fully, the complexi
resource
creation
value
the human
ad
HRM a source of competitive
make
and nonsubsti
that is rare, inimitable,
et al.,
1991; Ferris
1999). The
(Barney,
recent work
prompted
to firm perfor
contribute
human
discretion
capital,
view
resource-based
on how HRM practices
mance
by leveraging
has
and behaviors
attitudes
effort, and desired
& Gerhart,
1996; Lado & Wilson,
(e.g., Becker
et al., 1994).
1994; Wright
on the
these two perspectives
Taken
together,
ary
HRM-firm
tems and
how HRM
sys
relationship?the
performance
stage
strategic
perspectives?help
on em
and their influence
practices
can lead to desired
outcomes
attributes
ployee
at the firm level, such as productivity,
financial
Yet
and competitive
advantage.
performance,
still
which
take
is the process
unanswered
through
this occurs.
both perspectives
Although
a macro
implicit,
they assume
approach,
left
multilevel
individual
relationships
employee
tional
performance
1994). The features
to facilitate
these
among
attributes,
(Huselid,
of HRM
linkages
HRM
practices,
and organiza
et al.,
1995; Wright
that are necessary
have
not been
well
addressed.
a
follows we develop
how
HRM
practices,
understanding
can contribute
to firm performance
In what
ing employees
behaviors
that,
the organization's
to adopt
desired
in the collective,
strategic
goals.
for
framework
as a system,
by motivat
attitudes
and
help achieve
We
first focus
Review
April
as an important mediating
on climate
variable
in the HRM-firm
The
relationship.
performance
not so much
in
HRM system
itself is discussed
set of HRM
terms of content
(e.g., the specific
an organiza
for achieving
necessary
practices
tional goal) but rather process
of an
(the features
to employees
HRM system
that send signals
that
and ap
allow
them to understand
the desired
sense
and form a collective
responses
propriate
is expected).
We describe
how a "strong
climate"
&
Subirats,
(Schneider,
2002)
Salvaggio,
can be viewed
as a "strong situation"
(Mischel,
share a common
1973, 1977), in which
employees
is important
of what
and what
interpretation
are expected
and rewarded. We
behaviors
then
of what
the concept
introduce
of
and
the
specify
system"
HRM system
overall
that
we
after which
climates,
versus
of strong
quences
that
arguing
of the HRM
"strength
of the
metafeatures
would
lead to strong
examine
the conse
weak
the emergence
climate
from
ganizational
mates
is moderated
HRM
systems,
or
intended
cli
psychological
of the
of the HRM
by the strength
We
close
with
directions
for
future re
system.
on this new strength
search
of the HRM system
conse
construct
its antecedents
and
and
Our
quences.
is framed within
discussion
the
that concerns
the simultaneous
mesoparadigm
study of organizational,
and specifies
processes
lated
and
individual
group,
how
levels are interre
mechanisms
Rousseau,
(House,
1995).
management
1995). For
service.
We
then build
em
influence
systems
as
as
and
well
attitudes
behavior,
organ
ployee
izational
outcomes,
through employee
interpre
tations
of the work
climate
(Ferris et al., 1998;
Brief, & Guzzo,
1990).
Kopelman,
as a mediator,
it is
climate
Before developing
to
note
delin
that
other
important
perspectives
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
2004 Bowen
as a
that can operate
eate different
variables
relation
in the HRM-firm
mediator
performance
the technical
per
subsystem
ship. For example,
on
and
task
task
focuses
requirements
spective
and
has
&
Kahn,
1978)
(Katz
accomplishment
HRM research
dominated
(Sch?ler &
historically
is
1995). The underlying
lackson,
assumption
knowl
to employee
lead
that HRM practices
and abilities
skills,
(KSAs) that, in turn,
edge,
at the collective
firm performance
influence
level
& lackson,
1995).
are perspectives
that
there
Additionally,
on
interactive
focus
socially
"higher-order"
(Sch?ler
Ferris
constructs?what
(1998) term social
his
and
colleagues
views
of the
context
theory
HRM and performance.
between
By
relationship
structures
that
social
order, we mean
higher
to an aggregation
cannot be reduced
of the per
the
individuals
of
composing
currently
ceptions
the organization.
we
Although
of higher-order
tional culture
ture. Culture,
on climate,
structures
two examples
are organiza
role struc
the organization
and
as
organization
conceptualized
focus
social
can
and values,
assumptions
ally embedded
to the HRM sys
function both as an antecedent
to firm
tem and as a mediator
of its linkage
as
(Denison,
1996). Organizational
performance
HRM practices,
and values
sumptions
shape
norms and rou
in turn, reinforce
cultural
which,
tines that can shape
and firm perfor
individual
mance.
the organi
Role theorists
conceptualize
zation as a system of formal roles, existing
apart
serve
to
which
from any one current occupant,
to employees
information
of
(Ashforth,
patterns
activity
expected
the HRM
2001; Katz & Kahn,
1978). In this view
can
seen
as
the
"maintenance
be
of
part
system
convey
about
standardized
subsystem"
roles, which,
firm
performance.
the techni
Our focus on climate
complements
structure
cal and higher-order
social
perspec
tives on the HRM-firm
relationship.
performance
in
of our interest
focus on climate
because
We
since
relationships,
individual-level
climates?as
both
multilevel
cal
and
psychologi
perceptions?
a shared
per
been positioned
between
HRM
et
(e.g., Kopelman
and
205
Ostroff
climate
our
veloping
HRM,
construct
is an appropriate
on the
based
framework,
on
climates
for de
recent
around
strategic
objec
emphasis
to enhance
tives
effective
that are purported
ness
2000).
(e.g., Schneider,
is an experiential
climate
Psychological
of what
"see" and re
based
perception
people
as
sense
of
they make
This
1990,
2000).
(Schneider,
is relative
to the goals
the organi
sensemaking
are
to perform
zation pursues;
how employees
the management
their daily activities;
practices
to them
port happening
their environment
which
the percep
work; and
employees
tions of the kinds of behaviors
that management
and
rewards
(Schneider,
expects,
supports,
is a
climate
Brief, & Guzzo,
1996). Organizational
under
is
of what
the organization
perception
in terms of practices,
policies,
procedures,
is important
and rewards?what
and
routines,
are expected
what
and
behaviors
rewarded
shared
like
(e.g., lames
Schneider,
among
units.
ceptions
izational
Climate
gic
focus
content
employees
global,
perceptions
criterion
Climate
exploring
HRM and
relates
climate,
organizational
ultimately
per
organ
to linking cli
issues
generic
to a shared,
strategic
specific,
of interest, such as a climate
for
innovation
shared
formal
1979;
a strate
researchers
have acquired
over
the years, with
the move
from
as
climate
shared
percep
perceptions
viewing
tions about
mate
& Jones,
2000)?and
which,
to organizational
is a critical
multilevel
in turn,
performance.
mediating
construct
in
between
relationships
Because
organizational
performance.
as
is
climate
defined
the perception
of
widely
formal and informal
these
organizational
poli
and procedures
&
cies,
(Reichers
practices,
that the HRM prac
Schneider,
1990), it follows
tices and HRM system will play a critical
role in
climate
determining
ical demonstrations
izational
climate?as
organizational
at
the
firm
level?have
ception
as mediators
of the relationship
haviors
and performance
practices
& Bowen,
1990; Ostroff
al.,
2000). Additionally,
our interest
on
in strategic
given
perspectives
ganizational
climate
In turn, empir
perceptions.
have
indicated
that organ
is related
to higher-level
be
and
organizational
customer
indicators,
including
tomer service quality,
financial
management
effectiveness,
outcomes
performance
cus
satisfaction,
or
performance,
and
(e.g.,
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
total
Borucki
quality
& Burke,
206
1999; Johnson,
Schneider
1993;
& Bowen,
1985).
are well
estab
the above
variables
the mechanisms
the literature,
by
are poorly
understood.
they interrelate
Although
in
lished
which
Review
of Management
Academy
April
can be designed
and ad
the HRM system
how
metafeatures
ministered
by defining
effectively
that can create strong
of an overall HRM system
about
in
of
form
shared
situations
the
meaning
to
lead
that might
the content
organ
ultimately
as Boxall
observed,
(1996) has
but
is
HRM
of
widespread,
practices
knowledge
them
to
refine
and
of
how
implement
knowledge
a particular
context
within
(e.g., a particular
to cli
focus) may not be. With
respect
strategic
performance.
a desired
content
of the HRM system,
still not elicit appropriate
the HRM system may
for
and attitudes
needed
behaviors
collective
inter
because
individuals
effectiveness,
may
that there is
(2000) has observed
or understanding
of how organi
Intuitive
climate
zational
develops.
actually
an
far ex
HRM-climate
of
linkage
acceptance
of
the
mechanisms
ceeds
theory development
pret
For
example,
Schneider
mate,
little
research
izational
Given
lead
the HRM practices
idiosyncratically,
in
climate
to
per
psychological
ing
variability
as
a
can
viewed
be
HRM
practices
ceptions.
mes
or
function
by sending
signaling
symbolic
use to make
sense of and
that employees
sages
of their
meaning
psychological
HRM
All
1995).
(e.g., Rousseau,
communicate
messages
constantly
practices
can be
and messages
and in unintended
ways,
em
two
understood
whereby
idiosyncratically,
to define
responsible.
tonomy).
the set of practices
driven
be largely
an HRM
system
process.
By
and
practices
and
particular
innovation
of the HRM
and,
adopted
by the
objec
or au
refers
system
ideally,
should
of
To be effective
HRM practices
ular
strategic
While
a number
such
as
service
or
innovation.
models
detailing
for different
practices
of different
HRM
appropriate
&
offered
been
have
(e.g., Dyer
strategies
&
Sch?ler
Miles
&
1994;
Snow,
Jack
1988;
Holder,
this contingency
about
rhetoric
son,
1987b),
it (cf.
data
outpaces
supporting
perspective
the
& Jack
1995; Sch?ler
1995; MacDuffie,
Huselid,
et al., 1996). It is likely that
son, 1987a; Youndt
set of
most
is not a single
there
appropriate
a
for
objective.
strategic
particular
practices
be
of practices
sets
different
Rather,
may
so
as
&
effective
1996),
long
Doty,
(Delery
equally
around
climate
a
of
allow
type
particular
they
for inno
some strategic
(e.g., climate
objective
to develop
(Klein & Sorra, 1996).
and process
content
HRM
that
propose
for pre
in
order
must
be integrated
effectively
to
HRM
of
models
actually
strategic
scriptive
we
to
refer
link to firm performance.
By process,
vation
We
or service)
differently
has
much
content
of
that can
HRM?that
to
and
strategic
goals
some
That is, given
the organization.
or qual
strategic
goal such as service, efficiency,
to
a
devised
be
should
set
of
HRM
practices
ity,
resources
in
this
goal.
meeting
help direct human
values
the
situation
work
1990), change
(Schneider,
1985), service
et al., 1996), or safety
(Zohar, 2000)?
(Schneider
to the social con
has been given
little attention
make
of their inter
that employees
structions
time
and
HRM across
with
actions
practices
Mills,
& Greller,
1984).
(Rousseau
focus
follows we
In what
send unambiguous
messages
result in a shared construction
the
situation.
Thus,
we
on how HRM
to employees
of the meaning
concentrate
on
can
that
of
under
can lead
of HRM process
features
what
standing
re
and
to
interpret
appropriately
employees
in
HRM
to
information
the
prac
conveyed
spond
that characteristics
the notion
tices. We develop
in order
of a strong HRM system must be present
to
climate
shared,
strong
organizational
from
the
level)
(at
emerge
psychologi
aggregate
cal climates
level) and propose
(at the individual
is a linking
of the HRM system
that the strength
that builds
mechanism
shared, collective
percep
for a
tions, attitudes,
and behaviors
among
employees.
dation
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is the foun
in social
2004 Bowen
and
"The main
marize,
was
that
of Lewin's
situationism
creates
forces
potent
behavior"
(1991: 9).
point
context
social
or constraining
producing
of Situation
Strength
as developed
in situationism,
situation,
entails
the psychological
of situations
meaning
and the behavior
of
for the individual
potential
situations
for the individual
&
(Endler
Magnus
or
is not in the physical
son, 1976). The interest
The
situation
actual
individuals
even
in the situation
behavior
1999).
Kazanjian,
In an attempt
to explain
istics of a situation
would
in behaviors,
relative
consistency
of
concept
control
the
to construe
the
and
pattern,
instill
situations
versely,
the degree
way,
the most
provide
of that
the skills
adequate
Con
are
conditions
the behavior
or
fail
for successful
(Mischel,
to
weak
concerning
incen
sufficient
to provide
construction
the
of
1973: 276).
havior
Mischel
Strong
Climates
Only
people
when
does
are
Additionally,
content?for
likely
relative
it is those
goals
to those
will
goals,
be achieved.
the more
are
the features
employees.
individual
dif
individual
be
shared
climate
its roots
in McGuire's
(1972) two-step
of the mes
"reception"?encoding
to the message,
to its
attention
sage
(exposure
of the content)?and
content,
comprehension
of the message
"yielding"?acceptance
(agree
process
across
become
can be viewed
as communica
HRM practices
tions from the employer
to employee
(Guzzo &
Por
Noonan,
1994; Rousseau,
1995; Tsui, Pearce,
on
&
The
literature
ter,
1997).
message
Tripoli,
based
& Eagley,
(Chaiken, Wood,
persuasion
1996) has
(1997).
perceptions
organizational
cies,
velop shared
are expected
when
in which
mes
situations
strong
unambiguous
are
to
about
communicated
sages
employees
is appropriate
what
behavior.
These
character
a
istics refer to the process
which
consistent
by
can be sent
about
HRM content
to
message
encoded,
In sum, situational
deals
with
the
strength
a situation
extent
to which
induces
conform
as
situation?or
is interpreted
strong
ity?a
situation
weak
(Mischel & Peake,
ambiguous?a
is in specifying
situational
1982). The interest
contingencies
will
ferences
a
employees
develop
of the organization's
interpretation
poli
and goals
and de
practices,
procedures,
situation
cial
for its
execution.
treatments
not generate
uniform
the desired
do
behavior,
tives
for its performance,
strong
shared
(Jackofsky &
et al., 2002).
can acf as a
social
fied. Using
and so
cognitive
psychology
a set of char
influence
theories, we propose
acteristics
that allow
HRM systems
to create
response
necessary
and
and
do
learning
same
the
regarding
construction
satisfactory
are
"treatments"
events
expectancies
response
pattern,
for the performance
appropriate
incentives
the
to
developed
situations
particular
uniform
in perceptions
about
the situation
1988; Payne,
2000; Schneider
Slocum,
climate
As such, an organizational
to
lead
likely
of
and
construct
the
(James, 1982). Recently,
meaningful
to
notion of strong or weak
climates
has begun
a
on
in
the
focus
the
with
literature,
emerge
extent
to which
the situa
interpret
employees
variance
tion similarly,
low
thereby producing
and
&
207
the character
Mischel
to the degree
powerful
induce
when
most
"situations"
Psychological
and
(Drazin, Glynn,
power
behavior:
individual
perceptions,
enactments,
schemata,
maps,
cognitive
the situation
Ostroff
of
the message
it in memory).
and storing
ing with
to have
For a message
its desired
effect, both
are necessary.
and yielding
Yet mak
reception
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
208
Academy
nu
often entails
the environment
to information,
inter
of attending
on it, and receiving
information,
acting
of
ing sense
merous
cycles
preting
feedback
particularly
or subject
Attribution
has
been
in helping
in help
for mes
allow
persuasion
message-based
that will
ing identify key features
to be received
and interpreted
sages
uniformly
1991). In the
(Fiske & Taylor,
among
employees
are required
to infer
HRM context,
employees
explain
causal
gather
people
communicate
and
from others
tions to others
(Fiske & Taylor,
explanations
their explana
1991).
in a social con
of
the cause
individual
attributes
whether
or
to
external
internal
behavior
another
person's
factors, Kelley's
(1967) attribution
theory details
not only to
for making
attributions
the process
factors as well.
but to situational
other people
to Kelley's
model,
(1967) covariation
According
can make
an individual
attributions
confident
in situations
cause-effect
about
relationships
on
of
distinctiveness
the
(the
degree
depending
is highly
event-effect
observable),
consistency
itself the same across
(the event-effect
presents
consensus
(there is
of the
views
agreement
Mischel's
event-effect
Indeed,
relationship).
im
of a strong situation
(1973, 1977) explication
one
is
distinctive
it
in
is
which
there
that
plies
time),
ness,
consistency,
and
individuals'
among
and
strong
types of information
situation.
needed
to create
Distinctiveness
Distinctiveness
fers to features
consensus.
re
the situation
generally
it to stand out in the
that allow
attention
and
capturing
thereby
of
environment,
interest. We
arousing
istics of HRM that can
ity,
an
and
the
ibility,
modalities
ing
useful
and
and
April
climate
idiosyncratic
perceptions.
psychological
can be concep
The strength
of the HRM system
in convey
in terms of its effectiveness
tualized
Review
of Management
and
understandability,
elucidate
four character
vis
foster distinctiveness:
of author
legitimacy
relevance.
re
of the HRM practices
Visibility
Visibility.
to which
fers to the degree
these
practices
are salient
is a
This
and
observable.
readily
for
basic
prerequisite
interpretation
involving
an HRM practice
its component
and
whether
are disclosed
to employees,
affording
parts
for sensemaking.
them the opportunity
or salience
has
identified
long been
in
characteristic
portant
determining
to information
attend
whether
people
Visibility
as an im
not
but
only
how
it (e.g., Tajfel,
1968)
they cognitively
organize
and make
cause-effect
attributions
(Taylor &
criteria
if performance
Fiske,
1978). For example,
or if pay administration
are not transparent
out
are withheld,
comes
such as with pay secrecy,
not create Mischel's
will
this certainly
(1973)
in which
has shared
everyone
strong situation,
ex
of the situation
and uniform
constructions
the most
appropriate
regarding
pectancies
are
incentives
and what
response
pattern
available.
situa
The creation
of a strong organizational
be
characteristics
tion requires
that situational
of employ
much
and visible
salient
throughout
When
the
ees' daily work routines and activities.
a wide
of HRM
HRM system
includes
spectrum
is per
the HRM system
that when
propose
as high
in distinctiveness,
ceived
consistency,
it will create a strong situation.
and consensus,
on message-based
literature
persuasion
Using
di
selection,
training,
example,
practices?for
assistance
pro
programs,
versity
employee
affect a large number
and so forth?that
grams,
to be higher.
is likely
of employees,
visibility
we
nine
elucidate
influence,
that build distinc
of HRM systems
metafeatures
and consensus,
tiveness,
thereby
consistency,
a strong
in which
situation
influence
creating
of the situation.
share constructions
employees
We
and
social
As
the emergence
as opposed
to
lience
(Fiske
shared
meanings
& Taylor,
cannot
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1991). Additionally,
unless
be developed
2004 Bowen
or all employees
are subjected
same
the
perceive
practices.
most
to and
can
derstood
can
of the stimulus
nitive
have
categories
no authority
(Barnard,
or situation
evoke
(e.g.,
sch?mas,
scripts,
1938).
cog
cogni
tive maps),
to some
attention
features
drawing
dif
and away
from others. Sometimes
profound
across people
exist in category
ferences
systems
that the situational
1955). To the extent
(Kelley,
or unclear,
cat
is ambiguous
stimulus
multiple
are
That
is,
1981).
(Feldman,
egorizations
likely
are
use
to
different
different
cog
likely
people
to attend
to different
of
categories
aspects
in
different
attribu
information,
resulting
to
must
tions. For example,
be able
employees
how the practice
works.
understand
HRM prac
tices such as benefit
plans,
gain-sharing
plans,
nitive
the
and succession
plans are easily misunderstood
or at least open to multiple
interpretations.
of authority.
Legitimacy
Legitimate
authority
of the HRM system and its agents
leads individ
ex
to consider
to performance
uals
submitting
as formally
pectations
fluence by legitimate
sanctioned
authority
is, one
In
behaviors.
a
is essentially
sees the behav
role as subordi
perceptual
process?that
ioral requirements
of one's
own
nate
out as
to another
authority
concept
that stands
& Hamilton,
(Kelman
of authority
whereby
to submit
to the necessities
the legitimate
1989). It is the
are
individuals
of coopera
willing
tive systems
(Barnard,
1938).
is most
The HRM system
likely to be perceived
as an authority
situation when
the HRM function
is perceived
function and
HRM
as
a high-status,
high-credibility
This is most
activity.
likely when
has
and visible
top manage
significant
in the firm and can be achieved
support
or the HRM
in HR practices
investments
through
or perhaps
of
the
director
function,
by placing
HRM in a high-level
This
position.
managerial
ment
fits
the observation
about
the requirements
for
the success
of HRM systems
generally;
namely,
success
on top management
depends
largely
about
beliefs
support,
top managers'
including
the importance
of people,
in human
investment
and involvement
of HRM profession
resources,
in the strategic
als
(Ostroff,
process
planning
1995).
In such
a way,
the signal
Ostroff
209
is
management
that
HRM
is
or
"legitimate"
"credible."
of HRM
Understandability
Understandability.
a
content
lack of ambiguity
and ease of
refers to
of HRM practice
content. An or
comprehension
cannot be un
communication
that
ganizational
Features
and
sent
from
top
This
source
to message
in
since
of the
the characteristics
are linked to attributions
made
of persuasion
(Fiske & Taylor,
is related
notion
social
cognition,
source
message
and the outcomes
et al.,
1991). Communicator
(Chaiken
credibility
in attribution,
1996) is a critical
per
component
and
influence
the
suasion,
However,
attempts.
elaboration
likelihood
model
of persuasion
that persua
1986) indicates
(Petty & Cacioppo,
are not simply
sion and influence
of
functions
features
but,
of
rather,
credibility
the outcomes
the
communicator
and
credibility
of
functions
communicator's
the
joint
and
in
the recipients'
involvement
obedience
(Hass, 1981). Relatedly,
a
more
to legitimate
is
function
than
of
authority
to a position
the individual's
subordination
of
an
it
involves
also
individual's
"higher office";
at
of the relevance
of influence
interpretation
to them (Kelman & Hamilton,
1989).
tempts
re
of the HRM system
Relevance
Relevance.
fers to whether
is defined
in such a
the situation
sees
as rele
that individuals
the situation
way
to an important
(Kelman & Hamilton,
goal
au
with
1989). Relevance,
coupled
legitimate
means
on
a
is
that
influence
based
both
thority,
vant
of superordinate
and what
perception
authority
term
Kelman
and Hamilton
motivational
(1989)
For the latter,
must
individuals
significance.
as
situation
to
the
relevant
their
perceive
impor
tant goals,
are clear
that the desired
behaviors
and
suited
for goal attainment,
and
have
the personal
agents
influencing
to affect
the achievement
of these goals
power
(Kelman & Hamilton,
1989).
consideration
of both
individual
Here,
goals
optimally
that
and
organizational
goals?in
our
case,
the
stra
desired
tegic goal
tent?is
important
should
be fostered
organization.
individuals'
and managers'
has been
goals
to have
shown
for both
consequences
important
as well
as
individual
attitudes
and behaviors,
for effective
(Vancou
organizational
functioning
ver & Schmitt,
must be
1991). Thus, the situation
in such a way
are will
defined
that individuals
ing to work
them to meet
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
210
ues
of Management
Academy
then service-based
bonuses
gain,
will heighten
relevance
and allow
both the in
to
achieve
their
dividual
and
organization
financial
mance
behaviors
desired
to their perfor
obstacles
the relevant
goals. Relatedly,
must be specified
and
Additionally,
power
individuals
help
of
perceived
is a
function
of
the
to
the influencing
agent(s)
relevant
achieve
goals
on
is based
1989). Influence
agent
on position
power
of
Perceived
power
authority.
on
two
factors.
agent(s)
depends
can affect some of the
the agent
of
for the achievement
essary
based
and
legitimate
the
influencing
is whether
One
nec
conditions
relevant
goals
of unique
for example,
the application
re
or the allocation
of necessary
expertise
sources.
that bear
of the agent
Characteristics
on this issue include his or her prestige,
special
or expertise,
representativeness,
knowledge
through,
and ability
control of resources,
tions. A second
is the perceived
use his
the agent will actually
sanc
to apply
that
likelihood
or her relevant
the likeli
in ways
affect
that will
capabilities
hood of goal achievement.
the relation
and Fiske
(1991) explain
Taylor
or
the
relevance
and
between
credibility
ship
of
legitimacy
the
message
source.
If outcomes
attainment)
(rewards,
goal
punishments,
as well
as the
actions
else's
pend on someone
a
creates
then
this
condi
individual's
actions,
in
tion of outcome
turn, af
which,
dependency,
When
and attributions.
fects perceptions
people
are more outcome
when
dependent,
particularly
more
ac
are
outcomes
direct
the
relevant,
they
or source of commu
to the person
tive attention
are
same
outcomes
nication.
At the
time, when
of the message
relevant,
credibility
particularly
source has less of an influence.
Thus, it appears
can enhance
alone
relevance
distinctiveness;
when
relevance
gitimacy
plays
is not strongly
a greater
role.
established,
Consistency
understand
of visibility,
features
and
relevance
of
authority,
legitimacy
ability,
commu
to
and
the
attention
draw
message
help
The
above
le
the probability
and
encoded
increasing
will
be
that
inter
However,
among
employees.
is not
alone
sufficient
likely
to view
uni
for people
the situation
to the message
sent by
and to respond
preted
uniformly
distinctiveness
formly
to make
For employees
the set of HRM practices.
are
accurate
behaviors
attributions
about what
and
expected
of causation
attributional
rewarded,
must
be
present.
attribution
principles
Fundamental
for causal
include priority,
principles
causes
and contiguity
effects,
whereby
precede
causes
occur close
with
in
the effect, whereby
time to an effect
&
or,
(Kassin
1985).
Pry
as alluded
to above,
the literature
Similarly,
on authority
indicates
that indi
and
influence
who
viduals
are
to be influenced
in the situation
must
perceive
be
whereby
lead to rewards.
haviors
That is, the distinctive
ness characteristics
ensure
that the HRM system
as significant
in defining
is viewed,
the
overall,
a consis
context
social
for employee
behavior;
instrumentalities
across
tent pattern
of instrumentalities
HRM
that link specific
time, and employees
practices,
events
and effects
the likeli
further enhances
that desired
hood
played.
These
notions
specific
are
of consistency.
concept
to establishing
refers
modalities
whereby
is present,
the entity
the
de
April
nicator,
thereby
the HRM message
enough
removed.
relevance
Review
interactions.
Thus,
behaviors
related
people,
and consistent
be dis
to Kelley's
(1967)
Consistency
generally
over
an effect
time and
time
the effect occurs
each
of
form
of
the
regardless
we
focus
consistent
and contexts:
establish
will
on
relationships
instrumentality,
HRM messages.
features
over
that
time,
validity,
to es
refers
Instrumentality.
Instrumentality
an
cause
unambiguous
perceived
tablishing
to the HRM sys
in reference
effect
relationship
tem's
desired
content-focused
associated
that
with
tern.
behaviors
and
It ensures
consequences.
employee
are adequate
incentives
associated
of the desired
behavioral
pat
performance
there
with
combined
instrumentalities,
Strong
lever
"relevance"
of social
the earlier
influence,
an expectancy
within
influence
age
theory of
motivation
1964).
perspective
(e.g., Vroom,
a central
role in instrumen
Perception
plays
an
it
how
because
employees
emphasizes
tality
Instru
of behavior.
ticipate
likely consequences
are shaped
reinforcement
mentalities
largely by
and are established
consistency
by consistency
over
and
time, particularly
through
repetition
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2004 Bowen
of reinforcement
application
principles.
Employ
ees are more
to perceive
the instrumen
likely
are closely
behavior
and outcomes
tality when
linked in time (evoking
causation
the contiguity
are
attribution
and
when
admin
principle)
they
over
some
istered
time
schedule
consistently
(evoking
ciple).
managers
outcomes
To
the priority
the extent
causation
attribution
prin
that HRM staff and
line
have
to link
the resources
and power
to behavior
or performance
on a
and consistent
schedule,
timely
they will
to influence
able
attributions.
cause-effect
be
of HRM practices
is impor
Validity.
Validity
tant because
to de
message
recipients
attempt
termine
the validity
of a message
in making
attributions
(Fiske & Taylor,
1991). Thus, HRM
must
between
practices
display
consistency
to do and what
what
they purport
they actually
a strong
to help
do in order
for them
create
situation.
Selection
on
screen
tests,
desired
for example,
must
abilities,
validly
employee
a
to
substantive
contribution
thereby making
one
as
human
that
Recall
capital
development.
is that employees
have
pect of a strong situation
to execute
the skills necessary
the behaviors
of them. Barnard
(1938) long ago ob
expected
served
view a communi
that employees
would
as authoritative
cation
if
able
only
they were
and
to comply with
it.
physically
a
also makes
contribution
Validity
symbolic
to employees
what
KSAs are val
by signaling
ued in a setting and by adding more employees
mentally
with
to the workforce.
Further,
is implemented
and advertised
to have
certain
and
not do
then does
effects,
it was
what
to do, the message
intended
sent to
is contradictory,
are
and employees
employees
left to develop
their own idiosyncratic
interpre
when
specified
a practice
skills
tations.
Consistent
HRM messages.
These
convey
and stability
in the signals
sent by
compatibility
the HRM practices.
Considerable
evidence
indi
cates
that individuals
desire
in or
consistency
life (e.g., Kelley,
1973; Lidz,
1973;
ganizational
in "double
Siehl,
1985). The lack of consistency
can lead to particularly
bind"
communication
intense
dissonance
(Siehl,
1985).
cognitive
occurs when
a per
Double-bind
communication
son is faced with
in
communication
significant
two separate
(Bateson,
Jack
messages
volving
& Weakland,
son, Haley,
1956). The messages
are related
to each other and deal with
the same
content area, but they are incongruent
or contra
and
Ostroff
211
can be
of inconsistency
Consequences
(Lidz, 1973).
are required,
Three types of consistency
each
of which
to avoid
entails
the need
sending
dictory.
severe
double-bind
to employees
communications
and
to allow
for HRM content
to be perceived
consis
is between
what
senior managers
tently. One
are
the
and
say
organization's
goals and values
what
and
employees
are
values
conclude
those goals
actually
on their perceptions
based
of
a
here
is
differ
Inconsistency
HRM practices.
ence between
what
has been
values
and
inferred
values
1983). For example,
managers
value
of
risk
termed
(Martin
may
espoused
& Siehl,
espouse
but
infer
may
employees
that performance
and
reward
system
appraisal
reinforce
it safe.
practices
playing
A second
for avoiding
double
requirement
bind
is internal
communication
consistency
the HRM practices
themselves.
In recent
among
on
much
written
has
been
the
years,
importance
taking,
the appropriate
behaviors
for achiev
employee
(Arthur, 1992; Ulrich &
ing strategic
objectives
et al., 1994). For example,
if
Lake,
1991; Wright
to work
the ability
in teams is a screening
focus
in selection,
then internal
will
be
consistency
if group,
ensured
rather than individual,
perfor
mance
is the basis
for rewards.
if
Furthermore,
each employee
encounter
with an HRM practice
in
(e.g., hiring decision,
performance
appraisal
as a separate
is conceptualized
situa
terview)
Mischel
tion, then,
(1968), the func
following
tional similarity
of these situational
stimuli will
influence
the generalizability
of team-oriented
across
behavior
situations.
on-the-job
A third dimension
of consistency
is stability
over time. HRM practices
are situational
stimuli,
the meaning
of which
is acquired
across
time.
one
a
how
to
situation
de
Certainly,
responds
on one's
the stimulus
prior history with
and behavioral
1968). Behaviors
(e.g., Mischel,
remain
stable when
the evoking
consequences
conditions
remain
stable.
In organizations
where
in place a long time,
have been
practices
pends
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212
of Management
Academy
Review
April
there is stronger
among
agreement
employees
as to what
is expected
of them and what
they
in return (Rousseau
&
of the organization
expect
Wade-Benzoni,
1994).
Consensus
foster the
and top managers
managers,
for
the
formulation
tacit
of
knowledge
exchange
strat
of an organizational
and implementation
the firm's stra
that reflect
egy and HRM system
sionals,
results
Consensus
among
fluence
when
employees?the
the HRM
system?in
More
relationship.
by
event-effect
is agreement
of in
targets
there
intended
lead
and responses
tions about what behaviors
are more
to be
to what
consequences
likely
is consensus
made
when
there
1972).
(Kelley,
consensus
can
foster
factors
Several
help
whether
influence
and can
among
employees
re
same
with
effect
the
individuals
perceive
or
in
situation
to
the
question.
entity
spect
these are agreement
message
among
Among
can foster consensus
which
(Fiske &
senders,
HRM
of
the
the
fairness
and
1991),
sys
Taylor,
consensus
can also
inas
influence
tem, which
much
as
fairness
involves
whether
employees
rules by which
they
they feel they deserve
the distribution
understand
or
do
not, receive what
do,
their
contributions.
for
to point out
is
It
also
important
are
consensus
distinct
tency and
that
consis
but
interre
when
individuals
For example,
concepts.
consis
the organization
experience
throughout
consensus
is more
likely
tency in HRM practices,
to be fostered. At the same
time, when message
lated
cannot
senders
intended
agree
message,
themselves
among
is likely
consistency
on
the
to be
hampered.
in
1994). These
(Lado & Wilson,
can help
makers
decision
among
relevance
impor
identifying
promote
by clearly
as
to goal
tant goals
and means
attainment,
as enhance
the
of
of
well
authority
legitimacy
tegic
direction
tegrations
and
HR managers
HRM policies.
line managers
of the top
to the extent
that members
Second,
team disagree
themselves
among
management
with
the goals
of HRM and/or
about
disagree
or managers,
and to the ex
HRM professionals
dis
and staff members
tent that HRM managers
agree
send
themselves,
and
unambiguous
among
to produce
poor consistency
different
thus,
employees
practices;
ence different
event-consequence
Overall,
makers
then, agreement
among
can help
foster
greater
since
it allows
employees,
viewed
the message,
a
because
send
similar
can
distinctiveness
larger number
communications
of
be
enhanced
can
individuals
(increasing
visi
consistent
in delivering
will experi
relationships.
top decision
consensus
for more
vis
among
to
be
and consistent
ible, relevant,
messages
to employees.
conveyed
is a
of the HRM system
Fairness
Fairness.
of whether
of employees'
perceptions
composite
in the organization
makers
(e.g., top
pal decision
set
the
HR
executives)
strategic
managers,
goals
for achiev
the set of HRM practices
and design
view mes
individuals
ing those goals. When
as
them
senders
among
sage
agreeing
strongly
are
more
on the message,
selves
likely to
they
1991). This
(Fiske & Taylor,
can
in
be
facilitated
of
agreement
perception
to
is
distinctiveness
related
and
several
ways
and consistency.
makers
decision
First, when multiple
agree on
to
difficult
likely
adhere
HRM practices
three dimensions
ering
consensus
it becomes
internally
of
to employees.
Low consistency
messages
are
consensus
and lack of
related
HRM practices
is
decision
in that disagreement
makers
among
HRM decision
among
principal
Agreement
send
these message
makers.
among
Agreement
consensus
ers helps promote
among
employees.
a strategic
the princi
HRM perspective,
Within
form a
the
enacting
to the principles
of deliv
of justice: distributive,
interactional
(e.g., Bowen, Gilli
and
procedural,
1998).
1999; Folger & Cropanzano,
land, & Folger,
fairness
that the perceived
indicates
Research
is
HRM activity
how positively
of HRM affects
influence
searchers
to
of the HRM system
the capability
Re
behaviors.
and
attitudes
employee
that there is a positive
have argued
and
between
perceptions
relationship
ness and what has been
termed
of HRM
fair
the acceptabil
&
criterion
of
HRM
Milkovich,
(Bretz,
practices
ity
re
& Bowen,
1998), which
Read,
1992; Waldman
to which
contribute
fers to the extent
employees
to and
utilize
and
appraisals
their behavior).
HRM
use
(e.g., complete
from
feedback
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
360 degree
it to shape
and
2004 Bowen
among
perceptions
employees'
will be influenced
relationships
Agreement
event-effect
whether
what
employees
distribution
tive justice?apply
such as rewards
"equality"
outcome;
have
similar
of
by
of
perceptions
of distribu
rules?principles
in what
situations.
Outcomes
on an
can be distributed
based
in which
the same
all receive
rule,
an "equity"
rule,
receive
different
in which
subsets
of
on
amounts
based
employees
such as in a merit pay sys
relevant
differences,
need" rule, such as flexi
tem; or an "individual
in unique
for a single mother
hours
ble working
(Bowen et al., 1999).
that lead to employee
practices
Management
of
and interactional
jus
procedural
perceptions
of these distribu
tice increase
the transparency
tion rules (Bowen et al., 1999) and, by so doing,
that the HRM system will
increase
the likelihood
event
about
be characterized
by consensus
can be
Procedural
effect
justice
relationships.
circumstances
enhanced
mining
are
sions
ees
by giving
the methods
made?for
in designing
employees
by which
example,
behavior
a voice
in deter
outcome
deci
involving
employ
or outcome-based
Interactional
justice in
appraisals.
performance
ex
and
volves
managers'
respectfully
openly
reasons
to
the
deci
behind
employees
plaining
It can
sions and
of outcomes.
the distribution
formula
distribution
what
include
clarifying
was
increase
in making
individual
used
pay
not all employees
in situations
decisions
where
the same pay increase.
received
213
Ostroff
leads every
such that the situation
viewpoints
one to "see" the situation
induces uni
similarly,
form expectancies
about
responses,
provides
incen
rewards
and
clear
about
expectations
tives for the desired
and behaviors,
responses
and conformity
and induces
through
compliance
we propose
that a
influence.
social
Therefore,
can enhance
organ
strong HRM system process
to shared mean
izational
owing
performance
of collective
that
responses
ings in promotion
are consistent
with
strategic
organizational
of those
the appropriateness
(assuming
an
HRM
More
system high in
goals).
specifically,
consensus
and
distinctiveness,
consistency,
in the
of
should
enhance
interpretation
clarity
goals
for similar
"cognitive
thereby allowing
or
to
"causal maps"
among peo
develop
maps"
situation"
ple, as well as to create an "influence
to
the message
and
individuals
yield
whereby
setting,
of behaving.
the appropriate
ways
interactions
and communica
Further, while
are
to result
in
tion among
likely
employees
& Slocum,
collective
sensemaking
(Jackofsky
of the strength
of the HRM sys
1988), regardless
that in cases where
the strength
tem, we argue
understand
is strong,
the sensemaking
system
to
most
in the in
be
result
process
likely
If the HRM sys
tended organizational
climate.
tem is weak,
HRM practices
will send messages
to individual
that are ambiguous
and subject
one of two
Given
interpretation.
ambiguity,
of
the HRM
will
things
may
happen:
variability
or unintended
sensemaking.
of indi
First, with a weak
system,
variability
vidual
be
(Mischel,
1973).
responses
may
large
Considerable
variance
across
individuals'
per
HRM practices
influence
percep
employee
at the individual
level. Further,
tions of climate
are
of strong HRM systems
the characteristics
more
to
and
shared
promote
perceptions
likely
of a strong organiza
give rise to the emergence
climates
will
of psychological
exist,
ceptions
in the form of organiza
and shared perceptions
can
Individuals
tional climate will not emerge.
own
construct
version
of
their
(House et
reality
or
own
their
version
of what messages
al., 1995)
That is,
about
the HRM content.
tional climate
we propose
of the HRM system
that the strength
cli
of organizational
will
foster the emergence
are being
communicated
and
by HRM practices
use
their own behavior.
in
this to guide
Thus,
consis
weak
situations
(low distinctiveness,
at the individ
constructs
tency, and consensus),
ual but not the organizational
level are likely to
mate
from psychological
(collective
perceptions)
climates
(individual-level
perceptions).
em
In a strong
situation,
among
variability
situ
of
of
the
the
perceptions
meaning
ployees'
ation will be small and will
reflect a common
content.
In turn, organizational
climate
a
em
association
with
significant
display
occurs
be
attitudes
and
behaviors.
This
ployee
cause
a strong HRM system
can foster similar
desired
will
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
214
Academy
of Management
low consistency
and consen
high, coupled with
sus. Distinctiveness
That is,
drives up attention.
are salient
or visible,
and em
HRM practices
are aware
of them. However,
if the mes
ployees
are
now
to are
that
sages
attending
employees
or conflicting,
as different
inconsistent
individ
are
to
with
different
uals
experiences
subjected
the HRM practices,
disillusionment,
confusion,
or other negative
reactions
will
In
likely result.
not only will
shared
such a case,
perceptions
and climate
the practices
to
but many
emerge,
unlikely
attitudes.
have negative
about
particularly
be
may
employees
in weak
the ambiguity
inherent
Alternatively,
cause
in
to
situations
engage
may
employees
et
collective
al.,
1995).
(House
sensemaking
or attri
situation
When
faced with an equivocal
butional
to reduce
uncertainty,
this uncertainty
individuals
may
attempt
in a so
by engaging
with
and consulting
of interacting
process
inter
to develop
another
their own shared
1999; Fiske & Taylor,
(Drazin et al.,
pretations
is that the
here
1991; Weick,
1995). The danger
draw
that employees
collective
interpretation
is not the one in
situation
from the ambiguous
cial
one
climate
is
and understandable,
visible,
ambiguity
are
more
to
to
refer
and
employees
likely
high,
one another
to define
the situation
in an attempt
that Jow
in their own way.
Thus, we propose
lient,
organizational
a weak
situation
contributes
that may
climates.
to
re
Fur
to
is unlikely
it
because
effectiveness
in which
individ
either
or collective
sensemak
ual processes
dominate
that may be
in shared
interpretations
ing results
inconsistent
with organizational
strategic
goals.
to note
of
that this process
It is important
of climate
of similar
emergence
perceptions
the HRM
While
in a vacuum.
not occur
does
of this system
form the
and the strength
system
similar
basis
of whether
fundamental
percep
that
have argued
tions will be derived,
scholars
Review
April
are
event
interactions
termed
sequent
cycles.
can be
The structure
of any collective
group
as a series of ongoing
viewed
events,
activities,
and event cycles
These
the individuals.
among
and interactions
indi
among
interdependencies
over time can result in jointly produced
viduals
and it is this structure
that forms the
responses,
for the eventual
of collective
basis
emergence
constructs?one
that can transcend
individuals,
individual
and
behaviors,
individual
percep
tions.
This
to the emergence
is similar
process
of
"causal
cognitive
overlapping
maps"
through
1995; Wicker,
1992). Indi
processing
(e.g., Weick,
are cogni
which
viduals
causal maps,
develop
tive representations
in the situa
of the entities
certain
of those
and
entities,
qualities
them. Overlapping
among
perceived
linkages
can be facilitated
causal
social
maps
through
and
transactions
among
exchange
employees.
can coIJecfively
In such a way, employees
agree
tion,
on the appropriate
to
of the environment
aspects
as how to interpret
these as
to, as well
to them appropriately.
pects and how to respond
that a strong HRM system
fa
Thus, we propose
attend
cilitates
event
needed
interactions,
such
cycles
to develop
interdependencies,
that
fewer
shared
event
cycles
interpretations.
and
are
in the
of analysis
different
That
is,
1990).
(Schneider,
or groups
areas,
may
departments,
at different
levels
subclimates
different
2000).
(e.g., Payne,
develop
to
used
has been
cluster
Likewise,
analysis
within
climates
collective
different
demonstrate
an organization?climates
clus
that represent
who perceive
the organization
ters of employees
units
and span
formal organizational
similarly
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
and
2004 Bowen
Ostroff
215
the specific
that make up different
sys
practices
to delineate
is needed
tems). That is, research
the attributes
of
how these processes
influence
as perceived
the work situation
by employees.
Little is known
the important
about
parame
ters underlying
situations
organizational
(e.g.,
that if the
propose
is
process
system
strong, a shared
in organ
of the climate will emerge
perception
some
differences
izational
albeit with
subunits,
or strategic
in content
In
focus across
groups.
of employees.
of the HRM
groups
We
for many
firms this may be strategically
deed,
in diversified
desirable?for
firms,
example,
firms with
international
locations,
multiple
firms, or firms pursuing
strategic
multiple
objec
It is
parts of the organization.
some
in
the
for
that,
groups
organi
likely
will
whereas
climate
zation, a shared
emerge,
in the
it will not, owing
to differences
for others
across
HRM process
different
groups.
tives
in different
also
concern
Another
is
the
that
possibility
and resistant
be inflexible
strong climate might
to change,
compromising
organization
thereby
on strong
cul
al effectiveness.
The
literature
tures offers a resolution
of this issue. A culture
whose
content
comprises
values
and
beliefs
and
changes
in actual
behavior
over
time.
on the properties
is needed
as distinct
from research
of practices
(e.g., reliability)
of HRM practices
and
systems
of
on
a strong
situation
that the via
It is critical
of the organization
bility of these metafeatures
as
be tested
elements
that create
important
ries, that should
help
and shared meaning.
create
a
Frederiksen
(1972) proposes
strong situations.
means
to
of different
for attempting
number
taxonomies
of situations.
and develop
classify
to attempt
to group
In this case,
it may be useful
or cluster
on the basis
situations
of their ten
dency
to elicit
similar
behaviors.
a three-dimensional
data
require
the dimensions
This
would
matrix,
with
behavior,
person,
representing
situational
attributes
(Frederiksen,
1972).
one could derive clusters
With
such a procedure,
or behaviors
cor
of responses
that differentially
and
a compensatory
be
model
may
a
one
in
of
feature
that
level
appropriate
high
will make
feature.
up for a low level of another
one
test
could
and
the
of
Thus,
compare
viability
an additive
sum
across
model
the
all
fea
(i.e.,
model
tures), a configurai
(i.e., different
profiles
or contingency
of features),
and a multiplicative
is
less
likely,
model
the features).
(i.e., interactions
among
is
to
it
determine
the rela
Further,
important
tive impact
of and
between
interrelationships
HRM system
and other determinants
of
strength
or
as
situations
climates.
Factors
such
strong
social
and structural
leadership,
relationships,
can also affect
features
the strength
of
design
and
(e.g.,
supervisors
the
the
can
serve
as
interpretive
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
filters
of
216
of Management
Academy
in
when
they are visible
or
promote
implementing
practices
high-quality
with
exchanges
employees,
they can introduce
a common
unit members
among
interpretation
HRM
practices,
and
1989; Naumann
& Doherty,
(Kozlowski
& Bennett,
2000).
a
with
Thus, a strong HRM system
coupled
relation
foster
visible
may
stronger
supervisor
and performance
HRM, climate,
among
ships
while
than each would
individually.
Similarly,
our primary
to elucidate
the charac
intent was
teristics
of an HRM process
allow
for
that would
to emerge,
of climate
perceptions
to determine
is needed
research
shared
addi
the ex
tional
tent to which
these HRM system
characteristics
can also
structures
such
other
social
impact
culture,
works,
hance
roles, communication
patterns
and social
all of which
capital,
HRM
the relationship
between
and
as
net
en
may
and per
formance.
Between
Relationships
is needed
to test
HRM process
strength
examines
Research
between
approach
HRM practices
so that the
configurai
numerous
formance
than
and
Content
Process
interrelationships
The
and content.
how a pattern
of
to firm per
is related
is
of HRM
total effect
practices
&
1996; Delery
(Becker & Gerhart,
Shaw, & Prennushi,
1996; Ichniowski,
1997).
Doty,
is on the sets of
The
focus of this approach
that may be re
practices
mutually
reinforcing
to
The strength
of the
firm performance.
lated
a
factor
be
HRM
may
system
influencing
to HRM-firm
the configurai
whether
approach
in em
is supported
relationships
performance
greater
themselves
studies.
pirical
HRM practices
likelihood
The
would
manner,
reinforcing
of those practices
internal
consistency
with which
the effectiveness
they are im
mutually
of the
and
that individual
as a set, in a
may be a function
function
together.
case can be developed
for assessing
content
and
interactions
between
strength
across
for different
foci.
For
climates
strategic
on
one
not
it
be
difficult
the
hand,
may
example,
plemented
A similar
to incorporate
for a climate
features
focused
that
given
safety,
associated
behaviors
clearly. On the other hand,
specified
more difficult
to create a strong HRM
it may
system
be
for
Review
April
a climate
for service,
that the intangibility
given
to specify
it difficult
service
makes
and the employee
behaviors
that
quality
goals
will
lead to them (Bowen & Schneider,
1988). This
of
service
a
to create
either
the ability
complicate
the relationship
strong HRM system or moderate
between
that strength
and
the uniformity
of
in
of
the
form
perceptions
organiza
employees'
may
tional
climates.
and Measurement
Methodological
Issues
are
Two
interrelated
issues
methodological
raised by our proposals.
The first of these con
cerns appropriate
measurement
for the strength
concerns
of the HRM system.
The second
levels
of analysis
and aggregation
in moving
issues
of climate
to
from individual-level
perceptions
constructs.
A full discussion
of these
collective
issues
is beyond
the scope of this article.
to be developed
New measures
need
to
will
assess
of the HRM system.
It is
the strength
to note
is a situa
that this construct
important
tional context variable,
and, as we have defined
a higher-level
construct.
In past
it, it represents
on HRM practices
research
and systems,
schol
ars
on reports
relied
from a
typically
or
executive.
In our
HR
manager
higher-level
HR
directors
and
could
be
case,
top managers
to
of
of strength
asked
evaluate
the dimensions
have
the system.
This procedure
has the obvious
ad
a single,
measure
of obtaining
vantage
global
for each
dimension
of strength
of the system.
measurement
this
focuses
However,
technique
a
measures
on
of
the
attributes
from
only
single
source
that is at a higher
level in the organiza
our primary
theoretical
focus lies in
tion, while
on
the impact
these practices
have
perceptions
Because
of strength
of employees.
the concept
of employ
and perceptions
requires
judgments
is to
that a better alternative
ees, we
suggest
assess
of the HRM system
these characteristics
That
from employees
themselves.
is, the ap
measurement
unit
of
of
assessing
propriate
strength
attributions
vidual.
is
the
and
individual,
perceptions
since
reside
employee
in the indi
at developing
Future work should be directed
a valid measure
For example,
of HRM strength.
be given a
to assess
could
visibility,
employees
of HRM practices
list of a variety
to which
indicate
the extent
each
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
and asked
is utilized
to
in
2004 Bowen
that agents
and
place
some assessment
of how
provide
are to employees.
the practices
to assess
consistency,
Similarly,
employees
to what
extent
could be asked
they have actu
in or experienced
each of these
ally participated
used
would
visible
a semiannual
practices
(e.g., received
perfor
mance
The
of people
review).
percent
indicating
would
the practice
they experienced
provide
some indication
of how consistently
the practice
across
in the organi
employees
could be
alternative,
employees
to which
to indicate
the extent
they be
to all employees.
the practice
applies
is administered
zation. As an
asked
lieve
be assessed
top
Agreement
might
by asking
to delineate
makers
decision
the strategic
goals
to HRM and the intended message
of the
related
innovation
and
HRM practices
risk
(e.g., promote
promote
loyalty and longevity,
decision
makers
among
safety). High agreement
consensus
to higher
should
be related
among
as to what practices
are salient,
vis
employees
so
forth.
administered
and
ible,
consistently,
Such measures
be useful
from multiple
would
on the di
mean
score
the
First,
perspectives.
promote
taking,
an
to the
would
indication
provide
are present.
at which
these characteristics
score on measures
is, a higher mean
tap
mension
level
That
as
and consen
ping distinctiveness,
consistency,
sus would
of strong HRM pro
be one indicator
cess.
assess
the
researchers
could
Second,
to which
extent
character
perceive
employees
istics in the same way?that
is, they could as
sess
or variability
of agreement
in
the extent
responses
among
agreement
employees.
Higher
consensus
and a strong system,
would
support
in responses
in
whereas
would
high variance
a weak
dicate
system.
As
to assessments
among
employees
be demonstrated
of psychological
to represent
used
level
climate
of
about
before
climate,
agreement
must
their perceptions
measures
aggregated
can be
perceptions
climate
a unit-level
construct
or organizational
it
(James,
1982). Further,
both the level (e.g., the
is important
to examine
level of rating on a dimension
of climate)
and
an
the variability
in responses.
is
Level
indica
tor of "content," whereas
is an indi
variability
cator of situational
"strength." At the individual
level of analysis,
if one is interested
in examin
between
of the
ing the relationship
perceptions
and
217
Ostroff
and
individual
the level of
responses,
on the variables
is
the individual's
responses
most
to
useful.
when
However,
moving
higher
measurement
is
levels of analysis,
additional
sues
HRM
and
emerge.
well-designed
Strong
climate
of per
greater
produce
homogeneity
and responses
the organization,
within
in organizational
climate.
The strength
systems
ceptions
resulting
is indicated
of the climate
of vari
by the degree
in
of
the
level
of
responses,
ability
regardless
on
content
the aggregate
the
of
climate.
rating
cre
An indication
of whether
the HRM system
a
is the extent
ates
situation
of agree
strong
ment on climate
ratings
(Payne, 2000).
FINAL THOUGHTS
In listing challenges
that the HRM community
in the future, Ulrich
cites the need
for HR
to
be
HR
He
reminds
practice
guided
by
theory.
HRM professionals
that theory helps explain
the
manner
in which
outcomes
emerge:
faces
lead
...
outcomes
their
of
Regardless
the
pre
Recently,
literature
"why" HR practices
veloped
scholars
have de
to sustainable
lead
this present
competitive
advantage.
Hopefully,
on the strength
effort at theory building
of the
can begin
to help explain
HRM system
"how"
HRM practices
lead to outcomes
the organiza
tion desires.
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Psychology*
Jour
85: 587
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Bowen
David
E. Bowen
search
between
Cheri
interests
human
Ostroff
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University.
State
Michigan
issues,
human
221
Ostroff
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of management
and professor
re
His
International
Management.
are organizational
in service
issues
and the linkage
behavior
quality
resource
effectiveness
and competitive
management
advantage.
is dean
The
Thunderbird,
and
American
of
and programs
faculty
Graduate
of
School
is a professor
of psychology
She
received
her Ph.D.
and
education
at Teachers
in industrial-organizational
research
interests
include
Her current
University.
resource
management
systems,
and
person-environment
Colum
College,
from
psychology
levels
of analysis
congruence.
This content downloaded from 134.208.96.85 on Wed, 11 Mar 2015 12:13:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions