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ErosionWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Erosion
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Ingeomorphologyandgeology,erosionistheactionofexogenic
processes(suchaswaterfloworwind)whichremovesoilandrock
fromonelocationontheEarth'scrust,thentransportittoanother
locationwhereitisdeposited.Erodedsedimentmaybetransported
justafewmillimetres,orforthousandsofkilometres.
Whileerosionisanaturalprocess,humanactivitieshaveincreased
by1040timestherateatwhicherosionisoccurringglobally.
Excessive(oraccelerated)erosioncausesboth'onsite'and'offsite'
problems.Onsiteimpactsincludedecreasesinagricultural
productivityand(onnaturallandscapes)ecologicalcollapse,both
becauseoflossofthenutrientrichuppersoillayers.Insomecases,
theeventualendresultisdesertification.Offsiteeffectsinclude
sedimentationofwaterwaysandeutrophicationofwaterbodies,as
wellassedimentrelateddamagetoroadsandhouses.Waterand
winderosionarethetwoprimarycausesoflanddegradation
combined,theyareresponsibleforabout84%oftheglobalextentof
degradedland,makingexcessiveerosiononeofthemostsignificant
environmentalproblemsworldwide.[1][2]
Anactivelyerodingrillonan
intensivelyfarmedfieldineastern
Germany
Intensiveagriculture,deforestation,roads,anthropogenicclimate
changeandurbansprawlareamongstthemostsignificanthuman
activitiesinregardtotheireffectonstimulatingerosion.[3]However,therearemanypreventionand
remediationpracticesthatcancurtailorlimiterosionofvulnerablesoils.
Contents
1Physicalprocesses
1.1Rainfallandsurfacerunoff
1.2Riversandstreams
1.3Coastalerosion
1.4Glaciers
1.5Floods
1.6Freezingandthawing
Anaturalarchproducedbythewind
erosionofdifferentiallyweathered
rockinJebelKharaz,Jordan.
1.7Winderosion
1.8Massmovement
1.9Exfoliation
1.10Lightningstrikes
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2Factorsaffectingerosionrates
2.1Climate
2.2Soilstructureandcomposition
2.3Vegetativecover
2.4Topography
3Humanactivitiesthatincreaseerosionrates
3.1Agriculturalpractices
3.2Deforestation
3.3Roadsandurbanization
3.4Climatechange
4Globalenvironmentaleffects
4.1Landdegradation
4.2Sedimentationofaquaticecosystems
Awavelikeseacliffproducedby
coastalerosion,inJinshitanCoastal
NationalGeopark,Dalian,Liaoning
Province,China.
4.3Airbornedustpollution
4.4Tectoniceffects
5Monitoring,measuringandmodelingerosion
6Preventionandremediation
7Seealso
8Notes
9Furtherreading
10Externallinks
Physicalprocesses
Rainfallandsurfacerunoff
Rainfall,andthesurfacerunoffwhichmayresultfromrainfall,
producesfourmaintypesofsoilerosion:splasherosion,sheet
erosion,rillerosion,andgullyerosion.Splasherosionisgenerally
seenasthefirstandleastseverestageinthesoilerosionprocess,
whichisfollowedbysheeterosion,thenrillerosionandfinally
gullyerosion(themostsevereofthefour).[4][5]
Insplasherosion,theimpactofafallingraindropcreatesasmall
craterinthesoil,[6]ejectingsoilparticles.Thedistancethesesoil
particlestravelcanbeasmuchas0.6m(twofeet)verticallyand1.5
m(fivefeet)horizontallyonlevelground.
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Soilandwaterbeingsplashedbythe
impactofasingleraindrop.
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Ifthesoilissaturated,oriftherainfallrateisgreaterthantherateatwhichwatercaninfiltrateintothesoil,
surfacerunoffoccurs.Iftherunoffhassufficientflowenergy,itwilltransportloosenedsoilparticles
(sediment)downtheslope.[7]Sheeterosionisthetransportofloosenedsoilparticlesbyoverlandflow.[7]
Rillerosionreferstothedevelopmentofsmall,ephemeral
concentratedflowpathswhichfunctionasbothsedimentsourceand
sedimentdeliverysystemsforerosiononhillslopes.Generally,
wherewatererosionratesondisturbeduplandareasaregreatest,
rillsareactive.Flowdepthsinrillsaretypicallyoftheorderofa
fewcentimeters(aboutaninch)orlessandalongchannelslopes
maybequitesteep.Thismeansthatrillsexhibithydraulicphysics
verydifferentfromwaterflowingthroughthedeeper,wider
channelsofstreamsandrivers.[8]
Aspoiltipcoveredinrillsandgullies
duetoerosionprocessescausedby
rainfall:Rummu,Estonia
Gullyerosionoccurswhenrunoffwateraccumulatesandrapidlyflowsinnarrowchannelsduringor
immediatelyafterheavyrainsormeltingsnow,removingsoiltoaconsiderabledepth.[9][10][11]
Riversandstreams
Valleyorstreamerosionoccurswithcontinuedwaterflowalonga
linearfeature.Theerosionisbothdownward,deepeningthevalley,
andheadward,extendingthevalleyintothehillside,creatinghead
cutsandsteepbanks.Intheearlieststageofstreamerosion,the
erosiveactivityisdominantlyvertical,thevalleyshaveatypicalV
crosssectionandthestreamgradientisrelativelysteep.Whensome
baselevelisreached,theerosiveactivityswitchestolateralerosion,
whichwidensthevalleyfloorandcreatesanarrowfloodplain.The
streamgradientbecomesnearlyflat,andlateraldepositionof
sedimentsbecomesimportantasthestreammeandersacrossthe
valleyfloor.Inallstagesofstreamerosion,byfarthemosterosion
occursduringtimesofflood,whenmoreandfastermovingwateris
availabletocarryalargersedimentload.Insuchprocesses,itisnot
thewateralonethaterodes:suspendedabrasiveparticles,pebbles
andboulderscanalsoacterosivelyastheytraverseasurface,ina
processknownastraction.[12]
DobbingstoneBurn,ScotlandThis
photoillustratestwodifferenttypes
oferosionaffectingthesameplace.
Valleyerosionisoccurringduetothe
flowofthestream,andtheboulders
andstones(andmuchofthesoil)that
arelyingontheedgesareglacialtill
thatwasleftbehindasiceageglaciers
flowedovertheterrain.
Bankerosionisthewearingawayofthebanksofastreamorriver.
Thisisdistinguishedfromchangesonthebedofthewatercourse,
whichisreferredtoasscour.Erosionandchangesintheformofriverbanksmaybemeasuredbyinserting
metalrodsintothebankandmarkingthepositionofthebanksurfacealongtherodsatdifferenttimes.[13]
Thermalerosionistheresultofmeltingandweakeningpermafrostduetomovingwater.[14]Itcanoccur
bothalongriversandatthecoast.RapidriverchannelmigrationobservedintheLenaRiverofSiberiais
duetothermalerosion,astheseportionsofthebanksarecomposedofpermafrostcementednoncohesive
materials.[15]Muchofthiserosionoccursastheweakenedbanksfailinlargeslumps.Thermalerosionalso
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affectstheArcticcoast,wherewaveactionandnearshoretemperaturescombinetoundercutpermafrost
bluffsalongtheshorelineandcausethemtofail.Annualerosionratesalonga100kilometre(62mile)
segmentoftheBeaufortSeashorelineaveraged5.6metres(18feet)peryearfrom1955to2002.[16]
Coastalerosion
Shorelineerosion,whichoccursonbothexposedandsheltered
coasts,primarilyoccursthroughtheactionofcurrentsandwaves
butsealevel(tidal)changecanalsoplayarole.
Hydraulicactiontakesplacewhenairinajointissuddenly
compressedbyawaveclosingtheentranceofthejoint.Thisthen
cracksit.Wavepoundingiswhenthesheerenergyofthewave
Wavecutplatformcausedbyerosion
hittingtheclifforrockbreakspiecesoff.Abrasionorcorrasionis
ofcliffsbythesea,atSoutherndown
causedbywaveslaunchingsealoadatthecliff.Itisthemost
inSouthWales.
effectiveandrapidformofshorelineerosion(nottobeconfused
withcorrosion).Corrosionisthedissolvingofrockbycarbonic
acidinseawater.Limestonecliffsareparticularlyvulnerabletothiskindoferosion.Attritioniswhere
particles/sealoadcarriedbythewavesareworndownastheyhiteachotherandthecliffs.Thisthenmakes
thematerialeasiertowashaway.Thematerialendsupasshingleandsand.Anothersignificantsourceof
erosion,particularlyoncarbonatecoastlines,istheboring,scrapingandgrindingoforganisms,aprocess
termedbioerosion.[17]
Sedimentistransportedalongthecoastinthedirectionoftheprevailingcurrent(longshoredrift).Whenthe
upcurrentamountofsedimentislessthantheamountbeingcarriedaway,erosionoccurs.Whenthe
upcurrentamountofsedimentisgreater,sandorgravelbankswilltendtoformasaresultofdeposition.
Thesebanksmayslowlymigratealongthecoastinthedirectionofthelongshoredrift,alternately
protectingandexposingpartsofthecoastline.Wherethereisabendinthecoastline,quiteoftenabuildup
oferodedmaterialoccursformingalongnarrowbank(aspit).Armouredbeachesandsubmergedoffshore
sandbanksmayalsoprotectpartsofacoastlinefromerosion.Overtheyears,astheshoalsgraduallyshift,
theerosionmayberedirectedtoattackdifferentpartsoftheshore.
Glaciers
Glacierserodepredominantlybythreedifferentprocesses:
abrasion/scouring,plucking,andicethrusting.Inanabrasion
process,debrisinthebasalicescrapesalongthebed,polishingand
gougingtheunderlyingrocks,similartosandpaperonwood.
Glacierscanalsocausepiecesofbedrocktocrackoffintheprocess
ofplucking.Inicethrusting,theglacierfreezestoitsbed,thenasit
surgesforward,itmoveslargesheetsoffrozensedimentatthebase
alongwiththeglacier.Thismethodproducedsomeofthemany
thousandsoflakebasinsthatdottheedgeoftheCanadianShield.
Theerosioncausedbyglaciersworldwideerodesmountainsso
effectivelythatthetermglacialbuzzsawhasbecomewidelyused,
whichdescribesthelimitingeffectofglaciersontheheightof
mountainranges.[18]Asmountainsgrowhigher,theygenerally
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GlacialmorainesaboveLakeLouise,
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allowformoreglacialactivity(especiallyintheaccumulationzoneabovetheglacialequilibriumline
altitude),[19]whichcausesincreasedratesoferosionofthemountain,decreasingmassfasterthanisostatic
reboundcanaddtothemountain.[20]Thisprovidesagoodexampleofanegativefeedbackloop.Ongoing
researchisshowingthatwhileglacierstendtodecreasemountainsize,insomeareas,glacierscanactually
reducetherateoferosion,actingasaglacialarmor.[18]
Theseprocesses,combinedwitherosionandtransportbythewaternetworkbeneaththeglacier,leave
moraines,drumlins,groundmoraine(till),kames,kamedeltas,moulins,andglacialerraticsintheirwake,
typicallyattheterminusorduringglacierretreat.
Floods
Atextremelyhighflows,kolks,orvorticesareformedbylargevolumesofrapidlyrushingwater.Kolks
causeextremelocalerosion,pluckingbedrockandcreatingpotholetypegeographicalfeaturescalledRock
cutbasins.ExamplescanbeseeninthefloodregionsresultfromglacialLakeMissoula,whichcreatedthe
channeledscablandsintheColumbiaBasinregionofeasternWashington.[21]
Freezingandthawing
Coldweathercauseswatertrappedintinyrockcrackstofreezeandexpand,breakingtherockintoseveral
pieces.Thiscanleadtogravityerosiononsteepslopes.Thescreewhichformsatthebottomofasteep
mountainsideismostlyformedfrompiecesofrock(soil)brokenawaybythismeans.Itisacommon
engineeringproblemwhereverrockcliffsarealongsideroads,becausemorningthawscandrophazardous
rockpiecesontotheroad.
Winderosion
Winderosionisamajorgeomorphologicalforce,especiallyinarid
andsemiaridregions.Itisalsoamajorsourceoflanddegradation,
evaporation,desertification,harmfulairbornedust,andcropdamage
especiallyafterbeingincreasedfarabovenaturalratesbyhuman
activitiessuchasdeforestation,urbanization,andagriculture.[22][23]
Winderosionisoftwoprimaryvarieties:deflation,wherethewind
picksupandcarriesawaylooseparticlesandabrasion,where
surfacesareworndownastheyarestruckbyairborneparticles
carriedbywind.Deflationisdividedintothreecategories:(1)
rboldePiedra,arockformationin
surfacecreep,wherelarger,heavierparticlesslideorrollalongthe
theAltiplano,Boliviasculptedby
ground(2)saltation,whereparticlesareliftedashortheightinto
winderosion.
theair,andbounceandsaltateacrossthesurfaceofthesoiland(3)
suspension,whereverysmallandlightparticlesareliftedintothe
airbythewind,andareoftencarriedforlongdistances.Saltationisresponsibleforthemajority(5070%)
ofwinderosion,followedbysuspension(3040%),andthensurfacecreep(525%).[24][25]
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Winderosionismuchmoresevereinaridareasandduringtimesofdrought.Forexample,intheGreat
Plains,itisestimatedthatsoillossduetowinderosioncanbeasmuchas6100timesgreaterindrought
yearsthaninwetyears.[26]
Massmovement
Massmovementisthedownwardandoutwardmovementofrock
andsedimentsonaslopedsurface,mainlyduetotheforceof
gravity.[27][28]
Massmovementisanimportantpartoftheerosionalprocess,andis
oftenthefirststageinthebreakdownandtransportofweathered
materialsinmountainousareas.[29]Itmovesmaterialfromhigher
elevationstolowerelevationswhereothererodingagentssuchas
streamsandglacierscanthenpickupthematerialandmoveitto
evenlowerelevations.Massmovementprocessesarealways
WadiinMakhteshRamon,Israel,
occurringcontinuouslyonallslopessomemassmovement
showinggravitycollapseerosionon
processesactveryslowlyothersoccurverysuddenly,oftenwith
itsbanks.
disastrousresults.Anyperceptibledownslopemovementofrockor
sedimentisoftenreferredtoingeneraltermsasalandslide.
However,landslidescanbeclassifiedinamuchmoredetailedwaythatreflectsthemechanismsresponsible
forthemovementandthevelocityatwhichthemovementoccurs.Oneofthevisibletopographical
manifestationsofaveryslowformofsuchactivityisascreeslope.
Slumpinghappensonsteephillsides,occurringalongdistinctfracturezones,oftenwithinmaterialslikeclay
that,oncereleased,maymovequiterapidlydownhill.Theywilloftenshowaspoonshapedisostatic
depression,inwhichthematerialhasbeguntoslidedownhill.Insomecases,theslumpiscausedbywater
beneaththeslopeweakeningit.Inmanycasesitissimplytheresultofpoorengineeringalonghighways
whereitisaregularoccurrence.
Surfacecreepistheslowmovementofsoilandrockdebrisbygravitywhichisusuallynotperceptible
exceptthroughextendedobservation.However,thetermcanalsodescribetherollingofdislodgedsoil
particles0.5to1.0mm(0.02to0.04in)indiameterbywindalongthesoilsurface.
Exfoliation
Exfoliationisatypeoferosionthatoccurswhenarockisrapidlyheatedupbythesun.Thisresultsinthe
expansionoftherock.Whenthetemperaturedecreasesagain,therockcontracts,causingpiecesoftherock
tobreakoff.Exfoliationoccursmainlyindesertsduetothehightemperaturesduringthedayandcold
temperaturesatnight.[30]
Lightningstrikes
Whenwaterincrackedrockisrapidlyheatedbyalightningstrike,theresultingsteamexplosioncancause
rockdisintegrationandshiftboulders.Itmaybeasignificantfactorinerosionoftropicalandsubtropical
mountainsthathaveneverbeenglaciated.Evidenceoflightningstrikesincludecraters,partiallymelted
rockanderraticmagneticfields.[31]
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Factorsaffectingerosionrates
Climate
Theamountandintensityofprecipitationisthemainclimaticfactorgoverningsoilerosionbywater.The
relationshipisparticularlystrongifheavyrainfalloccursattimeswhen,orinlocationswhere,thesoil's
surfaceisnotwellprotectedbyvegetation.Thismightbeduringperiodswhenagriculturalactivitiesleave
thesoilbare,orinsemiaridregionswherevegetationisnaturallysparse.Winderosionrequiresstrong
winds,particularlyduringtimesofdroughtwhenvegetationissparseandsoilisdry(andsoismore
erodible).Otherclimaticfactorssuchasaveragetemperatureandtemperaturerangemayalsoaffect
erosion,viatheireffectsonvegetationandsoilproperties.Ingeneral,givensimilarvegetationand
ecosystems,areaswithmoreprecipitation(especiallyhighintensityrainfall),morewind,ormorestorms
areexpectedtohavemoreerosion.
Insomeareasoftheworld(e.g.themidwesternUSA),rainfallintensityistheprimarydeterminantof
erosivity,withhigherintensityrainfallgenerallyresultinginmoresoilerosionbywater.Thesizeand
velocityofraindropsisalsoanimportantfactor.Largerandhighervelocityraindropshavegreaterkinetic
energy,andthustheirimpactwilldisplacesoilparticlesbylargerdistancesthansmaller,slowermoving
raindrops.[32]
Inotherregionsoftheworld(e.g.westernEurope),runoffanderosionresultfromrelativelylowintensities
ofstratiformrainfallfallingontopreviouslysaturatedsoil.Insuchsituations,rainfallamountratherthan
intensityisthemainfactordeterminingtheseverityofsoilerosionbywater.[33]
Soilstructureandcomposition
Thecomposition,moisture,andcompactionofsoilareallmajor
factorsindeterminingtheerosivityofrainfall.Sedimentscontaining
moreclaytendtobemoreresistanttoerosionthanthosewithsand
orsilt,becausetheclayhelpsbindsoilparticlestogether.[34]Soil
containinghighlevelsoforganicmaterialsareoftenmoreresistant
toerosion,becausetheorganicmaterialscoagulatesoilcolloidsand
createastronger,morestablesoilstructure.[35]Theamountofwater
presentinthesoilbeforetheprecipitationalsoplaysanimportant
role,becauseitsetslimitsontheamountofwaterthatcanbe
absorbedbythesoil(andhencepreventedfromflowingonthe
Erosionalgullyinunconsolidated
surfaceaserosiverunoff).Wet,saturatedsoilswillnotbeableto
DeadSea(Israel)sedimentsalongthe
absorbasmuchrainwater,leadingtohigherlevelsofsurfacerunoff
southwesternshore.Thisgullywas
[35][36]
excavatedbyfloodsfromtheJudean
andthushighererosivityforagivenvolumeofrainfall.
Soil
Mountainsinlessthanayear.
compactionalsoaffectsthepermeabilityofthesoiltowater,and
hencetheamountofwaterthatflowsawayasrunoff.More
compactedsoilswillhavealargeramountofsurfacerunoffthanlesscompactedsoils.[35]
Vegetativecover
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Vegetationactsasaninterfacebetweentheatmosphereandthesoil.Itincreasesthepermeabilityofthesoil
torainwater,thusdecreasingrunoff.Itsheltersthesoilfromwinds,whichresultsindecreasedwind
erosion,aswellasadvantageouschangesinmicroclimate.Therootsoftheplantsbindthesoiltogether,and
interweavewithotherroots,formingamoresolidmassthatislesssusceptibletobothwaterandwind
erosion.Theremovalofvegetationincreasestherateofsurfaceerosion.[37]
Topography
Thetopographyofthelanddeterminesthevelocityatwhichsurfacerunoffwillflow,whichinturn
determinestheerosivityoftherunoff.Longer,steeperslopes(especiallythosewithoutadequatevegetative
cover)aremoresusceptibletoveryhighratesoferosionduringheavyrainsthanshorter,lesssteepslopes.
Steeperterrainisalsomorepronetomudslides,landslides,andotherformsofgravitationalerosion
processes.[38][39][40]
Humanactivitiesthatincreaseerosionrates
Agriculturalpractices
Unsustainableagriculturalpracticesarethesinglegreatest
contributortotheglobalincreaseinerosionrates.[41]Thetillageof
agriculturallands,whichbreaksupsoilintofinerparticles,isoneof
theprimaryfactors.Theproblemhasbeenexacerbatedinmodern
times,duetomechanizedagriculturalequipmentthatallowsfor
deepplowing,whichseverelyincreasestheamountofsoilthatis
availablefortransportbywatererosion.Othersincludemono
cropping,farmingonsteepslopes,pesticideandchemicalfertilizer
usage(whichkillorganismsthatbindsoiltogether),rowcropping,
andtheuseofsurfaceirrigation.[42][43]Acomplexoverallsituation
Tilledfarmlandsuchasthisisvery
withrespecttodefiningnutrientlossesfromsoils,couldariseasa
susceptibletoerosionfromrainfall,
resultofthesizeselectivenatureofsoilerosionevents.Lossoftotal
duetothedestructionofvegetative
phosphorus,forinstance,inthefinererodedfractionisgreater
coverandthelooseningofthesoil
[44]
duringplowing.
relativetothewholesoil. Extrapolatingthisevidencetopredict
subsequentbehaviourwithinreceivingaquaticsystems,thereasonis
thatthismoreeasilytransportedmaterialmaysupportalowersolutionPconcentrationcomparedtocoarser
sizedfractions.[45]Tillagealsoincreaseswinderosionrates,bydehydratingthesoilandbreakingitupinto
smallerparticlesthatcanbepickedupbythewind.Exacerbatingthisisthefactthatmostofthetreesare
generallyremovedfromagriculturalfields,allowingwindstohavelong,openrunstotraveloverathigher
speeds.[46]Heavygrazingreducesvegetativecoverandcausesseveresoilcompaction,bothofwhich
increaseerosionrates.[47]
Deforestation
Inanundisturbedforest,themineralsoilisprotectedbyalayerofleaflitterandanhumusthatcoverthe
forestfloor.Thesetwolayersformaprotectivematoverthesoilthatabsorbstheimpactofraindrops.They
areporousandhighlypermeabletorainfall,andallowrainwatertoslowpercolateintothesoilbelow,
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insteadofflowingoverthesurfaceasrunoff.[48]Therootsofthetreesandplants[49]holdtogethersoil
particles,preventingthemfrombeingwashedaway.[48]Thevegetativecoveractstoreducethevelocityof
theraindropsthatstrikethefoliageandstemsbeforehittingthe
ground,reducingtheirkineticenergy.[50]Howeveritistheforest
floor,morethanthecanopy,thatpreventssurfaceerosion.The
terminalvelocityofraindropsisreachedinabout8metres(26feet).
Becauseforestcanopiesareusuallyhigherthanthis,raindropscan
oftenregainterminalvelocityevenafterstrikingthecanopy.
However,theintactforestfloor,withitslayersofleaflitterand
organicmatter,isstillabletoabsorbtheimpactoftherainfall.[50][51]
Deforestationcausesincreasederosionratesduetoexposureof
mineralsoilbyremovingthehumusandlitterlayersfromthesoil
surface,removingthevegetativecoverthatbindssoiltogether,and
causingheavysoilcompactionfromloggingequipment.Oncetrees
havebeenremovedbyfireorlogging,infiltrationratesbecomehigh
anderosionlowtothedegreetheforestfloorremainsintact.Severe
firescanleadtosignificantfurthererosioniffollowedbyheavy
rainfall.[52]
Inthisclearcut,almostallofthe
vegetationhasbeenstrippedfrom
surfaceofsteepslopes,inanarea
withveryheavyrains.Severeerosion
occursincasessuchasthis,causing
streamsedimentationandthelossof
nutrientrichtopsoil.
Globallyoneofthelargestcontributorstoerosivesoillossintheyear2006istheslashandburntreatment
oftropicalforests.Inanumberofregionsoftheearth,entiresectorsofacountryhavebeenrendered
unproductive.Forexample,ontheMadagascarhighcentralplateau,comprisingapproximatelytenpercent
ofthatcountry'slandarea,virtuallytheentirelandscapeissterileofvegetation,withgullyerosivefurrows
typicallyinexcessof50metres(160ft)deepand1kilometre(0.6miles)wide.Shiftingcultivationisa
farmingsystemwhichsometimesincorporatestheslashandburnmethodinsomeregionsoftheworld.
Thisdegradesthesoilandcausesthesoiltobecomelessandlessfertile.
Roadsandurbanization
Urbanizationhasmajoreffectsonerosionprocessesfirstbydenudingthelandofvegetativecover,
alteringdrainagepatterns,andcompactingthesoilduringconstructionandnextbycoveringthelandinan
impermeablelayerofasphaltorconcretethatincreasestheamountofsurfacerunoffandincreasessurface
windspeeds.[53]Muchofthesedimentcarriedinrunofffromurbanareas(especiallyroads)ishighly
contaminatedwithfuel,oil,andotherchemicals.[54]Thisincreasedrunoff,inadditiontoerodingand
degradingthelandthatitflowsover,alsocausesmajordisruptiontosurroundingwatershedsbyalteringthe
volumeandrateofwaterthatflowsthroughthem,andfillingthemwithchemicallypollutedsedimentation.
Theincreasedflowofwaterthroughlocalwaterwaysalsocausesalargeincreaseintherateofbank
erosion.[55]
Climatechange
Thewarmeratmospherictemperaturesobservedoverthepastdecadesareexpectedtoleadtoamore
vigoroushydrologicalcycle,includingmoreextremerainfallevents.[56]Theriseinsealevelsthathas
occurredasaresultofclimatechangehasalsogreatlyincreasedcoastalerosionrates.[57][58]
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Studiesonsoilerosionsuggestthatincreasedrainfallamountsandintensitieswillleadtogreaterratesof
erosion.Thus,ifrainfallamountsandintensitiesincreaseinmanypartsoftheworldasexpected,erosion
willalsoincrease,unlessameliorationmeasuresaretaken.Soilerosionratesareexpectedtochangein
responsetochangesinclimateforavarietyofreasons.Themostdirectisthechangeintheerosivepower
ofrainfall.Otherreasonsinclude:a)changesinplantcanopycausedbyshiftsinplantbiomassproduction
associatedwithmoistureregimeb)changesinlittercoveronthegroundcausedbychangesinbothplant
residuedecompositionratesdrivenbytemperatureandmoisturedependentsoilmicrobialactivityaswellas
plantbiomassproductionratesc)changesinsoilmoistureduetoshiftingprecipitationregimesandevapo
transpirationrates,whichchangesinfiltrationandrunoffratiosd)soilerodibilitychangesduetodecrease
insoilorganicmatterconcentrationsinsoilsthatleadtoasoilstructurethatismoresusceptibletoerosion
andincreasedrunoffduetoincreasedsoilsurfacesealingandcrustinge)ashiftofwinterprecipitation
fromnonerosivesnowtoerosiverainfallduetoincreasingwintertemperaturesf)meltingofpermafrost,
whichinducesanerodiblesoilstatefromapreviouslynonerodibleoneandg)shiftsinlandusemade
necessarytoaccommodatenewclimaticregimes.
StudiesbyPruskiandNearingindicatedthat,otherfactorssuchaslandusenotconsidered,itisreasonable
toexpectapproximatelya1.7%changeinsoilerosionforeach1%changeintotalprecipitationunder
climatechange.[59]
Globalenvironmentaleffects
Duetotheseverityofitsecologicaleffects,andthe
scaleonwhichitisoccurring,erosionconstitutes
oneofthemostsignificantglobalenvironmental
problemswefacetoday.[2]
Landdegradation
Waterandwinderosionarenowthetwoprimary
causesoflanddegradationcombined,theyare
responsiblefor84%ofdegradedacreage.[1]
Eachyear,about75billiontonsofsoiliseroded
Worldmapindicatingareasthatarevulnerabletohigh
fromthelandaratethatisabout1340timesas
ratesofwatererosion.
fastasthenaturalrateoferosion.[62]Approximately
40%oftheworld'sagriculturallandisseriously
degraded.[63]AccordingtotheUnitedNations,anareaoffertilesoilthesizeofUkraineislosteveryyear
becauseofdrought,deforestationandclimatechange.[64]InAfrica,ifcurrenttrendsofsoildegradation
continue,thecontinentmightbeabletofeedjust25%ofitspopulationby2025,accordingtoUNU's
GhanabasedInstituteforNaturalResourcesinAfrica.[65]
Thelossofsoilfertilityduetoerosionisfurtherproblematicbecausetheresponseisoftentoapply
chemicalfertilizers,whichleadstofurtherwaterandsoilpollution,ratherthantoallowthelandto
regenerate.[66]
Sedimentationofaquaticecosystems
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Soilerosion(especiallyfromagriculturalactivity)isconsideredto
betheleadingglobalcauseofdiffusewaterpollution,duetothe
effectsoftheexcesssedimentsflowingintotheworld'swaterways.
Thesedimentsthemselvesactaspollutants,aswellasbeingcarriers
forotherpollutants,suchasattachedpesticidemoleculesorheavy
metals.[67]
Theeffectofincreasedsedimentsloadsonaquaticecosystemscan
becatastrophic.Siltcansmotherthespawningbedsoffish,by
fillinginthespacebetweengravelonthestreambed.Italsoreduces
theirfoodsupply,andcausesmajorrespiratoryissuesforthemas
sedimententerstheirgills.Thebiodiversityofaquaticplantand
algallifeisreduced,andinvertebratesarealsounabletosurviveand
reproduce.Whilethesedimentationeventitselfmightberelatively
shortlived,theecologicaldisruptioncausedbythemassdieoff
oftenpersistslongintothefuture.[68]
Duringthe17thand18thcenturies,
EasterIslandexperiencedsevere
erosionduetodeforestationand
unsustainableagriculturalpractices.
Theresultinglossoftopsoil
ultimatelyledtoecologicalcollapse,
causingmassstarvationandthe
completedisintegrationoftheEaster
[60][61]
Islandcivilization.
Oneofthemostseriousandlongrunningwatererosionproblems
worldwideisinthePeople'sRepublicofChina,onthemiddle
reachesoftheYellowRiverandtheupperreachesoftheYangtzeRiver.FromtheYellowRiver,over1.6
billiontonsofsedimentflowsintotheoceaneachyear.Thesedimentoriginatesprimarilyfromwater
erosionintheLoessPlateauregionofthenorthwest.
Airbornedustpollution
Soilparticlespickedupduringwinderosionareamajorsourceofairpollution,intheformofairborne
particulates"dust".Theseairbornesoilparticlesareoftencontaminatedwithtoxicchemicalssuchas
pesticidesorpetroleumfuels,posingecologicalandpublichealthhazardswhentheylaterland,orare
inhaled/ingested.[69][70][71][72]
Dustfromerosionactstosuppressrainfallandchangestheskycolorfrombluetowhite,whichleadstoan
increaseinredsunsets.Dusteventshavebeenlinkedtoadeclineinthehealthofcoralreefsacrossthe
CaribbeanandFlorida,primarilysincethe1970s.[73]SimilardustplumesoriginateintheGobidesert,
whichcombinedwithpollutants,spreadlargedistancesdownwind,oreastward,intoNorthAmerica.[74]
Tectoniceffects
Theremovalbyerosionoflargeamountsofrockfromaparticularregion,anditsdepositionelsewhere,can
resultinalighteningoftheloadonthelowercrustandmantle.Thiscancausetectonicorisostaticupliftin
theregion.[75][76]
Monitoring,measuringandmodelingerosion
Monitoringandmodelingoferosionprocessescanhelpusbetterunderstandthecauses,makepredictions,
andplanhowtoimplementpreventativeandrestorativestrategies.However,thecomplexityoferosion
processesandthenumberofareasthatmustbestudiedtounderstandandmodelthem(e.g.climatology,
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hydrology,geology,chemistry,physics,etc.)makesaccuratemodellingquitechallenging.[77][78]Erosion
modelsarealsononlinear,whichmakesthemdifficulttoworkwithnumerically,andmakesitdifficultor
impossibletoscaleuptomakingpredictionsaboutlargeareasfromdatacollectedbysamplingsmaller
plots.[79]
Themostcommonlyusedmodelforpredictingsoillossfromwater
erosionistheUniversalSoilLossEquation(USLE),which
estimatestheaverageannualsoilloss as:[80]
whereRistherainfallerosivityfactor
Terracingisanancienttechniquethat
cansignificantlyslowtherateof
watererosiononcultivatedslopes.
(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/RainfallErosivity/),Kisthesoilerodibilityfactor
(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/Erodibility/),LandSaretopographicfactors
representinglengthandslope,andCandParecroppingmanagementfactors.Anewsoilerosionmodel
namedG2monitorssoilerosionbyaspatiotemporalindex.G2
(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/G2/data.html)isadynamicmodel,asittakesaccount
ofcontemporarychangesofrainfallerosivityandvegetationretention.BasedontheempiricalUSLE
familymodels,itneedscalibrationforrainstormerosivity,whilevegetationretentionisbasedon
biophysicalparametersderivedwithremotesensing.Erosionismeasuredandfurtherunderstoodusing
toolssuchasthemicroerosionmeter(MEM)andthetraversingmicroerosionmeter(TMEM).TheMEM
hasprovedhelpfulinmeasuringbedrockerosioninvariousecosystemsaroundtheworld.Itcanmeasure
bothterrestrialandoceanicerosion.Ontheotherhand,theTMEMcanbeusedtotracktheexpandingand
contractingofvolatilerockformationsandcangiveareadingofhowquicklyarockformationis
deteriorating.
Preventionandremediation
Themosteffectiveknownmethodforerosionpreventionistoincreasevegetativecoverontheland,which
helpspreventbothwindandwatererosion.[81]Terracingisanextremelyeffectivemeansoferosioncontrol,
whichhasbeenpracticedforthousandsofyearsbypeopleallovertheworld.[82]Windbreaks(alsocalled
shelterbelts)arerowsoftreesandshrubsthatareplantedalongtheedgesofagriculturalfields,toshieldthe
fieldsagainstwinds.[83]Inadditiontosignificantlyreducingwinderosion,windbreaksprovidemanyother
benefitssuchasimprovedmicroclimatesforcrops(whichareshelteredfromthedehydratingandotherwise
damagingeffectsofwind),habitatforbeneficialbirdspecies,[84]carbonsequestration,[85]andaesthetic
improvementstotheagriculturallandscape.[86][87]Traditionalplantingmethods,suchasmixedcropping
(insteadofmonocropping)andcroprotationhavealsobeenshowntosignificantlyreduceerosion
rates.[88][89]
Seealso
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion
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Awindbreak(therowoftrees)
plantednexttoanagriculturalfield,
actingasashieldagainststrong
winds.Thisreducestheeffectsof
winderosion,andprovidesmany
otherbenefits.
Badland
Biorhexistasy
Bridgescour
Cellularconfinement
Coastalsedimentsupply
Denudation
Foodsecurity
Geomorphology
Groundwatersapping
Highlyerodibleland
Icejacking
Lessivage
Marineterrace
Riparianstrips
Riveranticlines
Sedimenttransport
Spaceweathering
Sphericityscale
TERON(Tillageerosion)
Vegetationandslopestability
VetiverSystem
Notes
1. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Soilandwaterconservation".PrinciplesofSoilConservationand
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Management(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA2).Springer.p.2.ISBN97890481
85290.
2. Toy,TerrenceJ.etal(2002).SoilErosion:Processes,Prediction,Measurement,andControl
(http://books.google.com/books?id=7YBaKZ28j0C&pg=PA1).JohnWiley&Sons.p.1.ISBN9780471
383697.
3. Julien,PierreY.(2010).ErosionandSedimentation(http://books.google.com/books?
id=Gv72uiVmWEYC&pg=PA1).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.1.ISBN9780521537377.
4. Toy,TerrenceJ.etal(2002).SoilErosion:Processes,Prediction,Measurement,andControl
(http://books.google.com/books?id=7YBaKZ28j0C&pg=PA60).JohnWiley&Sons.pp.6061.ISBN9780
471383697.
5. Zachar,Duan(1982)."Classificationofsoilerosion".SoilErosion(http://books.google.com/books?
id=o8ny2dUkpM8C&pg=PA48).Vol.10.Elsevier.p.48.ISBN9780444997258.
6. seeFig.4inObreschkow(2011)."ConfinedShocksinsideIsolatedLiquidVolumesANewPathofErosion?"
(http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.3175).PhysicsofFluids.
7. FoodandAgricultureOrganization(1965)."Typesoferosiondamage".SoilErosionbyWater:SomeMeasures
forItsControlonCultivatedLands(http://books.google.com/books?id=6KeL3ix6ZqQC&pg=PA23).United
Nations.pp.2325.ISBN9789251004746.
8. Nearing,M.A.,Norton,L.D.,Bulgakov,D.A.,Larionov,G.A.,West,L.T.andDontsova,K.M.(1997).
Hydraulicsanderosioninerodingrills.WaterResourcesResearch33(4),865876.
9. Poesen,Jeanetal.(2007)."GullyerosioninEurope".InBoardman,John&Poesen,Jean.SoilErosionin
Europe(http://books.google.com/books?id=vvOFRskFunwC&pg=PA516).JohnWiley&Sons.pp.516519.
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10. Poesen,Jeanetal.(2002)."Gullyerosionindrylandenvironments".InBull,LouiseJ.&Kirby,M.J.Dryland
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11. Borah,DevaK.etal(2008)."Watershedsedimentyield".InGarcia,MarceloH.SedimentationEngineering:
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12. Ritter,MichaelE.(2006)"GeologicWorkofStreams"
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PhysicalEnvironment:anIntroductiontoPhysicalGeographyUniversityofWisconsin,OCLC79006225
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16. Jones,B.M.Hinkel,K.M.,Arp,C.D.andEisner,W.R.(2008)."ModernErosionRatesandLossofCoastal
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70. ScienceDaily(19990714)."AfricanDustCalledAMajorFactorAffectingSoutheastU.S.AirQuality"
(http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990714073433.htm).Retrieved20070610.
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GoverningFactors(http://books.google.com/books?id=UzpDTEO3ZVcC&pg=PA199).CRCPress.p.199.
ISBN9781566704694.
72. Shao,Yaping(2008)."Winderosionandwinderosionresearch".PhysicsandModellingofWindErosion
(http://books.google.com/books?id=XSwwVeraxjcC&pg=PA3).Springer.p.3.ISBN9781402088940.
73. U.S.GeologicalSurvey(2006)."CoralMortalityandAfricanDust"(http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/).
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74. JamesK.B.Bishop,RussE.Davis,andJeffreyT.Sherman(2002)."RoboticObservationsofDustStorm
EnhancementofCarbonBiomassintheNorthPacific"(http://www
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75. Nichols,Gary(2009).SedimentologyandStratigraphy(http://books.google.com/books?
id=zl4L7WqXvogC&pg=PA99)(2nded.).JohnWiley&Sons.p.99.ISBN9781405193795.
76. Burbank,DouglasW.&Anderson,RobertS.(2011)."Tectonicandsurfaceupliftrates".Tectonic
Geomorphology(http://books.google.com/books?id=83FuAvtSwE4C&pg=PT270).JohnWiley&Sons.pp.270
271.ISBN9781444345049.
77. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Modelingwaterandwinderosion".PrinciplesofSoilConservation
andManagement(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA81).Springer.ISBN97890481
85290.
78. Seealso:Shai,Yaping(2008).PhysicsandModellingofWindErosion(http://books.google.com/books?
id=XSwwVeraxjcC).Springer.ISBN9781402088940.andHarmon,RussellS.&Doe,WilliamW.(2001).
LandscapeErosionandEvolutionModeling(http://books.google.com/books?id=RltaPlIHlrAC).Springer.
ISBN9780306467189.
79. Brazier,R.E.etal(2011)."Scalingsoilerosionmodelsinspaceandtime".InMorgan,RoystonP.C.&Nearing,
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79. Brazier,R.E.etal(2011)."Scalingsoilerosionmodelsinspaceandtime".InMorgan,RoystonP.C.&Nearing,
Mark.HandbookofErosionModelling(http://books.google.com/books?id=pSO4X3XbhJIC&pg=PA100).John
Wiley&Sons.p.100.ISBN9781405190107.
80. Ward,AndrewD.&Trimble,StanleyW.(2004)."Soilconservationandsedimentbudgets".Environmental
Hydrology(http://books.google.com/books?id=yANwmTjf588C&pg=PA259).CRCPress.p.259.ISBN9781
566706162.
81. Connor,DavidJ.etal(2011).CropEcology:ProductivityandManagementinAgriculturalSystems
(http://books.google.com/books?id=O2eh7vyvuscC&pg=PA351).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.351.
ISBN9780521744034.
82. Foraninterestingarchaeological/historicalsurveyofterracingsystems,seeTreacy,JohnM.&Denevan,William
M.(1998)."Thecreationofcultivablelandthroughterracing".InMiller,NaomiA.TheArchaeologyofGarden
andField(http://books.google.com/books?id=MARsWXbqFCsC&pg=PA91).UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.
ISBN9780812216417.
83. Forman,RichardT.T.(1995)."Windbreaks,hedgerows,andwoodlandcorridors".LandMosaics:TheEcology
ofLandscapesandRegions(http://books.google.com/books?id=sSRNU_5P5nwC&pg=PA177).Cambridge
UniversityPress.ISBN9780521479806.
84. Johnson,R.J.etal(2011)."Globalperspectivesonbirdsinagriculturallandscapes".InCampbell,W.Bruce&
Ortiz,SilviaLopez.IntegratingAgriculture,ConservationandEcotourism:ExamplesfromtheField
(http://books.google.com/books?id=85KuKnayVMEC&pg=PA76).Springer.p.76.ISBN9789400713086.
85. Udawatta,RanjithP.&Shibu,Jose(2011)."Carbonsequestrationpotentialofagroforestrypracticesintemperate
NorthAmerica".InKumar,B.Mohan&Nair,P.K.R.CarbonSequestrationPotentialofAgroforestrySystems:
OpportunitiesandChallenges(http://books.google.com/books?id=oDzvVdD_dHwC&pg=PA35).Springer.
pp.3536.ISBN9789400716292.
86. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Winderosion".PrinciplesofSoilConservationandManagement
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA69).Springer.p.69.ISBN9789048185290.
87. Nair,P.K.R.(1993).AnIntroductiontoAgroforestry(http://books.google.com/books?
id=CkVSeRpmIx8C&pg=PA333).Springer.pp.333338.ISBN9780792321354.
88. Lal,Rattan(1995).TillageSystemsintheTropics:ManagementOptionsandSustainabilityImplications,Issue
71(http://books.google.com/books?id=Cxxj2VczLG0C&pg=PA157).FoodandAgricultureOrganizationofthe
UnitedNations.pp.157160.ISBN9789251037768.
89. Seealso:Gajri,P.R.etal(2002).Tillageforsustainablecropping(http://books.google.com/books?
id=i_acg2gACb8C).PsychologyPress.ISBN9781560229032.andUri,NoelD.(1999).ConservationTillage
inUnitedStatesAgriculture(http://books.google.com/books?id=2uPYFG3XLoEC).PsychologyPress.
ISBN9781560228844.
Furtherreading
Boardman,JohnPoesen,Jean(2006).SoilerosioninEurope.Wiley.ISBN9780470859100.
Montgomery,David(October2,2008).Dirt:TheErosionofCivilizations(http://books.google.com/books?
id=HSu8r15nnoC)(1sted.).UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN9780520258068.
Montgomery,DavidR.(2007)Soilerosionandagriculturalsustainability
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion
19/20
4/9/2015
ErosionWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
(http://www.pnas.org/content/104/33/13268.abstract)PNAS104:1326813272.
Brown,JasonDrake,Simon(2009).ClassicErosion.Wiley.
Vanoni,VitoA.(ed.)."Thenatureofsedimentationproblems".SedimentationEngineering
(http://books.google.com/books?id=TxGTDYz_FnwC&pg=PA1).ASCEPublications.ISBN9780784408230.
MainguetM.&DumayF.,2011.Fightingwinderosion.Oneaspectofthecombatagainstdesertification.Les
dossiersthmatiquesduCSFD.N3.May2011.CSFD/AgropolisInternational,Montpellier,France.44pp.
(http://www.csfdesertification.eu/dossier/item/fightingwinderosion)
Externallinks
TheSoilErosionSite(http://www.soilerosion.net/)
InternationalErosionControlAssociation(http://www.ieca.org/)
SoilErosionData(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/)intheEuropeanSoilPortal
USDANationalSoilErosionLaboratory(http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?
modecode=36021500)
TheSoilandWaterConservationSociety(http://www.swcs.org/)
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