Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SS2014
Dr.RainerMller
Whatisafracturedreservoir?
Thebehavior,capabilityofstorageandmovementoffluidsandgasesinrocksisgenerally
controlledbytheproportionofopenspaces(pores,interstices)intherockmatrix.
Thisattributeofrocksisdescribedasporosity.Theporesmaybeinterconnectedorisolated.
absolute porosity Pt =(bulkvolume solidvolume)/bulkvolumex100
effectiveporosityPe =interconnectedporevolume/bulkvolumex100
Aswell,the matrixpermeability thecapabilitytotransmitfluidsorgases iscontrolledby
theeffectiveporosity.
TypesofPorosity
Primaryporosityisdevelopedduringsedimentation.In
clasticrocks,theprimaryporositycorrespondsatalarge
extendtotheintersticesbetweengrains,andiscontrolled
bythegrainsize,theroundnessandthepackageofthe
grains.
Secondaryporosityorinducedporosityistheresultof
geologicalprocessesactingafter theformationofrocks.
Possiblecausesare:
Fundamentaljointpatternbylossofwater),
thedissolutionofsoluteprimarycomponents (pressure
solution,stylolites)or
dolomitization inlimestones and
thetectonical formationoffractures.
Vuggy porosityisaspecialtypeofsecondaryporosity,dueto
theirregual dissolutionofof largercomponents,suchas
fossilsincarbonaterocks.
Porositymaybedistinguishedintoeffective(open)andineffective(closed)porosity.
Whatisafracturedreservoir?
Fracturesmayincreasetheeffectiveporosityofrocksbyinterconnectingtheprimary
(matrix)porosityand(inconsequence)thepermeability(fracturepermeability).
So,theymaysupporttheflowofhydrocarbonsreservoirs,thus,theproductionrate.
Insomehydrocarbondepositsfractureassemblagesaretheleadingfactorsofthedeposits.
Thesedepositsarecalledfracturedreservoirs.
Ontheotherhand,astheformationandopeningoffracturesdependonpressure,the
closureofopenfractureduringextractionofhydrocarbonscoulddowngradeflowrates.
Therefore,theknowledgeoftypesoffractures,theirbehaviorandtheiroriginisofmajor
importancefortheexplorationandproductionofhydrocarbons.
TheUseofFracturesinPetroleumReservoirs
Fracturespresentbothproblemsandopportunitiesforexplorationandproductionfrom
petroleumreservoirs.
Manypetroleumreservoirsweregeneratedinhighlyfracturedrocks,wherefractureproperties
suchasdensityandorientationarecrucialtoreservoireconomics.Thisaspectappliesespecially
tocarbonatereservoirs.
Inmostcasesthefracturesareusuallyimportantofpermeabilityratherthanporosity.Matrix
porositystoresthehydrocarbons,andfracturesprovidepermeablepathwaysfortheirtransport.
Theobjectiveofhydrocarbonexplorationinfracturedreservoirsistofindareasofintense
fracturing,orsweetspots.(CommitteeonFractureCharacterizationandFluidFlow1996)
FracturesinPetroleumReservoirs:Examples
Fracturedhydrocarbonreservoirsprovideover20%oftheworldoilreservesandproduction.
Examplesoftheprolificfracturedpetroleumreservoirsare:
1) theAsmari limestonereservoirsinIran,
2) thevugular carbonatereservoirsinMexicoand
3) thegroupofchalkreservoirsoftheNorthSea.
Thesereservoirsproducemorethanfivemillionbarrelsofoilperday;
theircommonfeatureisalonglifespan,whichcouldlastseveraldecades.
Thereisalargenumberofotherfracturedhydrocarbonsreservoirsofverydifferentfeatures
fromtheabovereservoirs.
TheAustinchalkfield,
theKeystone(Ellenberger)fieldinTexa,and
theTempa Rossa fieldinItaly
Thosedepositshaveverylowporosities.
Ontheotherhand,theaveragematrixporosityoftheEkofisk chalkfieldintheNorthSeais
around35%.
UnconventionalGasReservoirs
Inthelastyears,majoreffortshavebeentargetedonunconventionalgasreservoirs,suchas
shalegasortightgasorcoalbedmethane.
Thesedepositsarecharacterizedbyverylowpermeabilitiesandadsorptionofgasintotherock
matrix.Inthiscase,fracturesarenotonlyusedfortheproductionofgasbutalsoartificially
generatedbythetechniqueofhydraulicfracturing(orabbreviatedasfracking).
Whatshouldweknowaboutfractures?
Tectonicfracturesarenotrandomlydistributedintheearthscrustbutrigidlycontrolledby
typesofrocks,theircomposition,rheologyandthickness,
typesoffractures,
locationanddepth,
density,
filling(aretheyopenornot)andtypeoffilling
orientationsand
the(originalandactual)stressfield.
Theyareconcentratedatdistinctzones(zonesofweakness,fracturezones).
Theirorientation(strike,dip)isstrictlycontrolledbyorientationandtypeoftheactingstress
fieldduringthetimeofformationofthefractures.
Whatarewegoingtotalkabout?
Basicdefinitionsandtypesofthedifferentfractures
Measuringandreconstructionoffractures
Methodsofrepresentationoffractures(roses,stereographicprojection)
Factorscontrollingtheformationandpropagationoffractures
(Stressfields,Mohrcircle)
TypesofGeometricalElementsinGeology
Planes
Lineations
TypesofPlanesinGeology
1)PrimaryPlanes
areplanes,whicharegeneratedduetotheprocessofformationoftherocks.
Beddingplanes(stratificationplanes):
areresultofsomekindofinterruptionorchangeofthesedimentationprocess
areoriginallyorientatedparalleltotheearthsurface(horizontal)
showawiderangeofdifferenttypes,combinations(beddingtypes)andgeometries
areaffectedbylatertectonicalinfluences(fractures,folds,pressuresolution)
maybedistinguishedfromotherplanesbyobservationofchangesofmaterial
TypesofPlanesinGeology
1)Beddingplanes:Examples
right:irregularbeddingplanesofthickbeddedlimestones
left:parallelbedding(flatbedding)ofsandstone siltstone
intercalations
TypesofPlanesinGeology
1)Beddingplanes:Examples
left:ripplebeddinginsandstone
right:laminationinmudstones
TypesofPlanesinGeology
2)Metamorphicfoliation,cleavage
Foliationissecondary,tectonicallycontrolledtypeofplanesinrocks,commonlydevelopedin
finegrainedshalesandleadingtorocks,whicharecalledschist.Foliationorschistosityor
cleavageisareactionofrocks,whichwereexposedtoextremetectoniccompression.
Penetrativeaxialplanecleavageinfoldedschists
Complexfoldingofmetamorphicfoliationinamphibolites
TypesofPlanesinGeology
3)Fractures
Fracturesaresecondaryseparationplanesoftectonicorigininrocks,
whichmaybesubdividedintothreetypes:
a)
Joints
b)
Fissures
c)
Faults
TypesofPlanesinGeology
3a)Joints
Jointsarecommonandfrequentfracturesinanytypesofrocks.
Jointsareseparationplanes,cracks,inrockswithoutanyvisible(oremeasurable)verticalor
horizontaldisplacement.
Inthesenseofviewoffracturemodelling,theyareofmayor
importance.Differenttypesanddifferentoriginsofjointsare
known.
Differentintersectingsetsofjoints
Plumosestructures:areindicators
forcrackpropagationonjoints
TypesofPlanesinGeology
3b)Fissures,tensiongashes
Fissuresarejointlikefractureswithameasurablehorizontaldisplacementnormaltothe
orientationoftheplane.
Itmeans,thatfissuresare(originally)openstructures,whichareofmayorimportanceforthe
migrationandthetransportofliquidsandgas.
Inmanycasesfissuresare(secondarily)filledwithmineralprecipitationslikegypsum,calciteor
quartzorevenraremineralslikeores(veins).
Tensiongashesare(normallysmallscaled)structuresasaresultoftensionalstress.
TypesofPlanesinGeology
3c)Faults
Faultsareseparationplanesinrocksshowing(megascopically)visibleandmeasurable
displacement.
Thedisplacementmaybeobservedby:
thedisplacementofmarkerbeds,
Setofthreenormalfaultsdisplacingalimestonelayer
(Alps,fromRamsay)
Strikeslipfaultinlimestones (LeinetalRift,Mller)
Typesoflineationsingeology:(primary)sedimentarylineations
Manynontectonical,primarytypesoflineations,especiallyinsedimentology,areknown,which
provideuswithinformationabouttransportdirectionsandsourcesofsedimentarymaterial.
Flutecasts,striationmarks,
groovecastsarethebest
knownstructuresofthis
type.
However,eveninigneous
rockslinearalignmentof
needleshapedminerals
servesasindicatorofflow
directionsandinflux
mechanismsofmelts.
Flutecastsonadownsidedbeddingplaneofoverturnedgreywackesequences,Harz
Typesoflineationsingeology:Foldaxis
Foldaxis(hingelines)aretheconnectinglinesof
theinflexionpointsofafold,atwhichthe
concavityofthelimbsreverses(eitheranticline
axisorsynclineaxis).
Foldaxisarethemostimportantgeometrical
elementtodescribetheorientationandtypeof
folds.
Typesoflineationsingeology:Foldrelatedlineations
Fishmouthstructurebetweenboudins inmarbles;
Matreishearzone,Austria.
Mullionstructureinaalternatingsequenceof
greywackes andslates,Eifel(RAMSAY)
Typesoflineationsingeology:Intersectionlines
Infoldedrocks,theintersectionlineationsbetweenfoldrelatedplanescorrespondtothe
orientationofthefoldaxis.
Intersectionsofplanesofthesameorder(suchasbeddingplanes)arecalledlineations.
Intersectionsofplanesofdifferenttype(andorigin),forinstancebeddingplanes(s0)and
cleavage(s1)arecalledlineations.
Pencileshapedpiecesofslates,formedbyaobtuseangle
betweenbeddingandcleavage(lineations).Thelongaxisof
thepencilsrepresenttheorientationoffoldaxis.
Typesoflineationsingeology:Mineralstretching
Typesoflineationsingeology:Mineralgrowth
Newformingorrecrystallized needle
shapedmetamorphicmineralsor
aggregatesofmineralsunder
continuouscompressional stress
conditionsaregrowingparalleltothe
minorstressaxis.
Needles
Platyshapedminerals
Typesoflineationsingeology:Striation
Striationsarescratchmarksonfaultplanes,formedbythetectonicaldisplacementprocessof
thetworigidblocksalongthefaultplane.Theyareofmajorimportance,astheydemonstrateus
therelativeandabsolutedisplacementdirection.
Vertical striations and crescentlike edges indicate, that the (upper) hanging-wall block
was displaced vertically downwards, resulting in a normal fault.
Jurassic limestones, French Jura, (diameter of the picture: 1m), Photo: Mller
Wheredoesstructuralinformationcomefrom?
a) superficialoutcrops:
Advantages:
easilyaccessible,lowcosts
exposedin3dimensionsatlargeextensions
largenumbersofdatamaybecollected
relativetemporalandspatialrelationsofdifferentelements
andgenerationsmaybedistinguished
Problems:
transferofsuperficialinformationtothedepth
Wheredoesstructuralinformationcomefrom?
b) Drillings:informationonfracturesmaybeobtaineddirectlyfromcores,fromvideo
recordingsofthedrillholeorfromspeciallyprocessedlogsorcombinationsoflogs,
producing3Dimages.
Advantages: informationmaybeobtaineddirectlyfromthelocationof
interest
Problems:
highcost,
verylimitedrageofinformationinspace,
limitednumberofdata
orientationandmeasurementofelementsisdifficult
Wheredoesstructuralinformationcomefrom?
b) Seismics:interpretationsofresultsofseismicexplorationin2Dand3D
Advantages: informationmaybeobtainedregionalscaleundgreatdepth
Problems:
highcost,
limiteddetaileddissolution,minorstructuresdifficulttoanalyse,
orientationandmeasurementofelementsisdifficulttoanalyse,
Typesofstructuraldata,tobecollected
Spatialorientationofthefractures: eachkindofstructuralmodelingdependsbasicaly onthe
orientationofthefracturepatterninastatisticalpointofview.Forrepresentationandanalysis
ofthedataspecialmethodsasrosediagramsandstereographicrepresentationareneeded.
Analysisoftype,relationsandoriginofthefractures: usingjoints:observationofgenetically,
temporallyandspatiallyrelatedjoints(setsofjoints).
usingfaults:observationofthetypeoffaults,kinematicsanddimensionofdisplacement.
Spatialrelation,densityofthefractures: veryimportantfortheinterpretationoftheroleofa
specialsetofjointsaspathwayforthemigrationoffluids.Thenumberofjointsofaspecial
orientationhastobecountedandbereferredtoanormalizeddistance.
Openingandfillingoffissures
MeasuringtheOrientationofPlanes
Strike
N
Dip direction
Strikedescribestheorientationofan(imaginary)horizontallineonaninclinedplane
(tothenorthdirection).Strikeisspecifiedbetween0and180.
horizontal plane
Dipdirectionistheorientationofthelineof
steepestpossibledipangleonaninclined
plane(tothenorthdirection),normaltostrike.
Dip angle
Dipangleistheanglebetweentheplanein
questionandan(imaginary)horizontalplane
indipdirection.Dipangleisspecifiedbetween
0and90.
GeologicalCompass
Brunton compass
GeologicalCompass
GermanMiners Compass
GeologicalCompass
GermanClar Compass
160/40
N070E,40SE
125/10NE
035/10
N055E,10NE
010/80W
280/80
N010E,80W
170/05W
260/05
N010W,05SW
30/10NW
300/10
N030E,10NW
160/80W
110/50NE
250/80
20/50
N020W,80W
140/10SW
230/10
N050W,10SW
050/15NW
320/15
N050E,15NW
000/40W
270/40
N000,40W
090/50N
000/50
N090E,50N
180/90
090/90
N000,90
N070W,50NE
MeasuringtheOrientationofLineations
Trenddescribestheorientationofan(imaginary)horizontalprojectionofthe
lineationtothenorthdirection).Trendisspecifiedbetween0and180.
horizontal plane
Plunge (angle)
Plungedirectionisthedirectionofthe
inclinationofthelineation(tothenorth
direction),paralleltothetrend.
Plunge(angle)istheanglebetweenthe
lineationinquestionandthe(imaginary)
projectionofthelineationtoanhorizontal
planeinplungedirection.Plungeisspecified
between0and90.
Notationofstructuraldata:lineations
130/40SE
130/40
S050E,40
015/80NE
015/80
N015E,80
15/10NE
015/10
N015E,10
140/42NW
320/42
N040W,42
050/30SW
230/30
50,S030W
100/54NW
170/80N
280/54
350/80
80,N54W
010/20N
010/20
10,N020E
030/13SW
240/13
60,S13SW
014/50S
194/50
S014W,50
140/00
140/00
N040W,00
065/14SW
245/14
S65W,14
10,N80N
ClassificationofFaults
ClassificationofFaults
Normalfaults
Reversefaults
Strikeslipfaults:
G:sinistral
I:dextral
CombinationsofNormalFaults
TypesofReverseFaults
Reversefault:
dip>45 (~65)
Thrustfault:
dip<30
Overthrust:
Dip<20
Faultssymbolsonblackboard!
Thrustduplex:
Combinationofstacked
thrustfaults
Exercise:Determinationoftypeanddisplacementoffaults
Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults(1)
Todeterminethedisplacementrateof(verticallydisplaced)faultsingeologicalmaps,two
triangularrelationsmaybeused.
Thefirstgeometricalconstructionisexecutedalongasectionverticallytothefaultplanewith
thecomponents:
s =(apparent)horizontalwidthofdisplacement(=horizontalcomponentofw)(heave),
t =verticalwidthofdisplacement(=verticalcomponentofw)(throw),
w =(real)widthofdisplacement(slip)
Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults(2)
Usingthethrowt,theformertrianglemaybecombinedwithasecondtrianglearranged
verticallytothebeddingofdisplacedrocks,whichusesanapparenthorizontalrateof
displacementsh (strikeseparation).Thestrikeseparationsh canbemeasuredalongalineof
strikebetweenthesameplaneofadisplacedlayer.
Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults(3)
usingtrigonometricfunctions
tan(bedding)=t/sh;t=sh *tan(bedding)
sin(fault)=t/w;t=w*sin(fault);w=t/sin(fault)
cos(fault)=s/w;s=w*cos(fault);w=s/cos (fault)
tan(fault)=t/s;t=s*tan(fault);s=t/tan(fault)
Exercise:Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults
Calculatedisplacementratesandcompletethesketchesofmaps,assumingpureverticaldisplacement
Scale1:10000
Joints
Jointsarefractureswithout
visibleormeasurable
displacementinrocks
Definitions:
Jointtrace:intersectionlinebetweenajointplaneandanyotherplane.
Jointset:isasetof(moreorless)parallelorientatedandgeneticallyrelatedjoints.
Jointzone:section,inwhichajointsetofspecificorientationareconcentrated
(comparedtoitssurroundings).
Jointsystem:theentiretyofthejointsetsofdifferentorientationsinaregion,
whichmaybeconsideredasgeneticallyrelatedtothesamestressconditions.Those
jointsetsmaybesymmetricallyorientated,forexampleorthogonallyorientated
jointsorconjugatesetsofjoints.
Jointpattern:theentiretyofalljointsofareregion,whichmaybecomprisedof
severaljointsystemswithgeneticallyandtemporarydifferentorigin.
Systematicjoints
Joints,whicharegeometricallyregular(parallel,orthogonal)(jointsystems)intheir
arrangementarecalledsystematicjoints.
NonsystematicJoints
Lessregularjointsarecalled
nonsystematicjoints.
Theyarenormallyofaminorscaleandof
irregular,randomorientations.
Nonsystematicjointsmaybeoriginated
bylocalvariationsofrheological
parameters.
Theycanhardlybepredicted.
Joints
Manyjointsystemsexhibitregionallyconsistentpatternsoforientations,whichare
observedtopersisteventhroughoutthestratigraphicsection.
Insedimentaryrocksasystematicperpendicularorientationofjointstothebeddingplanes
iscommonlyobserved,frequentlyshowinganorthogonalarrangement oftwosetsofjoints.
Thissocalledfundamentaljointsystemseemstobegeneratedalreadyduringearly
diagenesis.Sometimes,theorientationofthesystemcorrespondstotheaxisofthebasin.
Therefore,thearrangementofjointsinsedimentsfrequentlyshowsrelationstotheshape
ofthesedimentarybasin.
Joints
Mostobservationsonjointsimply,thattheyhavebeenformedundertensilestressconditions.
Nevertheless,compressiveregimenisthecommonstateofstressintheearthscrust(load!),
therefore,effectivestress,controlledbyfluidpressure,playsanimportantroleinjoint
formation.
Thespacingofjointsinsedimentarylayersiscontrolledbytheelasticbehaviorandthicknessof
thebeds.Therefore,spacingdiffersinmanysequencesfromlayertolayer.
TheelasticbehaviorofrocksisdescribedbytheYoungmodulus,whichisameasureoftheir
stiffnessanddescribestherelationbetweentensilestressandstrain.
Fissures,tensiongashes
Fissuresareopenstructures,combined
withextensionalstressconditions.They
arearrangedintypicalorientationstothe
appliedstressfieldandthecorresponding
majorstructures(faults).
Mineralfibers(gypsum,calcite,quartz)in
fissurescrystallizeparalleltotheminorstress
axis3
Photo:RODRIGUES etal.(2009):J.Geol.Soc.;166:.695709
Representationofstructuraldata
Structural datasets normally involve the following features:
they represent the 3-dimensional orientation of planes or lineations,
they include normally a large number (several tens or hundreds) of samples,
they include different types of structural elements (bedding, faults, joints),
whose geometrical relations are known and must be verified.
Please note: Directional data, expressed by strike and dip, can not be
treated statistically as two independent values, but are 3-D vectorial data !
For statistical analysis of gravity centers of orientation and their variation,
special complex methods of vector analysis are required.
These large and complex directional datasets must be interpreted and
represented in a 3-dimensional system.
Two methods are in use:
Rose diagrams and
stereographic projection (Schmidt Net)
Rosediagrams
Inrosediagrams(only)thetrendofstructuralelementsisusedfortheconstructionofa
directionalhistogramshowingthefrequencyofdataofcertaindirectionalclasses,represented
ina360 or180 circle(rose).
Itisfrequentlyusedforsteeplydippingjointsetsorotherdatainwhichthedipangleisnot
important.
Rosediagrams:Example
Data:
Orientations of 64 joints
10/48 E
12/68 E
01/81 W
06/60E
12/49 E
12/83 E
03/84 W
07/66E
94/80 S
109/88 N
06/78 E
91/81 S
93/80 S
111/88 N
10/78 E
94/81 S
63/74 NW
163/67 NE
62/85 NW
64/75/NW
69/74 NW
161/67 NE
65/85 NW
59/75/NW
154/68 SW
17/81 ESE
149/70SW
155/69/SW
151/68 SW
20/81 ESE
151/70SW
148/69/SW
14/68 ESE
90/80 S
16/77 E
15/68 ESE
13/68 ESE
89/80 S
19/77 E
13/68 ESE
07/56 E
12/66 E
04/68 E
08/77W
06/56 E
15/66 E
02/68 E
11/77W
149/70SW
94/73 S
150/75SW
148/76SW
147/70SW
91/73 S
152/75SW
146/76SW
59/80NW
13/83 E
80/59N
60/60 SE
61/80NW
09/83 E
79/59N
66/66 SE
Rosediagrams:Differenttypes
Rosediagrams:Resultsoftheexample
Rosediagrams:Resultsoftheexample
bung Kluftrosen.pln
Datasets: 63
Interval: 10
max = 33.33%
270
90
Interval: 10
180
max = 26.98%
90
Applicationofjointdiagrams
Stereographicprojection(SchmidtNet)
Thesecondmethodofrepresentationofdirectionaldataismuchmoremeaningful,however
moredifficulttounderstand,touseandtointerpret.
Inthiscase,planesorlines,areconsideredtobearrangedwithinina(imaginary)sphere,
passingthroughthecenterofthesphere.
Theintersectionoftheelementwiththespheressurfaceleavesatraceinformofacircle
segment(plane)orapoint(line).
Thepositionofthetraceorthepointoneithertheupperorthelowerhemisphereisprojected
toaplanepassingthroughthecenterofthesphere.
TypesofProjection
Spherical surfaces may be projected as:
equal angle (Wulf net, Mercator),
equal length or
equal area (Schmidt net).
Stereographicprojection(SchmidtNet)
Model
top:polar(normal)projection
bottom:azimuthalprojection
Projection
equalareaprojection
Net
SchmidtNet
SchmidtNet
20
10
N
greatcircles(meridians)
30
NW
40
NE
Equator
SE
SW
smallcircles
S
PreparationoftheNet:
N
Fixapinfromthebacksidethrough
thecenterofthenet
Fixatransparencylayer
Orientatelayersparallel
Markcenter(cross)
Markoutercircle
MarkNPosition
Transparency Layer
Representationofaplane(70/20NW)as
greatcircle
Preparethetransparencylayer
Rotatethelayerwith70 counterclockwise
Count20 onequatorfromoutside
tocenter
Markthecorrespondinggreatcircle
Rotatethelayerbacktoorigin
Representation of lineations
Example: (70/20NE)
Preparethetransparencylayer
Rotatethelayerwith70 counterclockwise
Count20 alongNScenterlinefrom
Ntocentertocenter
Markthecorrespondingpoint
Rotatethelayerbacktoorigin
Exercise:Determinationofahighpermeabilitypathwaybytwointersectingfaults
Inthepetroleumprospectionfield1highflowrateshavebeendetectedintheverticaldrillhole DH1atadepthof1000m,obviouslycontrolled
bytheintersectionoftwonormalfaultzones.
Theirorientationsare:
Fault1:125/35
Fault2:156/55
1)Locatethepossiblecorridor,inwhichthisintersectionzonecouldcrosstheprospectoffield2andselectapossibledrillinglocation.
2)Atwhichdepththefavorableflowratesaretobeexpected?
AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata
AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata
AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata
10
10
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
3
0
0
Klassierung:
1
Punkt
2 - 3 Punkte
4 - 5 Punkte
5-10 Punkte
AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata:ExampleTectonicsFP
bung Kluftrosen.pln
Datasets: 63
at : 101 / 69
Contours at:
1.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.0
RepresentationofFaultsusingStereographicProjection.
.usingtheANGELIER method
Example:reversefault
plane:200/80
striation:270/60
StressandtheDeformationofRocks
Stress isameasureoftheintensityandorientationoftheforcesperunitareaonadeformable
bodyonwhichinternalforcesact.
Deformationorstrainisthereactionofrockstostressandisdescribedbytherelationbetween
aninitialandfinalplacementofasolidexposedtostress.
Inacoordinatesystem,thestateofstressofasinglepointinasolidcanbeexpressedbythree
principlestressaxis,whichareorientatednormaltoeachother:
1 =inthedirectionofthemajorstress,
2 =inthedirectionoftheintermediatestress,
3 =inthedirectionoftheminorstress,
StateofStressonaPlane
Thestateofstressonasinglepointonaplanewithinthesolidcanbedescribedby
anormalstresscomponentn and
two(perpendicular)shearstresscomponents1 and2
Themaximumshearstressactsonaplane,thatbisectstheanglebetweenmaximumand
minimumprinciplestress:
max =(1 3);
Thecorrespondingmaximumnormalstressequalsto:
n max =(1+3);
Onplanesperpendiculartooneofthethreeprinciplestressaxis,theshearstresscomponents
arezero.
ANDERSONS TheoremofFaulting.
states,thatonahorizontalearthssurface,thereisnoshearstress,whichcouldcausemass
displacement.Asaconsequence,oneoftheprincipalstressaxesmustbearrangednormalto
theearthssurface,thetwootheraxeshavetobeparalleltothesurface.Thisconceptleadsto
threeprinciplestateofstresssituationsintheearthcrust:
Case1:
1vertical:dilatation,
normalfaults
Case2:
3vertical:compression,
reverse,thrustfaults
Case3:
2vertical:compression,
strikeslipfaults
Stress:DefinitionsandUnits
TheunitforstressisPa(Pascal)=N/m
Compressivestressesareconsideredtobepositive!
1bar=105 Pa
10bar=1MPa (megaPascal)=106 Pa
Pressureat5kmoceandepth:500bar=50MPa
100MPa =1Kb(Kilobar)=1000bar
Pressureat30kmdepthofthecrust:approx.10kbar=1Gpa =109 Pa
1atm (atmosphere)=1,0133x105 Pa
1kg/cm2 =0,9807bar
Thestresstensormaybedecomposedintotwocomponents:
MeanStress..
isthemeanvalueofthestressstate:
m =(1+2 + 3)/3;
andrepresentstheisotropicpartofthestress
DeviatoricStress.
isthedifferencebetweenaprinciplestressandthemeanstress:
i=i m;
whichisresponsibleforalmostallcompressivedeformationalfeatures.
Stress:DefinitionsandUnits
Lithostaticpressure..
(orLoad)actsnormaltotheearthssurfaceandiscontrolledbytheloadoftherockpile,which
isdepth(inm)bydensity(atanaverageof2,5g/cm)bygravitationalconstantof9,82msec.
Lithostaticpressureisalsoexpressedasverticalstressv
Example:
Rockpileof5000m,density:2,5g/cm
500000cmx2,5g/cm=1250000g/cm=1250kg/cm
1250kg/cmx0,9807=1225bar=1,225Kb
1,225KB=122,5MPa
HydrostaticPressure..
(confining,geostatic,fluidpressure)isthehydrostaticpressureofawatercolumninaspecific
depthduetotheforceofgravity:
pfluid =depth[m]x0,1[g/cm](1000mx0,1=100bar=10MPa)
Hydrostaticpressurehasthesamemagnitudeinthreedirections(confining).Internalporefluid
pressurereducestheeffectivestrengthactingonthesolid.
EffectiveStress.
isthedifferencebetweenmeanstressandfluidpressure:
*
m
1* 2* 3*
3
( 1 2 3 3Pfluid )
3
TheMohrDiagram
TheMohrdiagramisaveryimportanttoolforrepresenting,analyzingand,aboveall,
understandingthestateofstress,actingonaplaneofanyorientationinastressedsolid
material(givenbytheprincipalstressaxes1,2,3).
WewillconsiderMohrdiagramoperationsintwodimensionsonly.
Example:Aplaneinahomogeneouslystressedcube.Itsnormal
includesanangle (=shearangletheta)with1.
Thestateofstressactingonthegivensurface,definedbythe
shearangle,canbydividedintotwocomponents:
Thenormalstressn isactingnormaltotheplane
Theshearstress isactingparalleltotheplane,resultingina
sheardisplacementalongtheplane
Trigonometricrelationsdeductedfromthediagram
1A=
A
( ncos+ sin)
cos
3B =
B
( n sin + cos)
sin
solved for n:
n 1 cos 2 3 sin 2
solved for :
( 1 3 ) sin cos
converted into:
n (
1 3
2
)(
1 3
1 3
2
) cos 2;
) sin 2;
PlottingtheMohrDiagram
TheMohrdiagramrepresentsthestateofstressofamaterialusingn asxaxisand asyaxis.
Thestressonasinglepointonaplaneplotsasapoint(n ,).
Compressivestressplotsontheright,tensilestressontheleftsideofthediagram.
Thestatesofstressofallpossibleplanesofagivenstressfieldarearrangedonacirclewithacenterofthemeanstress and
aradiusofthedeviatoricstress.
1 and3 plotonthecircleintersectionwiththexaxis.
Theshearangle(2)isrepresentedbytheangleofalinebetweenthecenterandtherepresentingpointofaplane.
Planesperpendicularto1 and3 (with=90)havenoshearstress.
Maximumshearstressoccursat=45.
Thelargerthedifferencebetween1 and3 (deviatoricstress)thelargeristheshearstressonagivenplane.
TheMohrDiagram:Exercises
1) Theprinciplestresses1 and3 aregivenwith80Mpaand45Mparespectively.
1 isorientatedhorizontallyinEWdirection,3 vertically.Whatisthestateofstress(n, )
onafractureplanestrikingNSanddippingwith30 totheE?
Solution:=60,2=120
max=17,5Mpaat =45
nmax =62,5MPa
n =53,75MPa
=15,15MPa
2) Thestateofstressismeasuredin2slotsofamine.Thefirstdips32Eandhasanormal
compressivestressn of57Mpaandashearstress of12Mpadowndip.Theseconddips
84Eandhasanormalcompressivestressnof40Mpaandashearstress of3Mpa.What
isthestateofprinciplestressesandtheirorientationinthisregion?
Solution: Constructthetworepresentingstresspoints,
Bisectorlineinterferingthexaxisresultsinthecenter ofthecircle:
1=66,5MPa,3=40MPa
TheMohrEnvelope:GatheringExperimentalData
Piston
Triaxial testingapparatus
(fromSUPPE 1985:152)
Resultofatriaxial testofacylindricalshale
sample(Inst.ofGeology,TUClausthal)
common
confining
pressure c
TheMohrEnvelope:ResultofanExperiment
Mohrdiagramofthefractureexperimentataconfining
pressureof50Mpa.
Thediagramrepresentsthreedifferentstatesof
deformation.Therockprobefailedataloada of750
(800load 50confiningpressure)Mpa (fromSUPPE 1985:152).
longitudinalstrain: l
(l 0 l )
l0
Stressstraindiagramofthe
tests(fromSUPPE 1985:152).
Thenearlylineartrendisa
resultoftheelasticbehavior
ofthesample.
TheMohrEnvelope
Mohrdiagramfordiabase sampleswithincreasingconfiningpressuresatroomtemperature.
Eachcirclerepresentsthestateofstressatfailureatadifferentmeanstress.
Therockstrengthincreaseswithmeanstress,dependingondifferentconfiningpressures.
Thelocusofstressstates,thatboundsthefieldsofstableandunstablestresses,iscalledthe
Mohrenvelope(fromSUPPE 1985:153)
TheMohrEnvelope
ThreefieldsoffracturedevelopmentarerepresentedintheMohrenvelope.
Thetensilefieldisrepresentedbyafixedtensilestrength T0.Onlyonedirectionofpossible
fractures,perpendiculartothedirectionofmaximumtensilestress,exist.Typicalvaluesof
tensilestrengthare5to20Mpa.
TheMohrEnvelope
TheMohrEnvelope
TheCoulombfracturebehaviorrepresentsthelinearincreaseofshearstrength
correspondingtoincreasingconfiningpressure,characterizedbyaslopeoftan.
Theangleiscalledangleofinternalfriction.
Itstangentiscalledcoefficientofinternalfriction,whichisamatterconstant.
Athighconfiningpressureandincreasingtemperatures,strengthincreaseonlyslowlyat
ductilebehavior.
TheMohrEnvelope:Exercise
2)Ina6000mdeepdrillhole,thefollowingparametershavebeendetermined:
Averagedensityoftherocks:2,7g/cm
Densityoffluids:1,1g/cm
Directionofh (usingbreakouts):150/00
h =0,5v
H =0,8v
Jointset1:330/60
Jointset2:60/60
Problems:
a) Calculatetheprinciplestresses
b) ConstructtheMohrdiagramrepresentingthestateofstressatthebottomofthedrillhole.
c) Determinemeanstressanddifferentialstress
d) Determinemeanstressandeffectivestress
e) Drawasketchofthestateofstress,itsorientationandthesituationofthejointinthe
borehole
f) Bytriaxialtestingexperiments,theMohrenvelopeoftherocksintheboreholehavebeen
determined.Willthejointsfailornotbythegivenparameters.
g) Ifthejointwillnotfail,howcouldwetriggerthefracturegeneration?
Solution:
v =1 =159MPa
H=0,8V =2 =127MPa
h =0,5V =3 =79,5MPa
Center=(1+ 3)/2=119,25MPa
pfluid =66MPa
=38,06MPa
max=40,5MPa
Meanstress:121,8MPa
EffectiveStress:55,8MPa
TheMohrDiagram:Consequences
Onthebaseofexperimentaldataofthestateofstressandstraininrocksestimationstothe
followingproblemsmaybefound:
Themagnitudesofn and atthemomentoffailureoftherocksarerelatedtoeachother.The
relationisdescribedbyBYERLEEs law:
Withincreasingnormalstressincreasescriticalshearstress:
crit =0,6 n to0,85 n inregionsofmoderatestress.
Thereare3possibilitiesintheearthscrust:
thereisnoshearstressT
1. 1 =2 =3 :
2. 1 >2 >3:
therearetwoplanesofmaximumshearstress
intersectingparallelto2 .Shearstressesachievetheir
maximumsymmetricallyto1 and3 withashearangleof45,
resultingin(potentially)conjugatedfractures.
3. 1 =2 or2 =3:
resultsinaninfinitenumberofplanesofmaximumshearstress
TheMohrDiagram
Whatkindofinformationcanbederivedfromit?
Determinationofdifferentialstresses(1 3)
DeterminationoftensilestrengthT0 ofrocks
Determinationoftheangleofinternalfriction,whichiscontrolledbythegradientofthe
Mohrenvelope(mostly30)
Determinationofthecoefficientofinternalfriction =tan(mostly0,55 0,85,inclays0,3
0,4)
Estimationoftheinfluenceoffluidpressurepfluid anditsrelationtolithostaticpressurev,
whichismoreorless0,4inrespecttothedensitiesof1,0g/cmofwaterand2,7g/cmof
rocksinopensystemsintheuppercrust.
Estimationaboutthepossiblestrainregimeandbehaviorofrocks(tensile,compressive,
ductile)
Estimationaboutpossibleorientationsoffracturesinrocksaccordingtoanexistingorpre
existingstateofstress
Reconstructionofapreexistingorientationofstateofstressandthepositionofstressaxis
usingaexistingfracturesystem
Simulationofconditions,underwhichtheformationoffracturescouldbesupported
(hydrofracking)orimpeded,i.e.bycontrollingfluidpressure.
TheOriginofJoints(fromSUPPE 1985)
IntheMohrdiagramtheprincipledomainofjointgeneratingconditionsisthetensileor
transitionaltensileregimen.Tensilefracturesformperpendiculartothedirectionofthe
maximumtensilestress(between5and20Mpa).
Transitionaltensilebehaviorisexhibitedabovetheleasttensilestrength.
(1* 3* ) 4 2T0
Theequationforjointformationis:
whichisthelimitofthemaximumdeviatoricstressforatensile
effectivenormalstresstangentbytheshapeoftheMohr
envelope.
Forjointformation,themaximum
deviatoricstressequals:
( 1* 3* ) 4T0
Fortruetensilejoints,themaximum
effectivestressislimitedto3times
thetensilestrength
1* 3T0
Problem:Verticalstressisduetothegravitationalloadcompressive.Therefore,the
requirementsfordeepformationofjointsare:
smalldeviatoricstressesand
highfluidpressurerations
TheDepthofJointFormation(fromS
UPPE 1985)
Usingtheaboveequationandtheequationforlithostaticpressure,maximumdepthof
formationofjointcanbecalculatedas:
with:
=meanrockdensity
3T0
z
g=gravitationalconstant
g (1 )
=fluidpressureratio
Forrockswithnormaltensilestrengthbetween2to10MPa,theformationofjointsis
limitedto1or2kmofdepth,assuminglowfluidpressures(lowsalinities).
Thebedshaveundergonecompactionandareinthesamestate E E .......E
1 1
2 2
n n
ofstress.Thehorizontalstressandstraininalayeristhen:
Ifthesebedsareuniformlystretchedbyastrainx ,thenewhorizontalstress,generatedineach
ofthenlayerswillbedifferent:
1 E 1 1 x
2 E 2
and soon.
Asaconsequence,uniformstrainwillgeneratebedparallelnormalstress,whichwillbe
differentineachlayerofcontrastingelasticproperties.
TheSpacingofJoints(fromSUPPE 1985)
Inthefieldweobserve,thatthespacingofjointscorrespondstothelayerthickness.
ThesocalledGRIFFITH theory,states,thatthestressreleasearoundanewformedjointaffects
onlyaradiusofaboutonecracklength.
Inconsequence,stressreleaseaffectsonlyashortdistancearoundthenewformedcrack,the
restofthebedwillremaininanearfailuretensilestresscondition.Smallincreasesofstrainwill
formnewjoints,sothatalayerwillbejointedin(moreorless)uniformdistancesequaltoits
thickness.
Furthermore,stressreleaseinonedirectionmayinfluencethemagnitudesof 2 and3.
Asaconsequence,theorientationofthenewformedjointschangeorthogonally.