Desalination, 73 (1989) 295-312

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -

A Recarbonation

Process

Produced

for Treatment

by MSF Plants

H.E. Al-Rqobah,
Ministry

295

Printed in The Netherlands

of Distilled

H. and Al-Munayyis,

of Electricity

Water

in Kuwait

and Water,

A.

Kuwait.

Abstract
Distilled

water

produced

from MSF plants

is a very soft water

that has a low buffer capacity, and as such, is considered quite

aggressive to the materials encountered
in the water distribution
Furthermore, this untreated water is not accepted from a
system.
Different
remedial treatment
propalatability
point of view.
cesses

are therefore

In Kuwait,
18

months

at

being

adopted

a recarbonation
Shuwaikh

by different

process

Desalination

MSF plants.

has been
Plant

in operation

treating

18

distilled
water as the first step in a major scheme
treating water produced by all MSF plants in Kuwait.
The

major

steps

in the

adopted

recarbonation

for

MIGD

of

aimed

at

process

include

extraction
of carbon dioxide from the vent gas system of the MSF
plant, compression and purification of Cop -air gas stream, acidification
of a pre-calculated
distilled
water stream in a gas
absorption tower, limestone dissolution to augment the water with
Caz+ and HCO; necessary for water to be self-inhibiting,
degasiwith by-passed
distilled
fication
of the excess COz, blending
water

and finally

This
the

paper

different

well as an
the last'18

pH adjustment.
presents

steps

analysis
months.

some

encountered
of plant

engineering
in the

operation

design

aspects

of

recarbonation

process

as

experience

gained

during

296

Introduction

tion
tube

Kuwait, like most Gulf countries, depends on seawater desalinafor its fresh water supply.
In 1953, the first submerged
distillation
plant was commissioned
in Shuwaikh with a capa-

Today, the Ministry of Electricity

and Water
city of 1.0 MIGD.
(MEW) operates
6 MSF desalination
stations with a total installed
capacity
The

of 263 MIGD.
distilled

water

produced

has

very

low concentrations

of

dissolved
salts and gases and a total alkalinity of less than 1
The high purity renders the water to be chemically
mg CaC03/L.
very
aggressive
towards
nearly
all
components
in the water
distribution
system, resulting
of
One
of
the
by-products
hydroxide,

a red-brown

in very severe
this
chemical

rust, which

results

corrosion problems.
attack
is ferric

in what

is called

"red

water".
To improve

the palatability

of distilled

water,

it is usually

blended
with brackish
water
in
different
blending
ratios,
depending
on the quality of the available
brackish water.
In
Kuwait, the blending ratio is nearly 1O:l.
underground
fresh water
is also added.

Negligible
The potable

amount
of
water thus

produced
has a total alkalinity
of 20-24 mg CaC03/L, which
is
less than the minimum value of 50 mg CaC03/L necessary to depress
the corrosion
rate of the
water distribution
system.
total

alkalinity

If iron

different
Chemical

of the potable

is immersed

rust
is developed
Fe(OH)3 or hydrated
this electrochemical

in water

water

materials
treatment

involved
in
to increase

is therefore

saturated

inevitable.

with dissolved

due to the formation

of
ferric oxide Fe203. x H20.
reaction can be explained

the
the

oxygen,

ferric
hydroxide
The mechanism of
by the following

equations:

Fe

Fe*+ + 2 e-

(I)

2 e- t 2 H20

(2)

+ 2 OH-

297

2 e

H,O + 1/2

0, +

2 OH-

(3)

Equation (1) represents the anodic reaction which. causes

ferrous ions and electrons to be released from iron atoms. The
electrons released will be consumed according to the cathodic
reactions represented by equations (2) and (3). In acidic solutions such as water saturated with C02, hydrogen gas is generated
and hydroxyl ions are formed according to equation (2).
In
neutral solutions containing dissolved oxygen, the same amount of
hydroxyl ions will be formed according to equation (3), and
The ferrous ions are unstable
alkaline conditions will prevail.
under normal conditions and will be oxidized due to the presence
of dissolved oxygen in neutral solutions according to the
following reaction:

2 Fe2' + H,O + l/2

0,

2 Fe3' t 2 OH-

(4)

The ferric ions are then hydrolyzed by water precipitating the

insoluble ferric hydroxide (iron rust) according to:

Fe3+ + 3 H,O

Fe(OH), + 3 H+

(5)

The overall reaction is the formation of hydrogen ions, which

maintain a condition of acidity according to:

2 Fe3' + 5 H20 + l/2

0, +

2 Fe(OH), t 4 H'

(6)

Ferric hydroxide is a gelatinous precipitate which partially

dehydrates resulting in the red-brown ferric oxide, which is the
It has no protective action and
main constituent of "red water".

298

as

water

temperature

increases,

and the corrosion rate will

important
to increase the
thus

prevent

distribution
The

complete-

the
PR decreases correspondin!
therefore increase. It is therefore
pH and depress
iron dissolution
and

failure

main

objective

of

this

bonation
process
adopted
in
comprehensive
scheme to solve
from

the

of the pipes

in the potable

water

system.

first

year

of

work

is

to

describe

Kuwait
as the
the problem of

operation

of

this

the

recar-

first phase
"red water".

process

will

in a
Data

also

be

discussed.

Corrosion

Inhibition

There

are various

methods

which

sion inhibition
of the pipe
distribution
system.
During
sive

study

Centre

1.

was

(WRDC)
To

conducted

of MEW with

establish

under

prevailing

the

by

used

period

the

4 main

potable

water

a comprehen-

1979-1981,

Water

data

for the corro-

in the
Resources

objectives

corrosion

Development

base

for

pipe

materials

conditions.

2.

To evaluate

alternative

3.

To

available

assess

can be applied

network

materials
metal

of construction.,

pacification

methods,

with

regard to the materials

used in different components
of
the distribution
system under the prevailing conditions.
4.

To

perform

suitable
One

of the

main

has

Pacification
investigated,

technical

chemical

the recommendation
with cement-mortar
tion
system
construction.

in

and

treatment

results

economic
process

of the

first

of using ductile
and seal-coated.
recently

of water
the

been

by

second

for

the

most

for self-inhibition.
part

of this

study

was

iron pipes, lined internally

Most of the water distribu-

upgraded

of

to

this

its total

increasing
part

study

the

study,

material

of

alkalinity

was

using

different

299

agents such as calcium and sodium hydroxides, sodium silicate,

sodium-zinc phosphates, sodium and calcium bicarbonates.
It was
concluded that water recarbonation was best performed using
bicarbonates,
and that the maximum pacification effect was
obtained when the total alkalinity, expressed as mg CaC03/L, was
increased to the same level as calcium concentration, expressed
as mg CaC03/L, in the recarbonated water.
It was also recommended to use phosphate inhibitors with a higher initial dose of
6-12 mg/L of phosphates followed by a lower 2-6 mg/L dosage.
Water

of

high

alkalinity

and

calcium

content

is a stable

water, and can produce a thin protective layer of calcium carbonate by careful increase in the pH.
This is the concept of
self-inhibition
and can be described by the following two
reactions:

HCO-

OH-

co2- +HO
3

CO:- + Ca2+

CaC03(S)

(7)

(8)

The hydroxyl ions necessary for the first reaction are produced
during the reduction of dissolved oxygen, according to equation
There are three conditions which are necessary for self(3).
inhibition of water:
(1) The water must be free of C02.
Carbonic acid, even at
low concentrations, will neutralize the hydroxyl ions proIt will also dissolve
duced according to equation (3).
any protective calcium carbonate layer, and finally it
Free CO2 can be degasified in a
will attack the metal.
stripping tower using air, or by treatment with sodium
hydroxide.
(2) The concentration of calcium and carbonate ions must
satisfy the solubility product of calcium carbonate, in
order to precipitate the inhibition film.
(3) The pH value of water must be carefully adjusted.
Langelier saturation index, LSI, is defined by
following equation:

The
the

300

LSI = pti - pHs

where

the

pH

of

saturation,

(9)

pHs,

is defined

as the

which water containing bicarbonate

and calcium
with CaC03. The pHs can be expressed as
pHs = A + B - log (Ca*+)
where

A is a constant

another

is

which

constant

positive

conditions,
negative
therefore

thus

index

indicates

index indicates
associated with

on

the

alkalinity

is associated
a tendency

TDS

non-corrosive

deposit

CaC03.

a tendency
to dissolve
CaC03 and
corrosive conditions.
It can then

deduced
that maintaining
the pH value of water above its
value will result in deposition of the protective CaC03 layer
hence

corrosion

Based

inhibition

on the

and

content.

are both expressed

with

to

(IO)

temperature,

water

at

saturated

alkalinity)

on the water

depends

and total

saturation

and

depends

which

Calcium ion concentration

as mg CaC03lL.

- log (total

pH value

is just

A
is
be
pHs
and

can be achieved.

recommendation

of maintaining

the

same

level

of

calcium
ion concentration
and total alkalinity,
the following
equation
can be applied for a recarbonation
process,
operating
at 4O"C, a total alkalinity
of 70 mg CaC03/L and calcium concentration

of 70 mg CaC03/L:

pHs = 11.46

- 2 t log (tota 1 alkalinity)

( 11)

The Recarbonation Process

A

recarbonation

process

with Shuwaikh Power

of the recarbonation
recarbonated
The

water

with

proc'ess consists

Fig.

was established

and Water
plant is

Desalination
18 MIGD and

a total

alkalinity

3 main

steps

of

as

in 1987 and incorporated

The capacity
Plant.
was designed to yield
of 60-80

mg

schematically

CaC03/L.
shown

in

1.
Distilled

plant

is

water

acidified

from
in

an

three

units

absorption

of
tower

the

MSF

using

desalination
CO2

$35..

The

Fig.

1.

Schenicltic

CO?+

flow

AIR

diagram

of

ttls recarbonation

process.

302

acidified
in

water

number

reaction

limestone

by bicarbonate

dissolution

+ H20 + CO2

excess

limestone

CO2

present

dissolution

Ca*'

.The

CaC03

following

in

the

filters

+ Z(HCOa)-

It can

be observed

natural

that

carbonation

(12)

recarbonated

is degassified

using air.
Finally, a 15 wt% caustic
the water stream for final adjustment

the

ions using

filters.

takes place.

CaCOs

The

is then augmented

of

this

water

soda solution is dosed

of its pH value.

recarbonation

process

leaving

in a stripping

taking

process

place

in

the
tower
into

resembles

the

aquatic

system.
The

carbon

dioxide

gas,

required

according

to equation

(12),

can be produced
conditions.
If

in many different
ways depending
on the local
the water feed to be treated is produced by any
then extraction
of CO2 from the
thermal
desalination
process,
non-condensable
gases, released as a result of heating seawater
would represent
the most technically
and
When seawater
is heated to
alternative.

to high temperatures,
economically
feasible

about 77"C, the calcium bicarbonate

to the following reaction:

Ca

+Q

(HCOJ2

The

amount

perature

from

of

CO2

the main

CaCOs

librated
heater

decompose

will

+ Hz0 + CO2

depends

and the

according

on

the

pressure

brine

top

tem-

in the first

flash

chamber
of the heat recovery
section of the MSF plant.
also
be
released
will
Dissolved
oxygen
and
nitrogen
gases
For better heat transfer
in the
together
with carbon dioxide.
these noncondensable
gases are
condenser
of the flash chamber,
vented

and

withdrawn,

using

steam

ejectors,

to

a vent

denser where water vapor is condensed using a by-pass

Almost dry
the distilled
water to be recarbonated.
evacuated
pump,

from

the

vent

gas

condenser
using
A two-stage

and fed to a gas compressor.

gas

con-

stream of
gases are

a booster
vacuum
reciprocating
gas

303

compressor,

with intermediate and after coolers, is

used to
compress the gas to about 7 bars.
From the gas receivers, the
gas stream containing CO2 and air is fed to a gas purification
filter filled with activated carbon to remove any volatile organic components.
According to the block flow diagram shown in Fig. 2, the gas
stream is fed to an absorption tower packed with Mella Pack of
polypropylene.
The extent to which water will be acidified, in
the absorption tower, depends on the C02-concentration and flow
rate of the gas stream, the flow rate of the water and the
operating pressure.
The pressure can be kept constant by means
of the air accumulated at the top of the tower.
If the liquid
load is kept constant, the C02-concentration in the exit water
stream can then be easily controlled by the flow rate of the
inlet gas stream. The height of the absorption tower used in the
recarbonation process at Shuwaikh is about 12.0 m with a diameter
of 1.3 m.
The acidified water is fed to limestone dissolution filters
to produce the required level of total alkalinity in the product.
The main factors which affect this step are the size and purity
of limestone, bed height, temperature, CO2 concentration in the
entering water stream, and the linear velocity of water flowing
downwards through the filter bed.
The size and purity of
limestone was fixed at l-5mm and 90% (as CaC03) respectively.
If
the water temperature and the bed height are fixed, the reaction
represented by equation (12) can then be controlled by the level
of C02-concentration and the linear velocity of water.
The
linear velocity must be optimized since the hold-up time will
determine the total bed height, diameter and number of filters.
As the linear velocity decreases the diameter or the number of
filters must be increased.
For high linear velocities, a large
bed height is needed which will result in a higher pressure drop.
For an optimum linear velocity, the alkalinity can therefore be
controlled only by the CO2 concentration in the entering water
The linear velocity and filter diameter in the process
stream.
were fixed at about 18 m/s and 5.0 m, respectively, with a minimum limestone bed height of 2.8 m in each filter.
The

recarbonated

water

leaving

the

limestone

dissolution

filters contains some excess CO2 and very little dissolved oxy-

VEXT
GAS
CO2 + AIR

NSF

DESALINATION
PLANT

DISTILLED
WATER
CO, PURIFICATION

H20 + CO

LINESTONE DISSOLUTIOX

BACK MASHING

SLURRY

pH ADJUSTNENT

RECAREONATED MATER
Fig. 2.

Block flow diagram of the .fecarbonation .process.

305

gen,

and is therefore

fed to a stripping

tower.

By direct

counter-

current contact with air, more oxygen

can be dissolved,
and the
pH value can be slightly controlled by the flow rate of air.
The
stripping
tower is packed with the same material as the absorption tower,
and
is designed
with a diameter
of 2.6 m and a
height

of about

For

final

system is
stream.
As can

7.7 m.

pH adjustment

used

to

inject

be observed

from

of the

water

15 wt%

NaOH

Fig.

to about
solution

1 and Fig.

8.0,
into

2, the

a dosing
the

water

recarbonation

process can be designed and operated either in the once-through

or
by-pass mode.
In the once-through mode, all distilled water is
In the
augmented
by the required amounts of Ca*+ and HC03 ions.
by-pass

mode,

a part of the water

is fed to the limestone

filters

to gain higher values of these ions.

The other part is by-passed
and blended with the water leaving the stripper tower.
As the
by-pass
ratio, defined
as the ratio of by-pass
stream to the
total water stream, increases,
the number of limestone
filters
required will decrease.
However, more excess CO2 will be needed
in

the

water

limestone,
The

stream

entering

and increase

amount

the

the total

of CO2 which

filters

to

dissolve

more

alkalinity.

can be extracted

from the MSF desali-

nation plant is however limited.

Each unit, with a capacity of 6
MIGD,
can produce about 100Kg vent gas/h.The vent gas contains
The optimum by-pass ratio depends, therefore on the
60-85% C02.
total
capacity
of the recarbonation
process and the number of
units

involved

Results
The
Heavy
The

in the MSF plant.

of Plant
Shuwaikh

Industries

WRDC

of MEW

Operation
Recarbonation

Plant was commissioned

of Japan and its operation

by Sumitomo

started in October

1987.

designed

a scheme to monitor the quality of the

and performed a field survey among
produced,

recarbonated
water
the households
supplied
the quality of drinking

by this water. Tables

1, 2 and 3 show
water before carbonation,
the carbonated

distillate
and
the
carbonated
drinking
water,
respectively.
Figures 3-9 display some of the results obtained in this investi-

306

Tab le

1.

Typical Characteristics of Kuwait Drink ing

Before Carbonation

433.67
7.93
18.93
91.9
173.14
43.64
1.0
10
16.88

Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l)

PH
Total Alkalinity (T,Alk.)
Chloride (mg/l)
Sulphate (mg/l)
Calcium (mg/l)
Saturation Index
Ryznar Index
Chloride + Sulphate/T. Alk

Table 2. Monthly Average Characteristics of Kuwait Distillate

After Carbonation

Time

TDS

PI'

T.Alk

Cl

SO4

CA

L.1.

R.I.

Cl.S04/T.Alk

Oct. 87

86.0

8.28

72.68

0.20

5.0

26.05

0.54

7.12

0.069

Nov. 87

77.5

8.21

70.54

0.20

5.0

26.73

0.45

7.30

0.069

Dec.

87

87.8

a.26

69.33

0.20

5.0

25.87

0.48

7.30

0.07

Jan.

88

95.6

7.93

74.84

0.20

5.0

28.60

0.22

7.50

0.065

Feb. 88

9.30

7.85

71.50

0.20

5.0

29.48 0.10

7.65

0.082

Mar. 88

90.6

7.88

74.91

0.20

5.0

28.91 0.18

7.50

0.072

Apr. 88

83.5

8.11

74.82

0.20

5.0

28.53 0.40

7.30

0.058

May 88

87.4

8.09

67.00

0.20

5.0

30.07 0.28

7.50

0.77

80.3

7.99

72.50

0.20

5.0

26.67

7.50

0.067

Jul. 88

74.0

7.98

74.33

0.20

5.0

28.80 0.26

7.50

0.066

Aug. 88

32.5

7.90

64.50

0.20

5.0

28.20 0.06

7.80

0.069

Sep.

68.0

7.85

65.00

0.20

5.0

24.15 0.02

7.80

0.075

Jun.

88

88

0.25

307
Table

3. Monthly Average Characteristics

After Carbonatian
~

I 1I,\

TDS

PH

330.7 7.95

T.Alk

Cl

54.72

of Kuwait

CA

SO1

95.1)j

i.1.

Drinking

R.I.

-0.034

Water

Cl.S04/T.Alk

8.00

3.57

246.9 8.005 59.94 37.57 74.110 39.18 0.10

7.80

2.236

219.4 7.94

56.66 34.41 55.25 33.81 -0.01

8.00

1.908

277.8 7.87

53.1

47.10 76.58 38.58 -0.14

8.20

3.8

246.2 7.55

53.41 40.36 62.89 36.73 -0.45

8.50

2.296

254.9 7.60

56.30 38.11 59.81 3'.26 -0.36

8.30

2.064

252.1 7.73

52.90

54.70 34.86 -0.28

8.30

1.699

256.9 7.99

59.38 42.77 60.54 37.65 0.08

7.80

2.02

260.7 7.97

64.45 39.33 59.17 37.10 0.13

7.70

1.840

257.87 7.99

62.88 37.54 58.07 38.46 0.13

7.70

1.809

271.13 7.99

61.67 37.07 68.47 40.58 0.11

7.80

1.883

264.00 7.82

63.82 39.50 66.15 39.2 -0.03

7.90

1.82

49.20

37.,29

3il.i

350

0
r
I
7
OCT.87 NOV.87 DEC.87 JAN.88

I.I

FEB.88

I
MAR.88
TIME

CARBONATED

Fig. 3.

DISTILL.
Total

I
APR.88
+

I
MAY 88

I
JUN.88

CARBONATED

JUL.83

I
AUG.68

DRINKING

dissolved solids of the carbonated distillate and

the final drinking water as a function of time.

SEP.89

308

--

OCT.37

NOV.87

DEC.E7

JM.83

FEB.83

kAZ.83

APR.83

WY

88

JUN.83

JUL.83

AUG.33

SEP.83

TIME
f

CARBONATED DISTILL.
Fig.

CARBONATED DRINKING

pH of the carbonated distillate and the drinking water

4.

as a function of time.

76
74 -

c
72

63 66 -

64
62
60
58
56
54
521
OCT.87

,
NOV.87

DEC.87

I
JAN.88

1
FEB.88

I
MAR.88

I
APR.83

I
MAY 88

1
JUN.88

I
JUL.83

AUG.38

nh4E
CARBONATED DISTILL.

Fig. 5.

CARBONATED DRINKING

The total alkallni'ty Of the carbonated distillate and

the drinking water as a function of time.

SEP.33

41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27

26

25

OCT.87

NOV.67

DEC.87

JAN.88

FEB.88

MAR.88

APR.88

MAY 88

1
JUN.88

I
JUL.88

1
AUG.88

SEP.88

nME
+

CARBONATED DISTILL
Fig.

6.

Calcium
ion
and drinking

concentration
of the
water
as a function

CARBONATED DRINKING

carbonated
of time.

distillate

OX .

0.4
0.3

OCT.87

NOV.67

DEC.87

JAR.88

FE9.88

M.88

APR.88

hAY 88

JUN.88

~uL.88

~uG.66

s~p.86

TIME
Cl

CARBONATED DISTILL.
Fig.

7.

CARBONATED DRINKING

of
the
carbonated
Langelier
saturation
index (LI)
and drinking
water as a function
Of time.

distillate

310
9
8.8

8.6 8.4 -

OCT.87 NOV.87 DEC.87 JAN.86 FEB.88 MAR.88 Ai'R.88MAY 89

~ub4.88

~~p.88

JLJI_.&~ 4~~33

TIME
cl

CARBONATED DISTILL.
Fig. 8.

Ryzner
Index of the carbonated
as a function
of time.

CARBONATED DRINKING
distillate

and

drinking

water

1.5-j

/
1

0.5

g
r-l

0
OCT.87 NOV.87 DEC.87 JAN.88 FEB.88 MAR.88 APR.88 MAY 86 JUN.88 JUL.38AUG.83 SEP.88
TIME

CARBONATEDDISTILL.
Fil.

9.

CARBONATEDDRINKING

Chloride-sulphate
to alkalinity
ratio for the carbonated
distillate
and drinking water as a function of time.

311

gation.

The

results

shown

reflect

the

quality

of

the

recarbonated

before
(distillate)
and after
blending
with
brackish
water
water
(drinking),
as a function of time.
It can be generally
stated

that the plant has fulfilled its objectives of treating 18

a total alkalinity
of 60-80 mg CaCOS/L.
The results

MIGD to

shown are monthly average values and apart from a start-up period
of 12 days, the plant operation is quite stable.
Besides the pH,
total alkalinity
and calcium content
the Langelier
CaCOS saturation index
index (R.1) and the
important
parameters
stated
bition

chloride-sulphate
used to evaluate

a zero L.1

earlier,

is chemically

of the recarbonated
water,
(L.I), the Ryznar stability

stable

value

while

characteristics

indicates

a positive

or

to alkalinity
ratio
the water quality.

the

that the treated

value

ability

of

indicates
water

to

are
As

water

scale

inhi-

form

CaC08

On the other hand, a negative value of the L.1 indicates

scale.
scale dissolving
capacity and thus risk of corrosion.
Figure 7
shows the variation
of the Langelier
Saturation
Index over the
It can be noticed that the
period October 87 - September
1988.
L.I. values of the carbonated distilled water are positive except
for some short periods, and tend
the investigated
period.
The

Ryznar

Stability

Index

to stabilize

(R.1)

towards

the

can be calculated

end of

using

the

equation

R.1

Values
sion while

of

2 pHs - pH

R.1

greater

than

7.0

indicate

tendency for corroFig. 8

scale formation.
Again the treated water

values less than 7.0 indicate

over the same time period.

shows R.I.
shows chemical
stability towards the end of the period
with the drinking water quality before carbonation.
The
meter

chloride-sulphate

used to evaluate

(cl- + SO,*)/Total

Ratios

around

dissolved

0.1

oxygen

to alkalinity

water

Alkalinity

indicate

and

quality,

at

pH

is the third

and is expressed

para-

as

(mea/l)

chemical
values

ratio

compared

of

stability
7.0-8.0.

in presence
However,
it

of
is

312

reported
Figure
water.

by

Rabald4

that

this

ratio

can

take

higher

9 shows values of about 0.07 for the carbonated

Since the brackish water, used for blending,

has high values of chloride and sulphate,

1.0 did not indicate any tendency of water

values.
distilled
in Kuwait

ratio values of
corrositivity.

about

Conclusion
The

operating

data,

over

period

of

12 months,

indicated

that the Shuwaikh Recarbonation

Plant, built for the treatment of
18 MIGD of distilled water, has fulfilled
its objectives.
The
Based
plant has a smooth and stable operating characteristics.
on the
MEW

experience

has decided

at Doha

with

gained
to build

a capacity

and the overall

two

outcome

recarbonation

of 90 MGID

of this

plants.

and the second

process,

The first

one

one at Az-Zour

After implementing
this scheme, all
with a capacity of 40 MIGD.
distilled
water produced
in Kuwait will be recarbonated
in an
attempt

to overcome

the problem

of "red water

".

References

1.

Abdel-Jawad,

M.A.

and Al-Turaihi,

M.A.

Potable water distribution

system corrosivity
Part I. Water stability and leaching effect.
Ministry
2.

of Electricity

Abdel-Jawad,

M.A.,

and Water,

Al-Saleh,

S.A.

Report

and corrosion.

WRDC/R/48,

and Al-Qaisi,

1981.

M.

Potable water distribution

system corrosivity and corrosion.
Part II. Metal corrosion and water pacification

3.

Ministry

of Electricity

Standard

Methods

and Water,

for the examination

1975.

4.

Rabald,
Corrosion

E.
Guide,

Elsevier,

1968.

Report

WRDCJRI48,

of water

1981.

and seawater,