Professional Documents
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1
JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2015
ACI
STRUCTURAL
J O U R N A L
CONTENTS
Board of Direction
President
William E. Rushing Jr.
Vice Presidents
Sharon L. Wood
Michael J. Schneider
Directors
Roger J. Becker
Dean A. Browning
Jeffrey W. Coleman
Alejandro Durn-Herrera
Robert J. Frosch
Augusto H. Holmberg
Cary S. Kopczynski
Steven H. Kosmatka
Kevin A. MacDonald
Fred Meyer
Michael M. Sprinkel
David M. Suchorski
Past President Board Members
Anne M. Ellis
James K. Wight
Kenneth C. Hover
Executive Vice President
Ron Burg
Staff
Executive Vice President
Ron Burg
3
A Global Integrity Parameter with Acoustic Emission for Load
Testing of Prestressed Concrete Girders, by Francisco A. Barrios and
Paul H. Ziehl
13 Analysis of Rectangular Sections Using Transformed Square Cross
Sections of Unit-Length Side, by Girma Zerayohannes
23
Evaluation of Post-Earthquake Axial Load Capacity of Circular
Bridge Columns, by Vesna Terzic and Bozidar Stojadinovic
35 Shear Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns with High-Strength
Steel and Concrete, by Yu-Chen Ou and Dimas P. Kurniawan
47 Three-Parameter Kinematic Theory for Shear Behavior of Continuous
Deep Beams, by Boyan I. Mihaylov, Bradley Hunt, Evan C. Bentz, and
Michael P. Collins
59 Investigation of Bond Properties of Alternate Anchorage Schemes for
Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bars, by Lisa Vint and ShamimSheikh
69
Stress-Transfer Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Cracks and
Interfaces, by Ali Reza Moradi, Masoud Soltani, and Abbas Ali Tasnimi
81 Condition Assessment of Prestressed Concrete Beams Using Cyclic
and Monotonic Load Tests, by Mohamed K. ElBatanouny, Antonio
Nanni, Paul H. Ziehl, and Fabio Matta
91 Crack Distribution in Fibrous Reinforced Concrete Tensile Prismatic
Bar, by Yuri S. Karinski, Avraham N. Dancygier, and Amnon Katz
Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer-Reinforced Circular Columns
103
under Simulated Seismic Loads, by Arjang Tavassoli, James Liu, and
ShamimSheikh
115 Discussion
Engineering
Managing Director
Daniel W. Falconer
Managing Editor
Khaled Nahlawi
Behavior of Epoxy-Injected Diagonally Cracked Full-Scale Reinforced
Staff Engineers
Matthew R. Senecal
Gregory M. Zeisler
Jerzy Z. Zemajtis
Publishing Services
Manager
Barry M. Bergin
Editors
Carl R. Bischof
Tiesha Elam
Kaitlyn Hinman
Kelli R. Slayden
Discussion is welcomed for all materials published in this issue and will appear ten months from
this journals date if the discussion is received within four months of the papers print publication.
Discussion of material received after specified dates will be considered individually for publication or
private response. ACI Standards published in ACI Journals for public comment have discussion due
dates printed with the Standard.
Annual index published online at http://concrete.org/Publications/ACIStructuralJournal.
ACI Structural Journal
Copyright 2015 American Concrete Institute. Printed in the United States of America.
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Contributions to
ACI Structural Journal
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2015
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2
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Acoustic emission (AE) evaluation used in combination
with cyclic load testing is a promising nondestructive, or minimally destructive, technique for the assessment of existing
reinforced or prestressed concrete structures (Colombo et al.
2005; Ridge and Ziehl 2006; Galati et al. 2008; Ziehl et al.
2008; Liu and Ziehl 2009; Barrios and Ziehl 2011, 2012; Xu
et al. 2013). Attention has been placed on reducing the subjectivity of the AE criteria and quantifying, in terms of structural
damage, the changes in measured AE activity. Both AE and
cyclic load testing methods have achieved promising results
(ACI Committee 437 2007; JSNDI 2000; Barrios and Ziehl
2012), and an integrated approach may offer advantages and
decrease the challenges that each method faces for practical
implementation (Ziehl et al. 2008). Due to limited research
data, however, an integrated standardized approach is lacking
and quantification of damage with AE remains somewhat
subjective. The approach outlined herein presents the integration of AE data with cyclic load testing for the specific case
of prestressed concrete girders within the minor to intermediate damage zones. Potential applications for this approach
include prestressed double tees such as those used in parking
garages, one- and two-way passively reinforced or post-tensioned building slab systems (Galati et al. 2008; Ziehl et al.
2008), and prestressed and post-tensioned bridge girders. In
the case of bridge girders, the loading profile would be simplified and the load magnitude reduced (Ziehl et al. 2009a).
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Objective structural integrity evaluation has proven to be
a complex subject. Challenges arise from the wide range of
potential structural responses due to differing construction
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
I DL = 1
tan (a i )
tan a ref
(1)
Age of girder at
Approximate age
release, days of girder at testing, days
Approximate age of
deck at testing, days
Ultimate load
achieved, kip (kN)
Failure mode
SCC-1
270
200
226 (1010)
Strand rupture
SCC-2
900
300
226 (1005)
Strand rupture
HESC
470
100
224 (997)
Strand slip
SCLC-1
16
315
50
290 (1290)
SCLC-2
16
555
90
276 (1228)
HESLC
16
490
60
260 (1156)
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The results of the CLT evaluation and the 24-hour load test
in terms of load-versus-displacement behavior are described
in a previous publication (Barrios and Ziehl 2012). The
discussion that follows is focused on the treatment of the AE
data and corresponding results.
Normalweight girder specimens
Calm ratio-versus-load ratio plots for the normalweight prestressed girder specimens are shown with the
damage zone classification quadrants as determined from
the load-versus-displacement behavior (Barrios and Ziehl
2012) in Fig. 7(a). Loadset 3 fell within the minor damage
zone, Loadset 5 within the intermediate damage zone, and
Loadset7 within the heavy damage zone. For purposes of
comparison and to enable discussion, Fig. 7(b) shows the
damage quadrants from an investigation related to reducedscale (maximum span of 23 ft 0 in. [7.0 m]) prestressed
concrete tee-beam specimens (Xu 2008; Xu et al. 2013). The
agreement between the damage quadrants from these two
studies conducted at very different scales is reasonable.
Lightweight girder specimens
Results were similar for the lightweight girder specimens
(Fig. 8(a)). The classification zones shown in Fig. 8(a) were
developed based on the measured load-versus-displacement
behavior as for the normalweight specimens (Barrios 2010;
Barrios and Ziehl 2012). For comparison, Fig. 8(b) again
shows the damage quadrants from an investigation related
to reduced-scale prestressed concrete tee-beam specimens
(Xu et al. 2013). In this case, the agreement between the two
investigations is not as good.
To summarize, the CR and LR quadrants from different
investigations should not be used without modification;
rather, they are specific to the member being tested. Further-
Fig. 4Loading profiles (after Barrios and Ziehl [2011]). (Note: 1 kip = 4.45 kN.)
6
An interesting effect similar to the Kaiser effect is noticeable in the plots shown in Fig. 10. Girder SCC-1 starts
with an initial slope up to 115 kip (512 kN), where there
is an abrupt positive change. At this point, the IDL begins to
increase more rapidly, crossing from the minor to the intermediate damage zone until it reaches the maximum load
for that loadset at 128 kip (569 kN). On the next loadset,
the member reaches the same load level over a straight line,
and hence, a new higher load must be attained to produce
a positive change in the trend. The same trend occurs later
for SCC-2, where the IDL increases linearly with load up to
135kip (601 kN). At this level, a change in slope occurs
until it reaches the new maximum load of 160 kip (712 kN).
It can also be noted that loadsets applied at similar states of
damage tend to group closely until a new abrupt change in
slope is produced, generating a new cluster.
Lightweight girder specimens, SCLC-1 and HESLC, were
only loaded up to 160 kip (57% of Pn at Loadsets 7 and 9).
Therefore, the AE information gathered was not sufficient
to establish a trend. For SCLC-2 only one damage threshold
(intermediate to heavy at 160 kip [712 kN]) was located
from the information gathered in the CR-versus-CLR plot
(Fig. 9), resulting in the merging of the minor and intermediate zones into one segment.
In flexural members the minor damage region is dominated
by cracking and, therefore, there is a good match between
the damage zones identified with load-versus-displacement
behavior (Barrios 2010; Barrios and Ziehl 2012) and those
obtained from the AE data. It is possible to find more than
three changes in slope in a CR-versus-CLR plot, and the
external parameter of IDL is helpful for discriminating the AE
data into the three levels of damage (minor, intermediate,
and heavy) generally used for structural evaluation.
Fig. 10Structural integrity loops and damage thresholds (after Barrios and Ziehl [2012]). (Note: 1 kip = 4.4 kN.)
For the normalweight girder specimens, the arc of damage
AD (Fig. 12(c)) provides a more consistent damage representation than either linear distance (Fig. 12(a)) or angular
measure (Fig. 12(b)) alone. The linear descriptor grows
faster at lower levels of damage (between Loadsets 3 and 5)
while the angular measure is more sensitive to damage in the
intermediate and heavy damage zones.
For the lightweight specimens, the linear distance descriptor
from the reference point (Loadset 5) increases rapidly up to
the theoretical minor-intermediate threshold corresponding
to Loadset 7 (Fig 13(a)). At that point, the linear distance
measurement increases at a reduced rate for a wide range of
the load value (62% to 87% of nominal capacity). This leads
to the observation that the linear distance descriptor is more
effective within the minor damage zone, while the angular
measure descriptor is more sensitive to damage within
the intermediate and heavy damage zones. This descriptor
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
P PO
= 0.001 + 0.145 T
(3)
Pmi PO
(2)
P PO
= 0.001 + 0.035 T
(4)
Pmi PO
ACI member Paul H. Ziehl is a Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of South Carolina. He is a member
of ACI Committee 437, Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Structures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Portions of this work were sponsored by the South Carolina Department
of Transportation and the ACI Concrete Research Council and their financial
support is greatly appreciated. Portions were performed under the support
of the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Technology Innovation Program, Cooperative Agreement
Number 70NANB9H9007, and their support is likewise appreciated.
REFERENCES
11
NOTES:
12
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
The results of cross-section analysis1,2 show that the relative
biaxial bending resistance of a rectangular solid section is identical to the biaxial bending resistance of the transformed square
cross section of unit-length side, provided that: 1) the concrete
fiber and reinforcing bar coordinates in the transformed section
are in conformity with the transformation that maps the rectangular section into a square cross section of unit-length side;
2) the concrete and steel stresses in the transformed section
comply with the resulting stress transformation; and 3) the area
of reinforcement in the transformed section comply with the
resulting area transformation. The results of cross-section analysis1,2 also show the equivalence between the relative biaxial
bending resistance of a rectangular hollow section and the
biaxial bending resistance of the transformed square hollow
cross section of unit-length side, provided that similar transformation related conditions are met.
While comparisons of cross-section analysis results have
shown the equivalence, analytical proof for its justification
is hardly available in the literature. More recently, however,
Cedolin et al.3 used the square cross section of unit-length
side to calculate interaction diagrams for load eccentricities
along axes parallel to the axes of symmetry and to a diagonal of a solid rectangular cross section for the derivation of
approximate analytical expressions of the moment contours
based on the ACI 318-05.4 Analytical proof of the equivalence between the dimensionless expressions for the rectanACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Rd =
Rd y =
Rd z =
N Rd
(1)
f cd b h
M Rd y
f cd b h 2
M Rd z
f cd h b 2
(2)
(3)
13
k1
Tk1 , k2 =
0
0
(4)
k2
TRd =
TRd y =
TRd z =
T
N Rd
(5)
f bT hT
T
cd
T
M Rd
y
(6)
(7)
( )
f cdT bT hT
T
M Rd
z
( )
f cdT hT bT
Rd =
Rd y =
Rd z =
f cdT bT hT = 1 (11)
T
N Rd
(8)
f bT hT
T
M Rd
y
( )
f cdT bT hT
M
T
Rd z
( )
f cdT hT bT
(14)
T
cd
Rd =
Rd y =
Rd z =
T
N Rd
(17)
q1
(9)
T
M Rd
y
q2
(18)
(10)
It can be seen from Eq. (8) to (10) that the combined design
axial force and biaxial bending resistance of the transformed
T
T
T
section ( N Rd
, M Rd y , M Rd
) satisfying the transformation
z
14
T
T
T
where Rd , Rd y, and Rd z are the relative values of the
combined design axial force and biaxial bending resistance
T
T
T
of the transformed section; N Rd
, M Rd y , and M Rd
z are the
conditions laid down in Eq. (11) to (13) is equal to the relative values of the combined design axial force and biaxial
bending resistance (Rd, Rd y, Rd z) of the original section.
The conditions state that the results of the products are all
unity and dimensionless.
T
M Rd
z
q3
(19)
Fig. 1(a) Rectangular solid section; and (b) square solid section of unit-length side.
Fig. 2(a) Rectangular hollow section; and (b) square hollow section of unit-length side.
= q3 = 1. Finally, it can be concluded that the relative values of
the combined design axial force and biaxial bending resistance
of a rectangular section is equal to the combined design axial
force and biaxial bending resistance of a square cross section of
unit-length side that satisfies the transformation requirements
described prevously and associated transformations that will be
described in more detail in the following sections.
Coordinate transformation
Rectangular solid cross sectionsPreviously it was shown
that a homogeneous linear transformation with two-way dilation of factors (1/b) and (1/h) along the y- and z-axes, respectively, transforms a rectangular cross section into an equivalent
square cross section of unit-length side. The transformation was represented by the transformation matrix shown in
Eq.(15). The matrix is referred to as coordinate transformation matrix to emphasize its use in the determination of the
coordinates of any desired point such as corner concrete fibers
and reinforcing bar locations in the transformed sections.
As an example, the transformation matrix is used in
Eq. (20) and (21) to map corner concrete fiber and reinforcing bar coordinates in the first quadrant of the original
cross section (Fig. 1(a)), to the images in the equivalent
square cross section of unit length-side (Fig. 1(b)).
1/b 0 b / 2 0.5
0 1/h h / 2 = 0.5 (20)
1 b 0 (b / 2) b 0.5 (b /b)
0 1 h (h / 2) h = 0.5 (h /h) (21)
Rd =
Rd y =
Rd z =
N Rd
(22)
f cd a b h
M Rd y
f cd a b h 2
M Rd z
f cd a h b 2
(23)
(24)
15
T
N Rd
(25)
f cdT aT bT hT
TRd =
TRd y =
T
Rd z
T
M Rd
y
f cdT aT bT (hT ) 2
=
T
M Rd
z
f cdT hT (bT ) 2
(26)
(27)
Rd y =
Rd z =
T
N Rd
(28)
f a bT hT
T
M Rd
y
f cdT a bT (hT ) 2
1/b 0 b / 2 0.5
0 1/h h / 2 = 0.5 (35)
T
M Rd
z
f cdT a hT (bT ) 2
(29)
(30)
f cdT a bT hT = 1 (31)
T =
(37)
bh
AsT =
As
(38)
bh
(34)
T
cd
It can be seen from Eq. (28) to (30) that the combined design
axial force and biaxial bending resistance of the transformed
T
T
T
section ( N Rd , M Rd y , M Rd
z ) satisfying the transformation
conditions laid down in Eq. (31) to (33) is equal to the relative values of the combined design axial force and biaxial
bending resistance (Rd, Rd y, Rd z) of the original section.
The conditions state that the results of the products are all
unity and dimensionless.
where T is the area of the compression zone in the transformed section, and is the area of the compression zone in
the original section.
Similarly, because the transformation conditions in
Eq.(11) to (13) have caused the transformation of the design
compressive strength into unity, the transformation factor
for stresses in concrete and reinforcement is 1/fcd. As a result,
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Fig. 3Stress-strain diagrams in original and transformed solid sections: (a) concrete; and (b) reinforcing steel.
the stress-strain relationships of concrete and steel in the
original solid section are transformed into the stress-strain
relationships of concrete and steel in the transformed section
(Fig. 3(a) and (b)). In particular, the transformed design
yield strength of reinforcement, f ydT , is given by Eq. (39)
f ydT =
f yd
f cd
(39)
T
N Rd
= Tc d T + AsiT Tsi (40)
T
T T
T
T T T
M Rd
y = c z d + Asi si z si (41)
T
T T
T
T T T
M Rd
z = c y d + Asi si ysi (42)
and zsi are the moment arms of the reinforcement bar i about
z- and y-axes, respectively.
Because T = /(b h) from Eq. (37), it follows that
dT = (1/(b h))d
(43)
T
N Rd
=
1
1
c d + Asi si (44)
i
f cd b h
T
M Rd
y =
1 1 1
c zd + Asi si zsi (45)
i
f cd h b h
T
M Rd
z =
1 1 1
c yd + Asi si ysi (46)
f cd b b h
Fig. 4(a) Strain and stress distribution at ultimate limit state: (a) in original section; and (b) in square cross section of unitlength side.
(Fig. (3a)). As an example, the fiber stresses along the neutral
T
axis in the original section are NA = NA fcd = 0 fcd = 0 and
using the stress-strain diagrams, the strains are NA = 0.
For parallel fibers in the transformed section that are closer
to the neutral axis than the one with strain c2, at reaching
the maximum strengththat is, (1)the stresses are less
than 1 (Fig. 4(b)). As stated previously, the stresses in the
corresponding fibers in the original section can be determined using the stress transformation. Although the stresses
in the two fibers are different, the strains are the same as
shown in the strain stress diagram (Fig. 3(a)). In addition
from geometry, the strain in the most compressed fiber in the
transformed section can be shown to be equal to the strain
in the corresponding fiber in the original section. Therefore,
the strain distribution in the original section is one in the
ultimate limit state and the stress resultants are the design
resistance of the section. The equality of strains holds for
all corresponding fibers, including reinforcing bars, leading
to the conclusion that strains of corresponding fibers are
invariant under the transformation.
Thus, Eq. (44) to (46) can be rewritten as
T
N Rd
=
T
M Rd
y =
T
M Rd
z =
N Rd
= Rd (47)
f cd b h
M Rd y
f cd b h 2
M Rd z
f cd h b 2
= Rd y (48)
= Rd z (49)
Therefore, the transformation factors for the design resistance of the original cross section (NRd, MRd y, MRd z) are
1/(fcd b h), 1/(fcd b h2), and 1/(fcd b2 h), respectively.
Because
TRd y =
TRd z =
T
T
N Rd
N Rd
T
(50)
=
= N Rd
f cdT bT hT 111
T
M Rd
y
f cdT bT (hT ) 2
T
M Rd
z
f cdT hT (bT ) 2
T
M Rd
y
1112
T
M Rd
z
1112
T
= M Rd
y (51)
T
= M Rd
z (52)
it follows that
TRd = Rd (53)
TRd y = Rd y (54)
TRd z = Rd z (55)
18
TRd =
rT =
AsT
(56)
bT hT
T
Substituting bT = hT = 1 and the expression for As from
Eq.(38) in Eq. (56)
A
rT = s = r (57)
bh
T = rT
f ydT
f cdT
(58)
Substituting f cdT = 1
T = rT f ydT (59)
Substituting further for T and f ydT from Eq. (57) and (39)
T = r
f yd
f cd
= (60)
AsT =
f cd
(61)
f yd
AsT =
(62)
f ydT
Ac
a b h
=
= a (63)
bh
bh
aT =
AcT
a
a
= T T =
= a (64)
T
T
11
b h
b h
f yd
(a fcd )
(65)
T
N Rd
=
1
1
c d + Asi si (66)
i
(a fcd ) b h
19
Fig. 5Stress-strain diagrams in original and transformed hollow sections: (a) concrete; and (b) reinforcing steel.
T
M Rd
y =
1
1 1
c zd + Asi si zsi (67)
i
(a fcd ) h b h
T
M Rd
z =
1
1 1
yd + Asi si ysi (68)
(a fcd ) b b h c
T
M Rd
y =
T
M Rd
z =
N Rd
= Rd (69)
a f cd b h
M Rd y
a f cd b h 2
M Rd z
a f cd h b 2
As
= r (76)
a b h
= Rd y (70)
f ydT
f cdT
(77)
Substituting f cdT = 1 a
= Rd z (71)
T = T T f ydT (78)
Substituting further for T and f ydT from Eq. (76) and (65)
Because
TRd
TRd y =
T
Rd z
T
NT
N Rd
= T T Rd T T =
= N T (72)
f cd a b h
(1 a ) a 11 Rd
T
M Rd
y
T
cd
( )
f a b h
T
M Rd
z
T
cd
T 2
T
M Rd
y
(1 a ) a 112
T
M Rd
z
20
rT =
f yd
f cd
= (79)
AsT = a
f cd
(80)
f yd
T
= M Rd
z (74)
it follows that Rd = Rd, Rd y= Rd y, and Rd z = Rd z. Therefore, the assumption that the relative values of the combined
axial force and biaxial bending resistance is invariant under
the transformation is valid, and the derivations based on this
assumption are appropriate.
The geometric reinforcement ratio in the transformed
section is
T
T = r
( ) (1 a) a 11
f a h b
T 2
T
= M Rd
y (73)
AsT
(75)
a bT hT
AsT =
(81)
f ydT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
NOTATION
AsT
AsiT
b, h
bT, hT
fcd
fcdT
REFERENCES
1. Busjger, D., and Quast, U., Programmgesteuerte Berechnung beliebiger Massivbauquerschnitte unter zweiachsiger Biegung mit Lngskraft
(Computer Program for the Analysis and Design of Arbitrarily Shaped
Reinforced Concrete Sections under Axial Load and Biaxial Bending),
Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, Heft 415, Beuth Verlag, Berlin,
Germany, 1990, 212 pp. (in German)
2. Zerayohannes, G., Bemmesungsdiagramme fr Schiefe Biegung mit
Lngskraft nach DIN 1045-1: 2001-07 (Interaction Diagrams for Biaxial
Bending with Axial Load on the Basis of the German Code DIN 1045-1:
2001-07), Schriftenreihe der Fachgebiete Baustofftechnologie und Bauschadenanalyse, Massivbau und Baukonstruktion und Stahlbau des Studienganges Bauingenieurwesen der Technischen Universitt Kaiserslautern,
Band 4, 2006, 270 pp. (in German and English)
3. Cedolin, L.; Cusatis, G.; Eccheli, S.; and Rovda, M., Capacity of
Rectangular Cross Sections under Biaxially Eccentric Loads, ACI Structural Journal, V. 105, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 2008, pp. 215-224.
4. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Commentary (ACI 318R-05), American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2005, 430 pp.
5. Eurocode 2, Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Building, European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 2003, 225 pp.
6. Zilch, K.; Jhring, A.; and Mller, A., Erluterungen zu DIN 1045-1
Explanation on DIN 1045-1), Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, Heft
525, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 2003. (in German)
7. DIN 1045-1:2001-07, Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton. Teil 1: Bemessung und Konstruktion (Concrete, Reinforced and
Prestressed Concrete Structures Part 1: Design), Normenausschuss
Bauwesen (NABau) im DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung) e.V. Beuth
Verlag, Berlin, Germany, July 2001. (in German)
This investigation was conducted at the Institute of Concrete Structure and Building Construction, Technical University of Kaiserslautern,
21
NOTES:
22
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Modern highway bridges in California designed using
the Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria1 (SDC) are expected
not to collapse during both frequent and rare earthquake
events. Currently, design provisions aimed at preventing
structural collapse are supported by numerous experimental
data points and calibrated computer models.2,3 However,
there is no evidence that the bridge systems were tested for
the remaining traffic load capacity after some damage was
induced under lateral loading. Still, attempts were made
toward analytical evaluation of the ability of a highway
overpass bridge4 or bridge columns5 to carry traffic load
after an earthquake. Due to the lack of the validated quantitative guidelines for estimating the remaining traffic
load-carrying capacity of bridges after an earthquake, bridge
inspectors and maintenance engineers provide an estimate
of the capacity of the bridge to function based on qualitative observations, with each judgment founded on personal
experience. Such subjective evaluation can be significantly
improved if a model to provide a quantitative estimate of the
remaining load-carrying capacity of bridge columns after an
earthquake was developed and calibrated.
A combined experimental and analytical research program
was performed to investigate the relationship between
earthquake-induced damage in reinforced concrete bridge
columns and the capacity of the columns in such damaged
condition.6 This program comprised one axial load test, three
quasi-static cyclic tests, and two hybrid model earthquake
response simulations on scaled models of typical circular
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Ductility target
Test sequences
Base0
Axial
Base15
1.5
Base30
3.0
Base45
4.5
23
Material
Yield
Ultimate
Maximum stress
Yield
Ultimate
Test
Maximum stress
Steel, longitudinal
60 (420)
80 (550)
70.7 (487)
120 (830)
Steel, spiral
80 (550)
95 (655)
106 (730)
Concrete
5.0 (34.5)
Base15-L
5.05 (34.82)
Base30-L
4.96 (34.2)
Base45-L
5.09 (35.09)
Base0
5.48 (37.8)
26
Cycles
Base15
Base30
Base45
Cycle 1
0.02
0.05
0.08
Cycle 2
0.06
0.10
0.20
Cycle 3
0.12
0.25
0.40
Cycle 4
0.30
0.60
1.00
Cycle 5
0.45
1.00
1.50
Cycle 6
0.60
1.25
2.00
Cycle 7
1.00
1.80
3.00
Cycle 8
1.50
3.00
4.50
Test setup
In the first phase of the test, lateral and axial loads were
applied at the top of the column. The lateral displacement pattern was applied using the two servo-controlled
hydraulic actuators, as shown in Fig. 5. An axial load of
100 kip (445 kN), equal to 10% of the columns nominal
axial load capacity, was applied through a spreader beam
using pressure jacks and post-tensioning rods placed on
each side of the column (Fig. 5). Spherical hinges (threedimensional swivels) were provided at both ends of the rods
to avoid bending of the rods during circular motion of the
column top in the horizontal plane. A hinge connection (twodimensional hinge) was placed between the spreader beam
and the column such that the spreader beam remained horizontal in the plane of the rods during lateral motion of the
column to avoid buckling of the rods. Geometry of the axial
load application apparatus was monitored throughout the test
in order to subtract the horizontal components of the force in
the post-tensioned rods from the forces applied by the actuators and compute the actual lateral resistance of the column.
In the second phase of the test, the three laterally damaged
column specimens and one undamaged column specimen
were compressed axially to induce axial failure in the
columns. A compression-tension axial load machine with a
capacity of 1814 tonnes (4 million lb) and a constant rate of
loading was used to accomplish this (Fig. 6). Longitudinal
reinforcement strain measurements were used to evaluate
presence of bending moment in the specimens during the
axial load test based on which the extent of geometric imperfections was estimated.
ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION
The experimental results, the hysteretic curves from quasistatic tests, and the axial force-deformation responses from
the compression tests were numerically simulated using the
force-based fiber beam-column element15 of OpenSees.9
The force-based beam-column element is a line element
discretized using the Gauss-Lobatto integration scheme
with the integration points at the ends of the element and
along the element length. Fiber cross sections are assigned
to the integration points. The cross sections of the element
are represented as assemblages of longitudinally oriented,
unidirectional steel and concrete fibers. Each material in the
cross section has a uniaxial stress-strain relation assigned
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Fig. 5Lateral test setup: (a) plain view; (b) elevation (A-A); and (c) photo of test setup.
to it. The deformation compatibility of the cross-section
fibers is enforced assuming that plane sections remain plane
afterdeformation.
In a flexibility-based formulation of this element, nodal
loads imposed on the element ends are used to calculate
axial force and moment distribution along the length of the
element. Given the moment and axial load values at each
integration point, the curvature and the axial deformation of
a section are subsequently computed. Because the response
of the cross-section fiber materials may be nonlinear, deformation state determination of the cross section may be iterative. The deformation of the element is finally obtained
through weighted integration of the section deformations
along the length of the member.
A non-shear-critical column with hardening section
behavior was modeled using five integration points16 along
its length. The cross sections of the beam-column element
had 132 fibers (24 for unconfined cover, 96 for confined
core, and 12 for reinforcing steel) distributed nonuniformly16 and arranged as shown in Fig. 7. To model the reinforced concrete section, the fiber section that accounts for
the axial-bending interaction was divided into three parts:
concrete cover; concrete core; and reinforcing steel. Fibers
of the concrete cover (unconfined concrete) and concrete
core (confined concrete) were modeled using the OpenSees
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
R0
cR1
cR2
fc
Concrete cover
fc
Concrete core
fcc
fcu
cu
2fc/Ec
0.0055
2fcc/Ecc
0.2fcc
cu
28
e cu =
f cc (1 + 2k ) f cu
(1)
kEcc
Ec, Ecc are initial moduli of elasticity (calibrated to match test results of concrete
cylinders).
Equation (1).
Fig. 10Lateral force-deformation response curves in two major directions, and state of specimens after the quasi-static tests:
(a) Base15; (b) Base30; and (c) Base45.
zontal displacements at the top of the specimens matched the
displacements commanded during the test. The vertical force
at the top of the element matched the vertical force applied
and measured during the tests. The moments on the rotation
and torsion degrees of freedom on the top node of the model
were set to zero. The response of the specimen model was
computed using nonlinear analysis, Newton-Raphson integration algorithm, and geometric transformation to account
for P- effect.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Phase 1: Lateral displacement tests
The performance of the Base specimens during the bidirectional quasi-static tests is presented in Fig. 10. Experimental and analytical lateral force-displacement response
curves for the two major directions of loading (X and Y) are
accompanied by the final damage state of specimens for the
three lateral tests. Responses obtained from the analytical
model are in good agreement with the experimental results.
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
30
Base15
Base30
Base45
1.0
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.2
0.85
1.5
0.83
0.75
1.8
0.73
2.0
0.63
3.0
0.54
0.52
4.5
0.44
half of the Base15 column specimen (Fig. 11(b)). To numerically simulate the axial strength of the damaged column with
the presence of residual drift, the top of the column model
was first laterally displaced following the loading pattern of
the quasi-static test, then laterally displaced to the observed
drift ratio of 1%, and lastly was axially compressed (pushunder analysis) to induce the axial failure. The analytically
predicted axial strength of the Base15 column specimen was
1141 kip (5075 kN)only 0.38% greater than the experimentally measured.
The remaining axial load strength of the Base30 column
specimen was 1355 kip (6027 kN)93% of the original
axial strength. The specimen was properly leveled before the
axial load tests; lateral drift was not present during this phase
of testing. The axial failure resulted from the formation of
the shear failure plane in the bottom half of the Base30 specimen column (Fig. 11(c)). The analytically predicted axial
strength was 1217 kip (5455 kN)10.2% smaller than the
experimentally measured.
The remaining axial load strength of the Base45 column
specimen was 1170 kip (5204 kN)80% of the original axial
Table 7Remaining axial strengths following
quasi-static tests: experimental versus analytical
Test
Experiment,
kip (kN)
Analytical,
kip (kN)
Numerical
error, %
P/Po
Base0
1459 (6490)
1446 (6434)
0.9
1.0
Base15
1137 (5058)
1141 (5075)
0.38
0.78
Base30
1355 (6027)
1217 (5413)
10.17
0.93
Base45
1170 (5204)
1173 (5217)
0.24
0.80
Fig. 11Axial force-displacement relationships and state of specimens after axial load tests: (a) Base0; (b) Base15; (c) Base30;
and (d) Base45.
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
31
if < 1.5
P 1
(4)
=
Po 1.09 0.0615 if 1.5
CONCLUSIONS
Tests designed to evaluate the axial load capacity of tall
modern bridge columns damaged in bidirectional quasistatic cyclic tests up to nominal displacement ductility levels
of 1.5, 3, and 4.5 were performed. The following conclusions are drawn:
1. The axial strength and stiffness of a column degrade
with the increase in the amount of damage induced by lateral
displacement of the column. Well-confined modern bridge
columns with no residual post-earthquake lateral drifts
lose approximately 20% of their axial load capacity after
sustaining displacement ductility demand of 4.5, which is
slightly larger than the Caltrans SDC design target displacement ductility demand of 4.0. Therefore, modern bridge
columns designed according to Caltrans SDC1 will not
experience a significant loss of axial load-carrying capacity
after a design-level earthquake. No axial load capacity
loss is expected for displacement ductility demands less or
equal to 1.5. Axial load capacity loss may conservatively
be assumed to vary linearly with increasing displacement
ductility demand. The residual post-earthquake displacements have a significant effect on the axial capacity of the
column: the column that sustained the displacement ductility
demand of 1.5 with no significant local damage but with a
residual lateral drift of 1% experienced a reduction in axial
load capacity of 22%.
2. Damage states observed during bidirectional lateral
displacement tests correspond well to Damage State descriptions defined by Mackie et al.20 Namely, virtually no damage
observed at displacement ductility demand of 1.5 corresponds to Damage State 0; moderate damage characterized
by cover spalling and pronounced yielding of longitudinal
reinforcement at displacement ductility demand of 3.0 corresponds to Damage State 1; significant damage to the cover
and core concrete, very pronounced yielding of longitudinal
and transverse reinforcement, however without any rein-
32
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These data and findings presented herein stem from the work supported by
the California Department of Transportation through Project 04-EQ042 and
the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research (PEER) Center. This support,
as well as engineering advice from M. Mahan and C. Whitten of Caltrans and
S. Takhirov of the PEER Center, is gratefully acknowledged. Any opinions,
findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the authors and may not be those of the project sponsors.
REFERENCES
1. Caltrans, Seismic Design Criteria, State of California Department of
Transportation, Sacramento, CA, 2006.
2. Fenves, G. L., and Ellery, M., Behavior and Failure Analysis of a
Multiple-Frame Highway Bridge in the 1994 Northridge Earthquake,
Report PEER 98/08, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 1998.
3. Arici, Y., and Mosalam, K., System Identification of Instrumented
Bride Systems, Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, V. 32,
No. 7, 2003, pp. 999-1020. doi: 10.1002/eqe.259
4. Mackie, K., and Stojadinovic, B., Fragility Basis for California
Highway Overpass Bridge Decision Making, Report PEER 2005/02,
Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California,
Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2005.
5. Saiidi, M. S., and Ardakani, S. M., An Analytical Study of Residual
Displacements in RC Bridge Columns Subjected to Near-Fault Earthquakes, Bridge Structures, V. 8, 2012, pp. 35-45.
6. Terzic, V., and Stojadinovic, B., Post-Earthquake Traffic Capacity of
Modern Bridges in California, Report PEER 2010/103, Pacific Earthquake
Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley,
CA, 2010.
7. Ketchum, M.; Chang, V.; and Shantz, T., Influence of Design
Ground Motion Level on Highway Bridge Costs, Report PEER 6D01,
Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California,
Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2004.
8. Mackie, K., and Stojadinovic, B., Fragility Basis for California
Highway Overpass Bridge Decision Making, Report PEER 2005/02,
Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California,
Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2005.
9. McKenna, F., and Fenves, G. L., Open System for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (OpenSees). Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2004.
10. Lehman, D. E., and Moehle, J. P., Seismic Performance of Well-Confined Concrete Bridge Columns, Report PEER 1998/01, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley,
Berkeley, CA, 1998.
11. Lehman, D. E., and Moehle, J. P., Behavior of Reinforced Concrete
Bridge Columns Having Varying Aspect Ratios and Varying Lengths of
Confinement, Report PEER 2000/08, Pacific Earthquake Engineering
Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2000.
12. Hose, Y., and Seible, F., Performance Evaluation Database for
Concrete Bridge Components and Systems under Simulated Seismic
Loads, Report PEER 1999/11, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 1999.
13. ACI Committee 374, Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames
Based on Structural Testing (ACI 374.1-05) and Commentary, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2006, 9 pp.
14. Krawinkler, H.; Gupta, A.; Medina, R.; and Luco, N., Loading
Histories for Seismic Performance Testing SMRF Components and Assemblies, Report No. SAC/BD-00/10, SAC Joint Venture, 2000.
15. Taucer, F. F.; Spacone, E.; and Filippou, F. C., A Fiber BeamColumn Element for Seismic Response Analysis of Reinforced Concrete
Structures, Report No. UCB/EERC-91/17, Pacific Earthquake Engineering
Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 1991.
16. Berry, M. P., and Eberhard, M. O., Performance Modeling Strategies for Modern Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns, Report PEER
2007/07, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of
California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2007.
17. Kent, D. C., and Park, R., Flexural Members with Confined
Concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 97, 1971,
pp.1969-1990.
18. Menegotto, M., and Pinto, P. E., Method of Analysis for Cyclically
Loaded R.C. Plane Frames Including Changes in Geometry and Nonelastic
Behaviour of Elements under Combined Normal Force and Bending,
Proceedings of the Symposium on the Resistance and Ultimate Deformability of Structures Acted on by Well Defined Repeated Loads, International
Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Zurich, Switzerland,
1973, pp. 15-22.
19. Mander, J. B.; Priestley, M. J. N.; and Park, R., Theoretical
Stress-Strain Model for Confined Concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 114, No. 8, 1988, pp. 1804-1826. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-9445(1988)114:8(1804)
20. Mackie, K.; Wong, J. M.; and Stojadinovic, B., Integrated Probabilistic Performance-Based Evaluation of Benchmark Reinforced Concrete
Bridges, Report PEER 2007/09, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 2007.
21. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2005, 430 pp.
22. Caltrans, Bridge Design Specifications, State of California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, 2004.
23. Terzic, V., and Stojadinovic, B., Hybrid Simulation of Bridge
Response to Three-Dimensional Earthquake Excitation Followed by a
Truck Load, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 140, 2013. doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000913
33
NOTES:
34
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
High-strength steel and concrete have gained increasing
attention recently in reinforced concrete (RC) buildings due
to the need to limit the size of lower-story columns in highrise buildings to increase available floor area. Moreover, the
use of high-strength steel reduces reinforcement congestion
in the plastic hinge regions in seismic design. With recent
advancements in material production technology in Taiwan,
deformed reinforcement SD685 with a specified yield
strength of 685 MPa (100,000 psi) for longitudinal reinforcement (Fig. 1(a)), deformed reinforcement SD785 with specified yield strength of 785 MPa (114,000 psi) for transverse
reinforcement (Fig. 1(b)), and high-strength concrete with
a specified compressive strength of 100 MPa (14,500 psi)
are commercially available. The SD685 reinforcement has
a lower and upper limit on actual yield strength685 and
785 MPa (100,000 and 114,000 psi), respectivelyand a
minimum ratio of actual ultimate strength to actual yield
strength1.25, conforming to the ACI 318 seismic design
provisions.1 It also has a lower limit of 0.014 on the strain
corresponding to a stress equal to the upper limit of yield
strength (ensuring a sufficient yield plateau), and a lower limit
of 0.1 on elongation (Fig. 1(a)). The SD785 has requirements
on minimum yield strength and ultimate strength785and
930 MPa (114,000 and 135,000psi), respectivelyand a
lower limit of 0.08 on elongation (Fig. 1(b)).
Such high-strength materials, when used in columns
for shear design, are not allowed by the ACI 318 Code1
to use their full strengths. The yield strength of deformed
reinforcing bars for shear design is limited to 420 MPa
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
35
Column
Axial load
ratio, %
Transverse
reinforcing bar
spacing mm (in.)
A-1
fc
70 (10.15)
92.5 (13.41)
100 (14.5)
99.9 (14.49)
70 (10.15)
96.9 (14.05)
100 (14.5)
107.1 (15.53)
70 (10.15)
108.3 (15.71)
100 (14.5)
125.0 (18.13)
70 (10.15)
112.9 (16.37)
100 (14.5)
121.0 (17.55)
fyls
fyl
fyts
fyt
685 (100)
735 (106.6)
785 (114)
862 (125)
450 (17.72)
A-2
10
A-3
260 (10.24)
A-4
B-1
15
450 (17.72)
B-2
18
B-3
20
B-4
260 (10.24)
Fig. 2Specimen design: (a) A-1, A-2, B-1 and B-2; (b) A-3, A-4, B-3 and B-4; and (c) cross section.
Test setup and loading protocol
The columns were tested at the National Center for
Research on Earthquake Engineering (NCREE), Taiwan,
using the Multi-Axial Testing System (MATS) (Fig. 3),
which has maximum axial and lateral load capacities of
60,000 and 7000 kN (13,489 and 1574 kip), respectively.
Lateral force was applied by hydraulic actuators placed at
the bottom of the MATS using a displacement control loading
history (Fig. 4). Axial loading was constant during testing.
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Crack pattern and general behavior
Figures 5 and 6 show the lateral force-displacement relationships for Column A series (10% axial load ratio) and
Column B series (20% axial load ratio), respectively. The
P- effect has been removed from the figures. All specimens
exhibited elastic shear failure, where shear failure occurred
without any longitudinal reinforcement yielding, as indicated by strain gauge measurements. The Column B series,
with higher axial loading, was more brittle. Figure7 shows
the crack patterns of specimens at peak applied load. Flexural cracking appeared first at early drift. Shear cracking
initially developed as flexural-shear cracking with an angle
of approximately 45 degrees (relative to a columns longitudinal axis). As the load increased, web-shear cracks appeared.
The crack angles decreased as drift increased (Fig. 8). Each
point in this figure is the average of dominant diagonal
crack angles at that drift. At peak applied load, the average
diagonal crack angles (critical diagonal crack angle) were
27, 26, 27, and 24 degrees for Columns A-1, A-2, A-3, and
A-4, respectively. They were 25, 21, 20, and 21degrees for
Columns B-1, B-2, B-3, and B-4, respectively. The average
values of the critical crack angles were 26 and 22degrees
for Column A and B series, respectively. These angles were
smaller than 30 degrees, meaning the commonly used angle
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Fig. 5Hysteretic behavior of specimens with 10% axial load ratio: (a) A-1; (b) A-2; (c) A-3; and (d) A-4.
38
Fig. 6Hysteretic behavior of specimens with 20% axial load ratio: (a) B-1; (b) B-2; (c) B-3; and (d) B-4.
Fig. 7Crack pattern at the peak applied load for specimens: (a) A-1; (b) A-2; (c) A-3 (d) A-4 (e) B-1; (f) B-2; (g) B-3; and
(h) B-4.
and by comparing those of Columns B-3 and B-4 to those
of Columns B-1 and B-2. Based on the strain measurement
of longitudinal reinforcement, when longitudinal reinforcement of Column A and B series reached yielding, drifts were
predicted to be approximately 1.6% and 1.85%, respecACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
39
Fig. 10Damage distribution at the end of test: (a) A-1; (b) A-2; (c) A-3 (d) A-4 (e) B-1; (f) B-2; (g) B-3; and (h) B-4.
Experimental shear strength provided by transverse reinforcement (Vs_test) was calculated using Eq. (1). In Eq. (1),
st was determined by the stress-drift relationships (Fig. 11),
and was determined by measuring crack angle (Fig. 8).
Experimental shear strength provided by concrete (Vc_test)
was calculated using Eq. (2). Two conditions were considered when calculating Vs_test and Vc_test: diagonal cracking
and ultimate conditions. The diagonal cracking condition is
defined as when a diagonal shear crack first appears. The
ultimate condition corresponds to peak applied shear.
Vs _ test =
Av st d
cot q (1)
s
Column
Drift ratio, %
st, MPa
Vs_test, kN
Vc_test, kN
Drift ratio, %
st, MPa
Vs_test, kN
Vc_test, kN
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
A-1
0.35
19
1255
0.57
243
150
1428
A-2
0.33
1283
0.53
235
150
1488
A-3
0.32
16
13
1266
0.75
359
413
1359
A-4
0.33
14
10
1288
0.79
418
447
1334
B-1
0.45
18
10
1852
0.59
223
165
1913
B-2
0.41
20
11
1996
0.50
183
195
2103
B-3
0.40
16
17
2081
0.54
214
411
2007
B-4
0.42
18
14
2089
0.64
380
522
2006
Nu
Vc = 0.17 1 +
13.8 Ag
(3)
fcbw d (psi)
V d
Vc = 0.16 fc + 17rw u bw d
Mm
(MPa)
V d
Vc = 1.9 fc + 2500rw u bw d
Mm
(psi)
M m = Mu N u
Vc = 0.29 fcbw d 1 +
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Nu
Vc = 2 1 +
2000 Ag
fcbw d (MPa)
(4)
( 4h d ) (5)
8
0.29 N u
Ag
Nu
Vc = 3.5 fcbw d 1 +
500 Ag
(MPa)
(6)
(pssi)
41
Vc =
Nu
ft (max)
bw d 1 +
(8)
F2
ft (max)bw d
1.6 N u
fcbw d
(MPa)
or equal to
Fig. 14Drift ratio versus applied shear of Specimens A-1
and A-3.
Mu is taken as moment at distance d from the section of
maximum moment when the ratio of shear span to effective
depth is greater than 2, or moment at the center of shear
span when the ratio of shear span to effective depth is less
than 2.12
Vs =
Av f yt d
(7)
42
Vc = 3.5 fcbw d 1 +
(9)
0.133 N u
fcbw d
(psi)
Table 3Ratio of test results to shear-strength prediction using ACI 318 without strength limitation
Diagonal cracking shear strength
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vs _ test
Column
VEq (3)
VEq (6 )
VEq (3)
VEq (6 )
VEq ( 7 )
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
A-1
1.63
0.81
1.86
0.93
0.43
A-2
1.51
0.76
1.75
0.88
0.43
A-3
1.58
0.79
1.70
0.85
0.68
A-4
1.47
0.74
1.52
0.76
0.74
B-1
1.72
0.89
1.77
0.92
0.47
B-2
1.41
0.77
1.48
0.82
0.56
B-3
1.55
0.85
1.50
0.82
0.68
B-4
1.44
0.80
1.39
0.77
0.86
provides predictions of diagonal cracking strength for highstrength columns as reasonable as those for the beams. Note
that the original intention of ft(max)/F2 equal to 0.29fc
(MPa) (3.5fc [psi]) is to capture the average behavior of
beam data points in the right side of Fig. 15, rather than to
provide a conservative estimation, because beams in this
category typically have ultimate concrete shear strength
that is significantly higher than diagonal cracking strength.
However, columns carry axial load, which generally delays
diagonal cracking, reducing the difference between diagonal cracking strength and ultimate concrete shear strength
(Table 2). Therefore, it is suggested to lower ft(max)/F2 to
0.25fc (MPa) (3fc[psi])nearly the lower bound of the
column data points in Fig. 15. The new equation is Eq. (10).
The eleventh column in Table 4 shows the predictions using
Eq. (10); conservative results were obtained for all columns
except for Column A-4, which has a ratio of measured to
predicted diagonal cracking strength of 0.99.
Vc = 0.25 fcbw d 1 +
1.6 N u
fcbw d
(MPa)
or equal to
Vc = 3 fcbw d 1 +
(10)
0.133N u
fcbw d
(psi)
Fig. 15Relationship between test data and Eq. (4) and (6).
tions. The conclusions drawn from this study are summarized as follows.
1. All columns tested exhibited shear failure before longitudinal reinforcement yielding. The critical diagonal shear
crack angles with respect to the column longitudinal axis
were, on average, 26 and 22 degrees for columns with 10%
and 20% axial load ratios, respectively. Axial load increased
concrete shear strength in the range of axial load examined,
but also increased brittleness. The amount of transverse reinforcement did not significantly affect concrete shear strength.
Transverse reinforcement stress increased with drift. An
increased amount of transverse reinforcement delayed shear
failure to a higher drift, resulting in a higher level of stress
in the transverse reinforcement at shear failure. With the
amount of transverse reinforcement used in this study, the
transverse reinforcement did not yield at peak applied load
for all columns tested.
2. Predictions by the ACI simplified and detailed concrete
shear-strength equations were compared to test results of
43 columns from this study and the literature. Comparison
results showed that the ACI simplified shear-strength equation yielded a conservative estimate of diagonal cracking
strength for all columns. On the other hand, the ACI detailed
43
Column
bw, mm
d, mm
fc, MPa
a/d
t, %
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
Vc _ test
VEq (3)
VEq (6 )
VEq ( 9 )
VEq (10 )
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
C13
400
320
93.5
0.39
1.25
0.00
1.83
1.14
1.32
1.54
C23
400
320
93.5
0.39
1.25
0.16
1.67
1.04
1.21
1.40
C43
400
320
77
0.24
1.25
0.40
2.33
1.25
1.39
1.61
C5
400
320
93.5
0.39
1.25
0.40
1.74
1.08
1.26
1.46
C63
400
320
77
0.48
1.25
0.40
1.96
1.22
1.36
1.58
C7
400
320
93.5
0.39
1.25
0.62
1.90
1.18
1.37
1.59
C83
400
320
93.5
0.39
1.25
0.80
1.92
1.20
1.39
1.61
H-0.6-0.15
200
160
128
0.15
1.25
0.60
1.85
1.00
1.23
1.42
H-0.6-0.35
200
160
125
0.3
1.25
0.60
1.64
1.03
1.27
1.48
H-0.6-0.6
200
160
120
0.6
1.25
0.60
1.27
0.98
1.22
1.41
HS-0.6-0.35
200
160
128
0.3
1.25
0.60
1.74
1.09
1.37
1.58
HS-0.6-0.6
200
160
128
0.6
1.25
0.60
1.11
0.88
1.11
1.29
HS-1.2-0.65
200
160
129
0.6
1.25
1.20
1.32
1.04
1.32
1.53
H-0.3-0.6
200
160
128
0.6
1.25
0.30
1.08
0.85
1.08
1.25
H-1.2-0.65
200
160
121
0.6
1.25
1.20
1.50
1.16
1.44
1.67
H-1.8-0.6
200
160
130
0.6
1.25
1.80
1.44
1.14
1.45
1.68
H-0.3-0.35
200
160
130
0.3
1.25
0.30
1.68
1.06
1.33
1.54
H-1.2-0.3
200
160
121
0.3
1.25
1.20
1.65
1.02
1.26
1.46
H-1.8-0.35
200
160
121
0.3
1.25
1.80
2.04
1.27
1.56
1.81
U-0.4-0.65
200
160
130
0.6
1.25
0.40
1.17
0.93
1.18
1.37
U-0.7-0.6
200
160
129
0.6
1.25
0.70
1.25
0.99
1.26
1.46
C6110
400
320
113.8
0.17
1.88
1.19
1.62
0.88
1.05
1.22
10
C62
400
320
113.8
0.17
1.88
0.53
1.73
0.94
1.12
1.30
C6310
400
320
113.8
0.17
1.88
1.19
1.59
0.86
1.03
1.20
10
C31
400
320
113.8
0.33
1.88
1.19
1.66
1.04
1.27
1.47
C3210
400
320
113.8
0.33
1.88
0.53
1.52
0.96
1.16
1.35
10
C33
400
320
113.8
0.33
1.88
1.19
1.60
1.00
1.22
1.42
6-111
300
240
73.5
0.17
1.88
0.53
1.78
0.92
1.00
1.15
6-211
300
240
73.5
0.17
1.88
1.19
2.16
1.11
1.21
1.40
6-311
300
240
73.5
0.17
1.88
0.53
1.78
0.92
1.00
1.15
11
6-4
300
240
73.5
0.17
1.88
1.19
2.16
1.11
1.21
1.40
3-111
300
240
73.5
0.33
1.88
0.53
1.65
0.93
1.02
1.19
11
3-2
300
240
73.5
0.33
1.88
1.19
1.73
0.98
1.08
1.25
3-311
300
240
73.5
0.33
1.88
0.53
1.65
0.93
1.02
1.19
11
3-4
300
240
73.5
0.33
1.88
1.19
1.73
0.98
1.08
1.25
A-1
600
480
93
0.1
1.88
0.16
1.61
0.81
0.91
1.06
A-2
600
480
103
0.1
1.88
0.16
1.49
0.76
0.87
1.01
A-3
600
480
97
0.1
1.88
0.28
1.55
0.79
0.89
1.04
A-4
600
480
107
0.1
1.88
0.28
1.44
0.74
0.85
0.99
B-1
600
480
108
0.15
1.88
0.16
1.69
0.89
1.05
1.22
B-2
600
480
125
0.18
1.88
0.16
1.39
0.77
0.95
1.10
B-3
600
480
113
0.2
1.88
0.28
1.53
0.85
1.02
1.19
B-4
600
480
121
0.2
1.88
0.28
1.42
0.80
0.98
1.13
Eq. (9) was used instead of Eq. (6), the number of columns
with unconservative prediction was reduced to 6. Furthermore, because the difference between diagonal cracking
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
strength and ultimate concrete shear strength for highstrength columns can be insignificant, it is suggested to base
the concrete shear-strength equation on the lower-bound of
column test data and, hence, Eq. (10) is recommended for
high-strength columns.
AUTHOR BIOS
ACI member Yu-Chen Ou is an Associate Professor in the Department
of Civil and Construction Engineering at the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan. He received his PhD
from the State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY. He is the
Vice President of ACI Taiwan Chapter. His research interests include
reinforced concrete structures, steel-reinforced concrete structures, and
earthquakeengineering.
ACI member Dimas P. Kurniawan is a Research Assistant in the Department of Civil and Construction Engineering at the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology. He received his BS from Bandung Institute
of Technology, Indonesia, and MS from the National Taiwan University of
Science and Technology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank National Center for Research on
Earthquake Engineering (NCREE), Taiwan, and the Excellence Research
Program of National Taiwan University of Science and Technology for their
financial support.
NOTATION
Ag
Av
a
bw
d
F2
=
=
=
=
=
=
fc
=
fcs
=
ft(max) =
fu
=
fy
=
fyl
=
fyls
=
fyt
=
fyts
=
M m
=
Mu
=
Nu
=
s
=
Vc
=
Vc_test
Vn
Vs
Vs_test
Vtest
Vu
u
t
w
st
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2011, 503 pp.
2. Lee, J. Y.; Choi, I. J.; and Kim, S. W., Shear Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Beams with High-Strength Stirrups, ACI Structural Journal,
V.108, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 2011, pp. 620-629.
3. Sakaguchi, N.; Yamanobe, K.; Kitada, Y.; Kawachi, T.; and Koda, S.,
Shear Strength of High-Strength Concrete Members, Second International Symposium on High-Strength Concrete, SP-121, W. T. Hester, ed.,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1990, pp. 155-178.
4. Watanabe, F., and Kabeyasawa, T., Shear Strength of RC Members with
High-Strength Concrete, High-Strength Concrete in Seismic Regions, SP-176,
C. W. French and M. E. Kreger, eds., American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 1998, pp. 379-396.
5. Maruta, M., Shear Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Column Using
High Strength Concrete, Invited Lecture in the 8th International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength and High-Performance Concrete,
Tokyo, Japan, Oct. 27-29, 2008.
6. Mphonde, A. G., and Frantz, G. C., Shear Tests of High- and
Low-Strength Concrete Beams Without Stirrups, ACI Journal, V. 81,
No.4, July-Aug. 1984, pp. 350-357.
7. Ahmad, S. H.; Khaloo, A. R.; and Poveda, A., Shear Capacity of
Reinforced High-Strength Concrete Beams, ACI Journal, V. 83, No. 2,
Mar.-Apr. 1986, pp. 297-305.
8. Thorenfeldt, E., and Drangsholt, G., Shear Capacity of Reinforced
High-Strength Concrete Beams, Second International Symposium on
High-Strength Concrete, SP-121, W. T. Hester, ed., American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1990, pp. 129-154.
9. Xie, Y.; Ahmad, S. H.; Yu, T.; Hino, S.; and Chung, W., Shear Ductility
of Reinforced Concrete Beams of Normal and High-Strength Concrete,
ACI Structural Journal, V. 91, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1994, pp.140-149.
10. Kuramoto, H., and Minami, K., Experiments on the Shear Strength
of Ultra-High Strength Reinforced Concrete Columns, Proceedings of the
Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Spain, July
1992, pp. 3001-3006.
11. Aoyama, H., Design of Modern High-Rise Reinforced Concrete
Structures, Imperial College Press, London, UK, 2001, 391 pp.
12. ACI-ASCE Committee 326, Shear and Diagonal Tension, ACI
Journal Proceedings, V. 59, No. 2, Feb. 1962, pp. 1-124.
45
NOTES:
46
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
While continuous reinforced concrete deep beams, such as
the transfer girder shown in Fig. 1(a), perform more critical
load-carrying functions than slender beams, their safety is
more difficult to assess. Shear forces in such members are
more sensitive to differential settlement of footings and
because longitudinal strains vary nonlinearly over beam
depth, traditional design procedures for slender beams are
not appropriate. The ACI Building Code1 suggests that
either the nonlinear distribution of longitudinal strains be
taken into account or that strut-and-tie models be used.
While finite element programs, such as VecTor2,2 which
was used to produce Fig. 1(b), account both for nonlinear
distributions of strain and nonlinear material response
and can predict both failure loads and deformations, their
use requires considerable engineering time and expertise.
Strut-and-tie models (Fig.1(c)), on the other hand, by
approximating regions of high compressive stress in concrete
and high tensile stress in reinforcement, can usually provide
conservative estimates of strength after a few relatively simple
calculations. As these models concentrate on statics, they do
not provide accurate assessments of deformation patterns
close to failure and post-peak behavior. This also applies
for most analytical models for deep beams in the literature3
with exceptions focusing entirely on deformation capacity.4
Information on ultimate deformations can be critical in, for
example, evaluating the safety of transfer girders damaged
by earthquakes or by large differentialsettlements.
It is the purpose of this paper to present a kinematic
model (Fig. 1(d)) capable of predicting both strength and
deformation patterns near failure of reinforced concrete
continuous deep beams. Within each shear span this model
uses just three parameters: the average tensile strain in the
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
47
Fig. 2Test specimen CDB1 and instrumentation. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip;
1MPa = 145 psi = 0.145 ksi.)
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The measured load-displacement response of the specimen
is shown in Fig. 4. The thick lines show the load P, while the
thin lines plot the shear force Vint. Midspan deflections of the
two spans were measured by LVDTs 2E and 2W with respect
to a steel bar going between the ends of the specimen (refer to
Fig. 2). The test was performed in two phases. First the beam
was loaded until there was clear evidence of shear failure
in one of the spans (refer to Fig. 4(a)). After strengthening
the failed shear span with four external clamps, the second
phase involved reloading until the second span failed (refer
to Fig. 4(b)). Shown in Fig. 4 are four key load stages (LS5,
LS7, LS9, and LS11) where crack widths and deformation
patterns were measured and these are shown in Fig. 5.
In Phase I, first flexural cracking was observed under
the east load at P = 422 kN (95 kip), while at P = 546 kN
(123kip), cracks under the west load and over the central
column were observed. By LS5, the crack pattern resembled
three fans with cracks radiating out from the west load, the
central support, and the east load (refer to Fig. 5). The first
major diagonal crack occurred in the east inner shear span at
P = 1033 kN (232 kip). By LS7 there were diagonal cracks
up to 2.5 mm (0.010 in.) wide across the inner shear spans.
The maximum value of Vint in the east span was reached just
after LS7 and had a value of 813 kN (183 kip) with an east
midspan deflection of 3.70 mm (0.146 in.). At the maximum
shear, the inner shear to applied load ratio, Vint/P, was 0.619,
as opposed to the calculated value of 0.675 from flexural
theory ignoring shear strains. By LS9, the 5% increase in
applied force caused the east displacement to more than
double. While the load P increased, the shear, Vint, decreased
by 7.5%, causing Vext to increase by 25%. Concrete crushing
was visible near the inner faces of the east load and central
support and large displacements (9.28 mm [0.37 in.]) were
measured for LVDTs 11E and 13E, indicating post-peak
behavior of the CLZ regions (refer to Fig. 2). Because of
concerns with irreparably damaging the specimen, the loads
were reduced to approximately 200 kN (45 kip) after LS9
and external clamps were applied to the east inner shearspan.
At the start of Phase II loading, there was a gap of
approximately 1 mm (0.04 in.) between the bottom of the
central column and the support, which closed upon reloading.
The load-deformation response (refer to Fig.4(b)) was nearly
linear up to the peak load of 1604 kN (361 kip) at LS11.
The maximum shear of 916 kN (206 kip) also occurred at
LS11 at a west deflection of 4.23 mm (0.167 in.). Crushing
of the concrete at the top and bottom ends of the critical
crack was observed as deformations increased between
LS11 and LS13. The test was terminated at a deflection of
approximately 18.5 mm (0.73 in.) after a sudden drop of
resistance caused by rupture of stirrups in the west inner
shear span. A photograph of the west side of the beam taken
after the test is shown in Fig. 6. Note the external clamps on
the east inner shear span and the critical diagonal crack in
the west inner shear span.
Based on Vint/P = 0.675 (the elastic value), the moment
over the central support should be 1.17 times the moment
under the load. Figure 7(a) shows the elastic bending moment
diagram for LS5 along with the moment diagrams calculated
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
49
Fig. 93PKT for deep beams under single- and double-curvature bending.17
52
54
(18)
NOTATION
As1
As2
a
aext
ag
d1
d2
db
Es
fc'
fv
fy
fye
fyv
h
k
kc
l0
lb1
lb1e
lb2
lk
M1
CONCLUSIONS
For continuous deep beams, redistribution of forces
caused by differential settlements can significantly reduce
failure loads. The three-parameter kinematic theory (3PKT)
presented in this paper is a valuable tool for assessing such
situations. This approach is based on a kinematic model
which accurately describes the deformed shape of each
shear span using only three degrees of freedom: the average
strains in the top and bottom longitudinal reinforcement
and the transverse displacement of the critical loading zone.
The shear-strength predictions of the 3PKT were validated
against the results from 129 published tests of continuous
deep beams. The 3PKT produced an average experimental56
M2
nb
P
P1/2
smax
V
VCLZ
Vci
Vd
Vs
w
a
a1
Dc
dx
dz
e1
et1/2,avg
et1/2,min
ev
q
rl
rv
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2011, 503 pp.
2. Vecchio, F. J., Disturbed Stress Field Model for Reinforced Concrete:
Formulation, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 127, No. 1,
2001, pp. 12-20. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2001)127:1(12)
3. Senturk, A. E., and Higgins, C., Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete
Deck Girder Bridge Bent Caps with 1950s Vintage details: Analytical
methods, ACI Structural Journal, V. 107, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 2010,
pp.544-553.
4. Hong, S. G.; Hong, N. K.; and Jang, S. K., Deformation Capacity of
Structural Concrete in Disturbed Regions, ACI Structural Journal, V. 108,
No. 3, May-June 2011, pp. 267-276.
5. Mihaylov, B. I.; Bentz, E. C.; and Collins, M. P., A Two Degree
of Freedom Kinematic Model for Predicting the Deformations of Deep
Beams, CSCE 2nd International Engineering Mechanics and Materials
Specialty Conference, Ottawa, ON, Canada, June 2011, 10 pp.
6. Mihaylov, B. I.; Bentz, E. C.; and Collins, M. P., Two-Parameter
Kinematic Theory for Shear Behavior of Deep Beams, ACI Structural
Journal, V. 110, No. 3, May-June 2013, pp. 447-456.
7. Mihaylov, B. I., Behavior of Deep Reinforced Concrete Beams under
Monotonic and Reversed Cyclic Load, doctoral thesis, European School
for Advanced Studies in Reduction of Seismic Risk, Pavia, Italy, 2008,
379pp.
57
NOTES:
58
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) reinforcing bars
have been introduced as a lightweight, corrosion-resistant
material which offers a viable replacement for traditional
steel reinforcing bars, especially when the structures are
located in aggressive environments such as coastal regions
and those subjected to deicing salts. Extensive experimental
work is needed in order to develop reliable and rational
guidelines for design if GFRP is to be widely accepted as a
practical construction material. One property of importance
is the bond between the GFRP bars and the surrounding
concrete. This property is crucial, as it has a major effect
on the structural performance of a member with regards to
cracking, deformability, internal damping, and instability in
concrete structures (Gambarova et al. 1998).
To develop the required design strength of the bars
in tension, it is common practice to introduce mechanical anchor heads at the ends of straight bars in reinforced
concrete structures when the available space is limited. In
recent years, great improvements have been made in the
manufacturing of GFRP reinforcement with the current
bars having a much higher ultimate strength and stiffness
than the bars of previous generations. With these greater
strengths come much longer required development lengths,
further increasing the need for anchor heads. Due to the lack
of standards for the manufacturing of these anchor heads,
the current Canadian design code for FRP bars, CSA S80612, requires that engineers check the results from research
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
59
fu,
MPa (ksi)
E, MPa (ksi)
Rupture
strain*,
%
197.9 (0.306)
742 (107.6)
49,500 (7180)
1.50
197.9 (0.306)
1277 (185.2)
72,600 (10,530)
1.76
201 (0.312)
1228 (178.1)
59,200 (8590)
2.07
71.3 (0.1105)
833 (120.8)
54,300 (7880)
1.53
B 126.7 (0.1964)
655 (95.0)
42,000 (6090)
1.56
912 (132.3)
57,900 (8400)
1.61
Bar type
Straight
Bent
113.1 (0.1753)
Calculated from ultimate stress fu and stiffness E except for C-Bent, which was
measured.
60
N
(1)
pdb lembed
61
Fig. 4Strain gauge placement for: (a) headed bars; and (b) bent bars.
Fig. 5Strain distribution along bonded length results from VecTor 2 model of: (a) straight (C-S-10) and headed (C-H-10)
bars; and (b) bent bars.
[2-3/4 in.]) from the average displacement measured by
the three LVDTs. Bar slip at the free end is calculated by
subtracting the elongation of the bar along the debonded
length and the bonded length from the loaded end slip using
the data collected by the strain gauges. Because the strain
gauges only measured the strain at the midpoint of the
bonded length, the strain near the free end had to be extrapolated using the results from an analytical model of the pullout
tests that was created using finite element analysis (FEA)
software (Vecchio and Wong 2002). A detailed description
of the steps used to create this model can be found elsewhere
(Vint 2012). The strain distribution predicted by the model
along the bonded length for the straight, headed and bent
bars can be found in Fig. 5 for Bar Type C with bonded
lengths of 10db. It can be seen that the strain at the free end
of the straight bar is nearly zero, which is consistent with
the existing literature that states free end strain is theoretically zero. The difference between the theoretical and experimental results could be due to the inaccuracy of the strain
gauges. The anchor head does an effective job of transferring
the strains to the free end, producing a more constant strain
distribution along the bonded length. The strain distribution
62
for the bent bars shows that the strains are small in the first
bend and quickly dissipate to zero beyond that point.
Experimental results
In the discussion of the results for all 72 pullout specimens
in this paper, the following nomenclature for the specimens
is used:
The first letter indicates the bar type. The next letter indicates the anchorage type, where S is straight, H is headed,
and B is bent. The first number indicates the ratio of bonded
length to bar diameter of 0, 5, or 10. The next number indicates the test number of the specimens within a group of
three specimens, where the third specimen has the strain
gauges along the bonded length. The last number denotes the
concrete batch number. As an example, A-S-10-1-2 designates a bond test specimen of Bar Type A with a straight
anchorage type and a bonded length of 10 times the bar
diameter. It is the first of the three specimens in that group
and was in the second batch of concrete.
Straight barsResults for the straight bars with no end
anchorage showed that as the embedment length increased
from 5db to 10db the peak average bond stress, 2, decreased.
This trend is consistent with the available literature, indiACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
db, mm (in.)
lembed/db
N2, kN (kip)
f2/fu
2, MPa (ksi)
sl2, mm (in.)
sf2, mm (in.)
15.9
(0.626)
50.6 (11.38)
255 (37.0)
0.346
12.67 (1.838)
1.738 (0.068)
0.420 (0.0165)
10
78.7 (17.69)
396 (57.4)
0.537
9.85 (1.429)
2.99 (0.118)
0.692 (0.027)
15.9
(0.626)
62.3 (14.01)
314 (45.5)
0.246
15.59 (2.26)
1.410 (0.056)
0.656 (0.026)
10
104.8 (23.6)
528 (76.6)
0.413
13.12 (1.903)
1.919 (0.076)
0.352 (0.0139)
50.9 (11.44)
253 (36.7)
0.206
12.65 (1.835)
1.565 (0.062)
0.551 (0.022)
10
90.2 (20.3)
449 (65.1)
0.365
11.22 (1.627)
1.970 (0.078)
0.357 (0.0141)
16
(0.630)
db, mm (in.)
15.9
(0.626)
16
(0.630)
lembed/db
N2, kN (kip)
f2/fu
2, MPa (ksi)
sl2, mm (in.)
sf2, mm (in.)
120.2 (27.0)
605 (87.7)
0.474
3.33 (0.131)
1.522 (0.060)
141.7 (31.9)
714 (103.6)
0.559
35.5 (5.15)
3.71 (0.146)
1.736 (0.068)
10
161.3 (36.3)
812 (117.8)
0.636
20.2 (2.93)
4.24 (0.167)
1.699 (0.067)
101.9 (22.9)
507 (73.5)
0.413
2.75 (0.108)
0.945 (0.037)
133.2 (29.9)
663 (96.2)
0.540
33.1 (4.80)
3.45 (0.136)
1.152 (0.045)
10
141.4 (31.8)
703 (102.0)
0.573
17.6 (2.55)
4.01 (0.158)
1.249 (0.049)
Fig. 8Typical bar stress-slip relationship for headed bars: (a) Bar Type B; and (b) Bar Type C.
(14.5 to 21.8 ksi) in the two types of bars. A bonded length of
10db only adds approximately 200 MPa (29.0 ksi) bar stress.
While both headed Bar Type B and C were able to
develop similar peak ultimate average bond stresses, their
bond stress-slip reponses varied in the post-peak phase just
like their straight bar behaviors. This is due to the different
manufacturing processes that are used for each bar type.
For Bar Type B, the anchor head is attached to a specially
prepared surface which consists of O-rings spaced every
5mm (0.2 in.) (Drouin 2012). Whereas for Bar Type C,
the anchor head is attached directly to the 16 mm (5/8 in.)
GFRP bar. It can be seen from the bond stress-slip curve
of both headed bar types (Fig. 8) that the behavior of the
anchor head for Bar Type B has multiple peaks and valleys,
while the failure of headed Bar Type C was mostly singular
as the stress drops significantly only once. The same failure
mode was observed for the Bar Type B headed bars for all
bonded lengths. Multiple loud bangs were observed (O-rings
failing) in Bar Type B headed specimens with no bonded
length. The peak and valley behavior seems to be due to the
load sharing mechanism in these specimens and requires
furtherinvestigation.
Due to the high ultimate strength of the bars tested, the
bonded length required to develop the full strength of the
GFRP bars would be relatively large. All headed bars at all
bonded lengths failed by pullout of the bar from the head
connection as seen in Fig. 9, where the unruptured bar pulled
out of the anchor head, which remained intact and inside
64
db, mm
(in.)
9.43
(0.371)
11.93
(0.470)
13.00
(0.512)
rb/db
5.4
3.0
1.75
sl2, mm
(in.)
f2/fu,
%
Rupture
location
555
(80.5)
4.58
(0.180)
66.7
Bend
775
(112.4)
4.74
(0.187)
93.1
Bend
10
785
(113.9)
3.63
(0.143)
94.2
Coupler
522
(75.7)
6.19
(0.244)
79.6
Bend
608
(88.2)
4.97
(0.196)
92.9
External
SG
10
612
(88.8)
4.63
(0.182)
93.4
External
SG
531
(77.0)
6.32
(0.249)
58.3
Bend
816
(118.4)
8.50
(0.335)
93.6
Interior
Straight
10
724
(105.0)
6.04
(0.238)
79.4
External
SG
method for the bent bars was designed to mimic the behavior
of a GFRP stirrup in a large beam and all bar types were
found to be fully developed within the given slab height. In
these specimens, the requirement of CSA S806-12, that web
reinforcement should have sufficient development length
to develop its design stress at midheight of the member,
issatisfied.
The rupture location varied between the specimens with
the most common location indicated in Table 4 and Fig. 14.
In many cases, the failure was observed in the bars where
the bar area was reduced as a result of surface preparation
for the strain gauges. In some cases, the test was terminated
prematurely because of the slip of couplers. Three additional bent specimens without strain gauges were tested in
a Batch 2 slab and it was determined that bond could still be
developed within 5db, as the bar ruptured along the straight
portion of the stirrup inside the concrete.
s
s
s
A1 = 0 2 ( s ) ds = 0 2 2
s2
a1 =
a1
ds =
2 s2
(2)
1 + a1
2 s2
1 (3)
A1
Fig. 13Typical bar stress-slip relationship for bent bars with all bonded lengths, for Bar Types (a) A; (b) B; and (c) C.
66
Fig. 14Failed bend specimens with typical rupture locations for Bars A, B, and C, from left to right.
s2, mm
(in.)
11.26
(1.633)
[0.447]
0.556
(0.0219)
[0.1483]
0.0622
[0.785]
0.0131
[0.514]
14.36
(2.08)
[0.312]
0.504
(0.01984)
[0.1109]
0.210
[0.918]
0.255
[0.167]
11.50
0.420
(1.668) (0.01654)
[0.0710] [0.1741]
0.110
[0.778]
0.0296
[0.224]
0.434
[0.286]
Bar type
67
68
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude and sincere appreciation to the
sponsors of this research program for their financial and technical support.
These include FACCA Inc., Schoeck Canada Inc., Pultrall Inc., Hughes
Brothers Inc., and Vector Construction Group. Additionally, the financial support provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council of Canada (NSERC) is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, E. A.; El-Salakawy, E. F.; and Benmokrane, B., 2008, Tensile
Capacity of GFRP Postinstalled Adhesive Anchors in Concrete, Journal
of Composites for Construction, ASCE, V. 12, No. 6, pp. 596-607. doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(2008)12:6(596)
Ahmed, E. A.; El-Sayed, A. K.; El-Salakawy, E.; and Benmokrane, B.,
2010, Bend Strength of FRP Stirrups: Comparison and Evaluation of
Testing Methods, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, V. 14,
No. 1, pp. 3-10. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000050
ASTM D7205-06, 2006, Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of
Fiber Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composite Bars, ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA, 12 pp.
ASTM E488-96, 1996, Standard Test Methods for Strength of Anchors
in Concrete Elements, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 8pp.
Cosenza, E.; Manfredi, G.; and Realfonzo, R., 1997, Behavior and
Modeling of Bond of FRP Rebars to Concrete, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, V. 1, No. 2, pp. 40-51. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)1090-0268(1997)1:2(40)
CSA S806-12, 2012, Design and Construction of Building Structures
with Fibre Reinforced Polymers, Canadian Standards Association, Mississauga, ON, Canada, 206 pp.
CSA S807-10, 2010, Specification for Fibre-Reinforced Polymers,
Canadian Standards Association, Mississauga, ON, Canada, 44 pp.
Drouin, B., personal communication with L. Vint, May 1, 2012.
fib, 2000, Bond of reinforcement in concrete: state-of-the-art report,
Bulletin 10, Fdration Internationale du Bton Lausanne, Switzerland,
434pp.
Focacci, F.; Nanni, A.; and Bakis, C. E., 2000, Local Bond-Slope
Relationship for FRP Reinforcement in Concrete, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, V. 4, No. 1, pp. 24-31. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)1090-0268(2000)4:1(24)
Gambarova, P. G.; Rosati, G. P.; and Schumm, C. E., 1998, Bond and
Splitting: A Vexing Question, Bond and Development of ReinforcementA
Tribute to Dr. Peter Gergely, SP-180, R. Leon, ed., American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 23-43.
Imjai, T.; Guadagnini, M.; and Pilakoutas, K., 2007, Mechanical Performance of Curved FRP RebarsPart I: Experimental Study, Asia-Pacific
Conference on FRP in Structures, S. T. Smith, ed., International Institute for
FRP in Construction, Kingston, ON, Canada, pp. 333-338.
Johnson, D. T. C., and Sheikh, S. A., 2013, Performance of Bent Stirrup
and Headed Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer Bars in Concrete Structures,
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, V. 40, No. 11, pp. 1082-1090. doi:
10.1139/cjce-2012-0522
Kadam, S., 2006, Analytical Investigation of Bond-Slope Relationship
Parameters between Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Bars and Concrete,
masters thesis, University of Missouri - Kansas City, Kansas City, MO,
193 pp.
Mosley, C. P.; Tureyen, A. K.; and Frosch, R. J., 2008, Bond Strength
of Nonmetallic Reinforcing Bars, ACI Structural Journal, V. 105, No. 5,
Sept.-Oct., pp. 634-642.
Vecchio, F., and Wong, P., 2002, VecTor 2 and FormWorks Manual,
University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, http://www.civ.utoronto.ca/
vector/ user_manuals.html. (last accessed July 17, 2014)
Vint, L. M., 2012, Investigation of Bond Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Bars in Concrete under Direct Tension, masters
thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, 213 pp.
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
The local and global behavior of reinforced concrete
(RC) members and structures may considerably be affected
by cracked concrete and the stress-transfer capabilities of
cracks and interfaces. Stress transfer across cracks is a major
problem in seismic assessment and design of RC structures
because the ductility and energy absorption of members are
mainly affected by energy consumption along cracks.
Different approaches and specimens have been designed
to investigate the capabilities of stress transfer across
the cracked concrete experimentally. Some studies used
precracked specimens and the initial crack width was kept
constant during loading.1-3 However, others performed tests
with constant normal stress and measured corresponding
crack width or applied complicated loading paths.4-11
During the past years, extensive empirical and analytical models have been proposed to investigate the shear
transfer behavior of cracked concrete. Baant and Tsubaki12
pointed out the importance of considering the opening of a
crack together with the compressive stress transferred when
the shear displacement occurs.5 Considering the dilatancy,
Baant and Gambarova13 identified a nonlinear elastic model
by optimizing the fits of Paulay and Loebers3 experimental
results, taking into account the influence of the maximum
aggregate and concrete strength. Walraven and Reinhardt6
idealized the crack surface as a set of circular aggregates.
The aggregates and surrounding mortar were modeled
to be rigid-plastic bodies, where the effect of aggregate
grading was considered. Yoshikawa et al.14 proposed a pathindependent model which clearly classified the shear
transfer phenomena into four independent components:
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
69
(q) =
1
cos q (1)
2
= sin cos
(2)
Rs =
f y
lim
(4)
lim = 0.04 mm
(6)
con = Rs ( p)
(7)
At =
4
(8)
p
G
K ( ) = 1 exp 1 max 0 (9)
Z = K()At()con (10)
= 2p Z sin qd q (11)
p
2
p
= Z cos qd q (12)
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Fig. 3Comparison of OCD model with experimental results reported by Paulay and Loeber3: (a) test specimens; and (b)
shear stress versus shear displacement. (Note: 1 mm = 0.039 in.; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi.)
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
71
Fig. 4Comparison of OCD with experimental investigation reported by Maekawa et al.5: (a) step-type loading path; (b) shear
stress versus shear displacement; (c) step-type loading path; and (d) shear stress versus shear displacement. (Note: 1 mm =
0.039 in.; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi.)
s(, fc, Gmax, , )
= sF1(, fc) F2(Gmax) F3() F4()
(13)
Equation (13) shows the general form of the proposed equation of standard deviation of the modified CDF. The first
term describes the contact units orientations and the contribution of concrete compressive strength to shear strength.
The second term represents the role of the maximum aggregate size on the shear capabilities of cracked concrete. The
last two terms are characterized loading path (crack width)
and crack roughness degradation rate, respectively. Each
term will be described in the next section.
Modified contact density function
Concrete compressive strength and contact units inclinationsLaible et al.4 experimentally simulated shear transfer
capability across a concrete interface, called Interface Shear
Transfer (IST). Experimental observation revealed that crack
surface roughness has a considerable effect on the amount
of transferred shear stress.4 In the past, extensive experimental and analytical investigations have been carried out
to investigate joint roughness, especially in rock mechanics
framework. Some efforts have been devoted to employ
normal distribution (Gaussian), while some others used
gamma distribution to determine joints roughness.20 Also,
some models adopt a non-periodic function similar to a joint
profile to approximate the joint profile by using summation
of some periodic function. This means that the joint profile
in the whole joint length regarded as a periodic function can
be divided into wavelength, amplitude, and phase.21
As it was mentioned, Li et al.15 measured the two-dimensional projection of a crack plane that was experimentally
scanned to get some ideas about the crack surface geometry.
Li et al.15 proposed Eq. (1) to account for the probabilistic
distribution of the contact units orientations. Shear behavior
of HSC was experimentally investigated by Bujadham and
72
(q) =
5
q
exp 21
p
6
(14)
F1 (q, m, f c ) =
1
var
1 q m 2
exp
(15)
2p
2 var
where m is the mean; and var is known as the standard deviation. Li et al.15 showed that the CDF is a zero-mean function,
so in Eq. (16), var is the only unknown parameter. Knowing
var, the roughness probabilistic distribution for any kinds of
joints can be determined
m = 0 F1 (q, f c ) =
1
var
1 q 2
exp
(16)
2p
2 var
p/2
E q 2 = p / 2 (q)q 2 d q =
p2
2 (17)
4
var = E q 2 =
p2
2 (18)
4
Knowing var for NSC, Eq. (16) can be described and plotted
easily. Similarly, var for HSC can be derived as follows
(q) =
5
q
exp 21 var = 0.48 (19)
p
6
Equation (16) for NSC, HSC, and the original CDF are plotted
and compared in Fig. 5. The figure reveals that by increasing
the strength of concrete fc, var is decreased. The original
CDF and the proposed equation for NSC (Eq.(16)) are relatively close. The original CDF has higher values, almost
along 90 degrees || 30 degrees, but Eq.(16) has higher
values, between || and 30 degrees. This means that Eq. (16)
has a lower contribution in 90 degrees || 30 degrees
than the original CDF. But Eq. (19) has different values
for all inclinations. It can be seen that the corresponding
curve has higher values between || < 30 degrees. In fact,
the probabilistic contribution of horizontal surfaces is more
than the vertical units. This states that the crack surface
has a smoother surface than NSC because it has a smaller
var (Eq.(19)). It can be concluded that any kind of surface
geometry is described by a simple NDF.
Effect of maximum aggregate sizeDue to the roughness
of the crack faces, stress can be transferred from concrete
to concrete. This mechanism is based upon the fact that in
NSC, the aggregates have a much higher strength than the
matrix material.1 Therefore, a crack runs through the matrix
and along the interface between aggregates and cement
paste. As a consequence, the stiff aggregates cause the crack
surfaces to roughen. Decreasing the maximum aggregate size
makes crack profiles smoother, as in HSC, and subsequently
reduces the shear transfer capability. An experimental study
carried out by Thom22 stated that shear strength provided
by the aggregate interlocking increased to some extent with
increasing maximum aggregate size. Experimental results
reported by Li et al.15 as well as Wattar23 expressed that there
are no noticeable differences in crack profiles for specimens
with aggregate sizes of 15 and 25 mm (0.6 and 1.0 in.).
Thus, it seems that for Gmax < 15 mm (0.6 in.) and NSC, the
original CDF should be modified. Equation (22) expresses
the reduction of stress-transfer capability due to the size of
coarse aggregates
Gmax
(20)
15
exp(a )
( , a ) = 1
(21)
1 + exp ( a ) 1
Fig. 5Comparison between proposed model for distribution of contact units inclinations for NSC and HSC and
CDF suggested by Li et al. 15
F2(Gmax) = [1 (, )]
(22)
where controls the contribution of maximum aggregate size in the stress-transfer capabilities of cracked
concrete (Eq. (21) and (22)). In fact, provides a family
of descending curves for F2 depending on the values of
(Fig. 6). A linearly decreasing relationship is obtained in the
particular case of = 0. Figure 6 shows the variation of
F2(Gmax) versus Gmax. For Gmax > 15 mm (0.6 in.), there is
no reduction in F2(Gmax) because the experimental results
showed no differences; but for Gmax < 15 mm (0.6 in.) and
according to , different kinds of variation and reduction
will be obtained. Proposing a unique formulation for
requires the proper and sufficient experimental data.
Effect of crack width (loading path)Experimental
studies have shown that the amount of shear transfer across
cracks directly depends on crack width. Also, applied
normal stress can be regarded as an external restraint to
adjust the corresponding crack width and have a reasonable
effect on shear transfer capability. Figure 7 shows a typical
trend of shear stress versus slip response with the probable
sequence of occurrence of the different mechanisms. The
relative participation of these mechanisms depends on crack
width. Figures7(a) and (b) indicate that for a larger initial
crack width, a lower shear strength will be expected, and
the participation of the first zone in Fig. 7(b) grows consequently. In fact, for a wider crack width, there will be fewer
73
Fig. 7Stress-transfer mechanism across cracked concrete: (a) role of initial crack width in shear capacity of crack; (b)schematic
representation of interface shear; and (c) variation of proposed relation with respect to crack width. (Note: 1 mm = 0.039in.)
contact units to activate and engage in contact with, and,
hence, the shear capacity will be lower.22 According to the
consistency of the crack deformational path, the range of
active contact units can be detected
q = D sin qc cos qc = 0
D
qc = cot 1
(23)
1
F3 ( ) = exp
(24)
50
74
ness of the shear plane was measured before and after the
actual shear test. For the rough interface, the roughness,
defined as half the height of the protruding asperities, was
1.75 mm (0.069 in.) before and 1.45 mm (0.058 in.) after
testing due to the deterioration of the crack face.25 Some
efforts have been made to measure and study asperity degradation for different types of joints.15,22 It can be concluded
that the typical features of rough joint behavior under
different loading paths, such as peak shear strength and
nonlinear dilation, are significantly affected by the degradation of joint asperities.26-29
Some models considered first- and second-order asperities. The first is a Patton-type model consisting of sawtooth
asperity surfaces which degrade, and the second is a sinetooth asperity surface model in which the irregularities are
idealized as a series of continuous sine functions which
degrade (Fig. 8(a) and (b)).26 The joint asperity was formulated as the variation of the initial asperity angle, which
would be evaluated by secant or tangential slope of dilation
curves.26-29 Plesha28 and Dowding et al.29 proposed Eq.(25)
and (26) to represent the degradation of asperity angle
at each load step. In this formula, 0 is the initial asperity
angle, a controls the rate of asperity deterioration, and W is
the work or energy dissipated the frictional sliding. It seems
that the crack width has an effective contribution in joint
shear mechanism as well as shear slip. Equations (27) and
(28) are suggested to account for work dissipation across
crack with respect to the corresponding loading path. As
was stated before, the proposed NDF idealized the crack
surface considering all inclinations; that is, /2 /2.
Joint roughness degradation is expressed by an exponential
formulation which reflects the variation of the standard deviation. var0 is the initial standard deviation; controls the
rate of asperity degradation; and Wcr is the work spent on
fracture processes during loading
Fig. 8Crack roughness definitions: (a) assumptions in rock mechanics framework; (b) crack angle variation during loading
to represent roughness degradation; (c) variation of standard deviation of proposed formulation; and (d) variation of Eq. (28)
to simulate asperity degradation.
t
dW = d D W = dWdt (25)
0
= [1 exp(W)]0 (26)
dW cr = d d + d W cr = dW cr dt (27)
var
= F4 (a ) = exp( a W cr ) (28)
var 0
Equation (28) determines the variation of initial standard deviation based on work dissipation during loading.
Figure8(c) shows the variation of the standard deviation
with respect to Wcr and Fig. 8(d) explains the effect of the
standard deviation variation on the proposed NDF (Eq.(16))
qualitatively. As can be seen, loading causes a reduction in
the initial standard deviation and the corresponding NDF
becomes narrower, which means that the crack surface
asperities deteriorate.
Now, knowing all terms, Eq. (13) can be rewritten as
(q, f c , Gmax , , a ) = var
exp ( a )
1 1
1 + (exp( a ) 1) (29)
1
exp
exp( aW cr )
50
= (, )
s = s ( S , d ) (32)
(31)
= 2; = c(2S) (33)
t = + s (34)
= (, )
(35)
s = s(S, )
(36)
N
+ r s (30)
Ac
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
Systematic and extensive experimental verification is
conducted for clarifying the versatility of the proposed
model and assumptions. In first part, the proposed model
for aggregate interlock mechanism is compared with some
experimental works under different loading paths. Then the
stress-transfer behavior of a single crack is examined by
some experimental studies considering aggregate interlock
and dowel action mechanisms. Comparisons are shown in
the framework of shear stress-shear displacement predictions as well as the ultimate shear strength of RC cracks.
Also, the contribution of the aforementioned mechanisms
against the applied shear is determined for different reinforcement ratios and bar diameters.
Aggregate interlock
To verify the proposed and the suggesting assumptions, the
experimental and the computed transferred stress provided
by aggregate interlock mechanisms under different kinds of
loading paths are compared. Paulay and Loeber3 performed
tests on precracked pushoff-type specimens. The upper part
of the specimens could slide along the shear plane of the
lower part, which was fixed. The comparison of the analysis
and the experimental results are shown in Fig. 11(a) for
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Table 1Comparison with experimental results reported by Mattock and Hawkins31 and Sagaseta and
Vollum32
Mattock and
Hawkins
Sagaseta and
Vollum
Experiment
Analysis
Specimen No.
db, mm
0, mm
fy, MPa
fc, MPa
fy
u, MPa
u, MPa
Ratio
7.1
9.5
341.3
33.4
2.65
5.87
5.5
0.94
7.2
9.5
341.3
35.3
3.97
6.25
6.9
1.10
7.3
9.5
341.3
34.8
5.3
6.72
7.8
1.16
PL2
8.0
0.132
550
53.1
2.31
4.85
5.14
1.06
PL2b
8.0
0.093
550
53.1
2.31
5.82
5.71
0.98
PL3
8.0
0.123
550
53.1
3.52
5.55
5.52
0.99
PL4
8.0
0.12
550
53.1
4.68
7.1
7.55
1.06
PG2
8.0
0.273
550
31.7
2.31
3.67
4.06
1.11
PG3
8.0
0.081
550
31.7
3.52
4.91
4.67
0.95
Average
1.04
Coefficient of
variation
7.45%
AUTHOR BIOS
Ali Reza Moradi received his PhD from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. His
research interests include nonlinear analysis and design of concrete structures and development of constitutive models.
Masoud Soltani is an Associate Professor of civil engineering at Tarbiat
Modares University. He received his PhD from the University of Tokyo,
Tokyo, Japan. His research interests include nonlinear mechanics and
constitutive laws of reinforced concrete, numerical modeling of masonry
structures, and seismic response assessment and rehabilitation of structures.
Abbas Ali Tasnimi is a Professor of civil engineering at Tarbiat Modares
University. He received his PhD from the University of Bradford, Bradford, UK. His research interests include nonlinear mechanics and constitutive laws of reinforced concrete, seismic nonlinear analysis, numerical
modeling of reinforced concrete and masonry structures, and seismic
response assessment of structures.
REFERENCES
1. Pruijssers, A. F., Aggregate Interlock and Dowel Action under Monotonic and Cyclic Loading, PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology,
Delft, the Netherlands, 1988, 193 pp.
18. Feenstra, P.; de Borst, R.; and Rots, J. G., Numerical Study on
Crack Dilatancy Part I: Models and Stability Analysis, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, V. 117, No. 4, 1991, pp. 733-753. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-9399(1991)117:4(733)
19. Feenstra, P.; de Borst, R.; and Rots, J. G., Numerical Study
on Crack Dilatancy Part II: Applications, Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, ASCE, V. 117, No. 4, 1991, pp. 754-769. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-9399(1991)117:4(754)
20. Misra, A., Effect of Asperity Damage on Shear Behavior of Single
Fracture, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, V. 69, No. 17, 2002, pp. 19972014. doi: 10.1016/S0013-7944(02)00073-5
21. Yang, Z.; Taghichian, A.; and Li, W., Effect of Asperity Order on
the Shear Response of Three-Dimensional Joints by Focusing on Damage
Area, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences,
V.47, No. 6, 2010, pp. 1012-1026. doi: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.2010.05.008
22. Thom, C. M., The Effect of Inelastic Shear on the Seismic Response
of Structures, PhD thesis, University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Zealand, 1988, 203 pp.
23. Wattar, S. W., Aggregate Interlock Behavior of Large Crack Width
Concrete Joints in PCC Airport Pavements, PhD thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2001, 556 pp.
24. Divakar, M. P., and Fafitis, A., Micromechanics-Based
Constitutive Model for Interface Shear, Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, ASCE, V. 118, No. 7, 1992, pp. 1317-1337. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-9399(1992)118:7(1317)
25. Tassios, T. P., and Vintzeleou, E. N., Concrete-to-Concrete Friction,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 113, No. 4, 1987, pp.832-849.
doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1987)113:4(832)
26. Lee, H. S.; Park, Y. J.; Cho, T. F.; and You, K. H., Influence of
Asperity Degradation on the Mechanical Behavior of Rough Rock Joints
under Cyclic Shear Loading, International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Mining Sciences, V. 38, No. 7, 2001, pp. 967-980. doi: 10.1016/
S1365-1609(01)00060-0
27. Hutson, R. W., and Dowding, C. H., Joint Asperity Degradation
during Cyclic Shear, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, V. 27, No. 2, 1990, pp. 109-119. doi:
10.1016/0148-9062(90)94859-R
28. Plesha, M. E., Constitutive Models for Rock Discontinuities with
Dilatancy and Surface Degradation, International Journal for Numerical
and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, V. 11, No. 4, 1987, pp. 345-362.
doi: 10.1002/nag.1610110404
29. Dowding, C. H.; Zubelewicz, A.; OConnor, K. M.; and Belytschko,
T. B., Explicit Modeling of Dilation, Asperity Degradation and Cyclic
Seating of Rock Joints, Computers and Geotechnics, V. 11, No. 3, 1991,
pp. 209-227. doi: 10.1016/0266-352X(91)90020-G
30. Maekawa, K., and Qureshi, J., Stress Transfer across Interface
in Reinforced Concrete Due to Aggregate Interlock and Dowel Action,
Proceedings of JSCE, V. 34, No. 557, 1997, pp. 159-172.
31. Mattock, A. H., and Hawkins, N. M., Shear Transfer in Reinforced
ConcreteRecent Research, PCI Journal, V. 17, No. 2, 1972, pp. 55-75.
doi: 10.15554/pcij.03011972.55.75
32. Sagasta, J., and Vollum, R. L., Influence of Aggregate Fracture
on Shear Transfer through Cracks in Reinforced Concrete, Magazine of
Concrete Research, V. 63, No. 2, 2011, pp. 119-137.
79
NOTES:
80
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
The economy of developed countries is heavily reliant
on the built infrastructure, and the deterioration of concrete
buildings and bridges is a major concern to both owners and
users. A gap exists between the annual investment needed
to improve the conditions of the U.S. infrastructure and the
amount currently spent.1 Proper assessment of the integrity
of concrete structures is key to help owners to efficiently
prioritize maintenance.
If the integrity of a structure is in question, load tests may
be used for condition assessment.2-4 The American Concrete
Institute (ACI) addresses two methods of load testing: 1)a
monotonic (24-hour) load testing per ACI 318-115; and
2) cyclic load test (CLT) per ACI 437.1R-07.6 Currently, the
CLT method is available as a provisional standard under the
leadership of ACI Committee 437.7 The two documents (that
is, ACI 318-11 and ACI 437-12) have different condition
assessment criteria based on the load-deflection response.
It is noted that the applicability of the monotonic load test
on modern structures may be questioned, as its acceptance
criteria are consistent with design principles and material
properties used in the 1920s.4,6 The CLT method is fairly
recent; therefore, more data is needed to assess the ability
of this method to determine the condition of in-service
structures. Furthermore, most of the research conducted on
both load testing methods dealt with passively reinforced
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
81
Fig. 1Schematic of load-versus-deflection curve for: (left) two load cycles (similar to ACI 437.1R-07, Fig. 6.1); and (right)
three load sets (similar to ACI 437.1R-07, Fig. 6.2).
ACI318-11,5 where the applied load is slightly less than the
required strength (80 to 90% of the required strength) and is
considered appropriate compared to load combinations and
strength reduction factors. The structure passes the test if the
measured deflections satisfy either Eq. (1a) or (1b)
D1
lt2
(1a)
20, 000 h
Dr
D1
4
(1b)
Dr 2
D2
(1c)
5
test.7-13 The test includes a series of load sets where each load
set includes two load cycles with similar load magnitude,
Load CyclesA and B, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The maximum
load is applied in five load steps with a minimum load hold
time at each step. These steps are applied in both the loading
and unloading phases. The evaluation criteria are based on
three indexes: 1) repeatability; 2) permanency ratio; and 3)
deviation from linearity.6 These indexes are calculated using
load and deflection measurements. Figure 1 shows a schematic for calculating the CLT parameters.6
1. RepeatabilityThis parameter represents the ratio
between deflections in two subsequent load cycles (Eq. (2)),
where the residual deflection (D rcycle) is subtracted from the
6
maximum deflection (D cycle
max ) in each cycle. This parameter
6
was included in ACI 437.1R-07 but is not included in
ACI437-12.7 It is included in this paper for completeness.
The repeatability criterion is not met if the index is less
than95%6
Repeatability =
B
D rB
D max
100% (2)
A
D rA
D max
Permanency ratio ( I pr ) =
I p (i +1)
I pi
100% (3a)
D ir
(3b)
D imax
I pi =
I p (i +1) =
D r(i +1)
(3c)
i +1)
D (max
tan(a i )
Deviation from linearity (I DL ) = 1
100 % (4)
tan(a ref )
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Test specimens
Eight PC T-section beams were used. Each specimen
was reinforced with two 13 mm (0.5 in.) low-relaxation
prestressing strands. The strands were prestressed to 68% of
their nominal breaking strength (fpu = 1860 MPa [270 ksi]).
The flange contained four 10 (No. 3) bars. The beams had
a length of 4.98 m (16.3 ft) and were designed to fail in
i t 55.827
(5)
2 96, 487
Eq. (5)
Eq. (6)
0 (0)
U2
Pristine
0 (0)
U3
Pristine
0 (0)
0.4 (0.016)
Pristine
15 (15.4)
5.9 (6.4)
6.3 (6.8)
C2-0.4
0.4 (0.016)
Pristine
15 (15.4)
7.7 (8.2)
10.2 (10.7)
C3-0.4
0.4 (0.016)
Pristine
30 (30.4)
12.3 (12.8)
12.8 (13.3)
Specimen
U1
29.0 (4200)
C1-0.4
40.7 (5900)
C4-0.4
C5-0.8
29.0 (4200)
0.4 (0.016)
Pristine
30 (30.4)
12.5 (13.0)
12.8 (13.3)
0.8 (0.032)
16 (16.5)
6.9 (7.4)
4.9 (5.4)
83
i t 55.827
0.5624 (6)
2 96, 487
between load steps) were equal to 2 minutes at the intermediate load steps and 4 minutes at the peak load for
Cycle3. For Load Cycle 4, the 4-minute hold was employed
following the fourth load step. Changes in load hold times
are not necessarily used in CLT protocol and were inserted
to aid in the acoustic emission evaluation.16,17
The maximum load in the third load set, Load Cycles 5
and 6, was equal to the cracking load Pcr. This was similar to
the first load set, in that the load level in Cycle 6 was equal
to 90% of the load level in Cycle 5 (0.9Pcr). The remainder
of the CLT testing protocol was conducted with a number of
stepped load sets similar to load set 2 (Cycles 3 and 4).
The load test protocol contained seven load sets (14 load
cycles), exceptions being Specimens C5-0.8 and C3-0.4,
where eight load sets (16 load cycles) and six load sets
(12load cycles) were applied, respectively. The load levels
for all the specimens are shown in Table 2 as a percentage
of ultimate experimental capacity Pu of each specimen while
the second row in this table shows the theoretical load level.
A minimum load of 2.2 kN (0.5 kip) was maintained through
the test to keep the actuator engaged. The targeted load value
in the last load set was equal to 90% of the nominal capacity
(0.9Pn). The loading protocol for Specimen U1 is shown
in Fig. 5. All load hold times were 2 minutes except at the
maximum load for the initial cycles and at the fourth step in
the repeated cycles where the hold time is 4 minutes.
Table 2Applied load levels for each specimen as percentage of ultimate capacity Pu
Specimen
Loadset 1
Cycle 1, 2
Loadset 2
Cycle 3,4
Loadset 3
Cycle 5, 6
Loadset 4
Cycle 7, 8
Loadset 5
Cycle 9, 10
Loadset 6
Cycle 11, 12
Loadset 7
Cycle 13, 14
0.75Ps
Ps
Pcr
0.60Pn
0.70Pn
0.80Pn
0.90Pn
U1
0.24
0.32
0.50
0.61
0.71
0.81
0.88
103.7
U2
0.25
0.32
0.52
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
113.9
U3
0.24
0.32
0.52
0.61
0.70
0.80
0.89
113.9
C1-0.4
0.20
0.27
0.48
0.52
0.69
0.77
0.87
101.0
C2-0.4
0.20
0.26
0.48
0.52
0.69
0.78
0.87
100.3
C3-0.4
0.26
0.35
0.64
0.69
0.81
0.92
NA
76.5
C4-0.4
0.18
0.24
0.45
0.48
0.72
0.81
0.90
89.8
C5-0.8*
0.29
0.33
0.43
0.49
0.54
0.78
0.89
89.9
Specimen had additional load set (load set 8) with load = 0.95Pu.
85
Performance
U1
0.88Pu
0.88Pu
Pass
103.7
U2
0.80Pu
0.80Pu
Pass
113.9
U3
0.80Pu
0.80Pu
Pass
113.9
C1-0.4
0.69Pu
0.69Pu
Pass
101.0
C2-0.4
0.78Pu
0.78Pu
Pass
100.3
C3-0.4
NA
76.5
C4-0.4
0.72Pu
0.72Pu
Pass
89.8
C5-0.8
0.54Pu
0.70Pu
Pass
89.9
Failure mode
U1
46.5 (1.83)
NA
Strand rupture
U2
103.6 (4.08)
46.2 (1.82)
Excessive deflection
U3
93.2 (3.67)
38.6 (1.52)
Excessive deflection
C1-0.4
86.1 (3.39)
40.9 (1.61)
Excessive deflection
C2-0.4
78.8 (3.09)
39.1 (1.54)
Excessive deflection
C3-0.4
90.9 (3.58)
NA
Concrete spalling
C4-0.4
66.5 (2.62)
30.9 (1.22)
Excessive deflection
C5-0.8
48.5 (1.91)
NA
Strand rupture
Load
U1
0.70Pu
U2
0.70Pu
U3
0.70Pu
C1-0.4
0.52Pu
C2-0.4
0.52Pu
C3-0.4
0.60Pu
C4-0.4
0.45Pu
C5-0.8
0.50Pu
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are extended to the personnel of the University of South
Carolina Structures and Materials Laboratory, in particular to W. Velez,
B. Zarate, and W. McIntosh, and to Mistras Group, particularly M.Gonzalez,
for the technical support provided. E. Deaver of Holcim Cement is thanked
for support and technical input.
REFERENCES
1. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Report Card for Americas Infrastructure, Reston, VA, 2009.
2. ElBatanouny, M.; Mangual, J.; Barrios, F.; Ziehl, P.; and Matta,F.,
Acoustic Emission and Cyclic Load Test Criteria Development for
Prestressed Girders, Structural Faults and Repair 2012, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, 2012, 9 pp.
3. Ziehl, P. H.; Galati, N.; Nanni, A.; and Tumialan, J. G., In Situ Evaluation of Two Concrete Slab Systems. II: Evaluation Criteria and Outcomes,
Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, ASCE, V. 22, No. 4,
2008, pp. 217-227. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3828(2008)22:4(217)
4. Galati, N.; Nanni, A.; Tumialan, J. G.; and Ziehl, P. H., In Situ Evaluation of Two Concrete Slab Systems. Part I: Load Deformation and Loading
Procedure, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, ASCE, V. 22,
No. 4, 2008, pp. 207-216. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3828(2008)22:4(207)
5. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2011, 503 pp.
6. ACI Committee 437, Test Load Magnitude, Protocol, and Acceptance
Criteria (ACI 437.1R-07), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI, 2007, 38 pp.
7. ACI Committee 437, Code Requirements For Load Testing of
Existing Concrete Structures (ACI 437-12), American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2012, 25 pp.
8. Galati, N.; Casadei, P.; Lopez, A.; and Nanni, A., Load Test Evaluation of Augspurger Ramp Parking Garage in Buffalo, N.Y., RB2C Report,
University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, MO, 2004.
9. Casadei, P., and Parretti, R., Nanni, A.; and Heinze, T., In-Situ
Load Testing of Parking Garage RC Slabs: Comparison Between 24-h
and Cyclic Load Testing, Practice Periodical on Structural Design
and Construction, ASCE, V.10, No. 1, 2005, pp. 40-48. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)1084-0680(2005)10:1(40)
10. Gold, W. J., and Nanni, A., In-Situ Load Testing to Evaluate New
Repair Techniques, Proceedings, NIST Workshop on Standards Development for the Use of Fiber Reinforced Polymers for the Rehabilitation of
Concrete and Masonry Structures, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1998, pp. 102-112.
11. Nanni, A., and Gold, W., Evaluating CFRP Strengthening Systems
In-situ, Concrete Repair Bulletin, V. 11, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1998, pp. 12-14.
12. Nanni, A., and Gold, W. J., Strength Assessment of External FRP
Reinforcement, Concrete International, V. 20, No. 6, June 1998, pp.39-42.
13. Mettemeyer, M., and Nanni, A., Guidelines for Rapid Load Testing
of Concrete Structural Members, Report No. 99-5, Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies, University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, MO, 1999.
14. Auyeung, Y.; Balaguru, B.; and Chung, L., Bond Behavior of
Corroded Reinforcement Bars, ACI Materials Journal, V. 97, No. 2,
Mar.-Apr. 2000, pp. 214-220.
15. Mangat, P. S., and Molloy, B. T., Prediction of Long Term Chloride
Concentration in Concrete, Materials and Structures, V. 27, No. 6, 1994,
pp. 338-346. doi: 10.1007/BF02473426
16. ElBatanouny, M. K., Implementation of Acoustic Emission as a
Non-Destructive Evaluation Method for Concrete Structures, PhD dissertation, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 2012, 184 pp.
17. ElBatanouny, M. K.; Ziehl, P.; Larosche, A.; Mangual, J.; Matta,F.;
and Nanni, A., Acoustic Emission Monitoring for Assessment of
Prestressed Concrete Beams, Construction and Building Materials, V. 58,
2014, pp. 46-53. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.01.100
18. Lovejoy, S., Acoustic Emission Testing of Beams to Simulate
SHM of Vintage Reinforced Concrete Deck Girder Highway Bridges,
Structural Health Monitoring, V. 7, No. 4, 2008, pp. 327-346. doi:
10.1177/1475921708090567
89
NOTES:
90
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
The use of fibers in reinforced concrete (RC) elements has
become more widespread in recent decades. Furthermore,
in the past decade, consideration has been paid in modern
codes to the mechanical properties of fibrous concrete used
in structural design.1,2 Fibers have been studied for their use
in structural membersfor example, as part of the shear
reinforcement.3-5 Under tension, they affect crack width,
spacing, and pattern.6 Therefore, tension stiffening, which is
an essential characteristic of reinforced concrete, is enhanced
by the presence of fibers that can bridge cracked cross
sections.7 Fiber action of this kind leads to additional advantages of using them in concrete mixturesnamely, improved
crack control8 and increased material toughness.9-11
Improved crack control has been observed in tension
elements containing both steel fibers and conventional
steel reinforcing bars at service load, at which thin and
closely spaced cracks were reported.12-14 Researchers also
noted that, interestingly, at ultimate load, only one or two
cracks widened more than the others. A similar phenomenon of localization was also observed in flexural tests of
beam specimens.15,16 One reason for this phenomenon is
fiber distribution,17,18 which causes a crack pattern in tensile
reinforced fiber-reinforced concrete (R/FRC7) elements8 that
is different from the relatively uniform pattern in plain RC
tension bars.19 Any attempt to explain this phenomenon of
non-uniform crack distribution should be based on a proper
model of the tensile behavior of fibrous reinforced concrete.
This paper presents such a model.
The behavior of an RC bar subjected to axial tension is
controlled by the steel-concrete bond, the reinforcement
ratio, and the concrete tensile strength. The behavior of
R/FRC tensile bars depends also on the fiber type and content,
especially in the post-peak range.1,20 Cracks develop at locaACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
91
Ac c ( r ) dAc
*
c 0 Ac
Ac f ( r ) dAc
Ac
(1)
92
(2)
rAc d s + dx = 0
c = Ec
duc
du
; s = nEc s (3)
dx
dx
= Aw (4)
where
w = us uc (5)
d 2 uc
d 2 us
+
n
r
= 0 (6)
dx 2
dx 2
d 2 uc
nr d 2 w
=
nr + 1 dx 2
dx 2
d 2 us
1 d 2w
=+
2
nr + 1 dx 2
dx
(7)
A E d 2u
d 2u
= c c 2c nr 2s (8)
2 dx
dx
Substituting the expressions from Eq. (7) and (4) into Eq. (8)
yields the following differential equation for the slip w
d 2w
2 w = 0 (9)
dx 2
where is given by
2 =
A
Ac Ec
1
1 + nr (10)
CRACK INITIATION
Cracks develop at cross sections at which the stress in
the concrete (either plain or fibrous) reaches the concretes
tensile strength fct. According to the present model, concrete
stress can be represented by either of the following two ways
(Fig. 2): 1) stress closest to the steel bar, c0 (Eq. (11) and
(12)); or 2) equivalent stress c (Eq. (13)). The first way may
be written in the following form
c0 =
c
= f ct (11)
which yields
c = fct (12)
c = fct (13)
Fig. 4Equilibrium
adjacentcracks).
in
segment
(between
two
Es As
dus
dx
= T f Ac
x = Lc / 2
du
Ec Ac c
dx
(14)
= f Ac
x = Lc / 2
where f = f(x = Lc/2) is the residual stress at the lefthand and right-hand edges of the element (refer to Fig. 4).
Due to the longitudinal strain distribution along the crack,
residual stress is generally non-uniform. Similar to the stress
distribution in the uncracked cross section (Fig. 2), a coefficient similar to (Eq. (1)) allows one to use an equivalent
uniform residual stress, represented herein by the term f.
Hence, f is applied in the calculations similar to fct, either
according to the criterion stated in Eq. (11) and (12) or that
stated in Eq. (13).
Extracting the expression for
93
dw
dus duc
=
dx x = Lc / 2 dx
dx
x = Lc / 2
duc
dx
dus
dx
f
dw
T 1 1
1
=
+
(15)
dx x = Lc / 2 Ec Ac nr nr Ec
C1 cosh ( x ) C2 sinh ( x )
(16)
+
Lc
Lc
sinh
cosh
2
2
C2 =
+f f 1
+ 1
2 Ec nr
(17)
c = Ec
(19)
dus
1 ( f f ) sinh(x)
=
dx nr 2 Ec
L
sinh c
2
1 f + f
T
1 cosh(x)
+ D2
nr 2 Ec
Ec Ac nr + 1
Lc
cosh
2
94
(20)
nrEc Ac
T
1
Ec Ac ( nr + 1)
(21)
duc ( f f ) sinh(x)
=
2 Ec
dx
L
sinh c
2
+f + f T
1 cosh(x)
1
T
+
+
L
r
1
r
+ 1)
E
A
n
A
(
n
+
2
c
cosh
c
c
c
2
(22)
+f + f T
1
cosh(x)
T
n
+
Ac nr + 1
L Ac (nr + 1)
2
cosh c
2
cosh ( x )
sinh ( x )
d w
= C1
+ C2
(18)
2
L
dx
L
sinh c
cosh c
2
2
+f + f
T
1 cosh(x)
+ D1
+
Ec Ac nr + 1
Lc
2 Ec
cosh
2
T f Ac
dus 1 1 ( f f ) sinh(x)
s = nEc
=
dx r r
2
L
sinh c
2
duc ( f f ) sinh(x)
=
2 Ec
dx
L
sinh c
2
Ec
T 1 f +f 1
+ 1
2 Ec nr
Ec Ac nr
Substituting Eq. (17) and (18) into Eq. (7) and integrating
once yields the concrete and steel strains
=
x = Lc / 2
D1 = D2 =
x = Lc / 2
0 f min , f ct (23)
A
c
CRACKING PROCESS
For an idealized representation of the material, as the
external load T increases, the maximum stress within the
concrete, c,MAX, increases as well and a crack develops
when (and if) c,MAX reaches the concrete tensile strength
fct. The RC bar specimen is divided by the first crack into
two uncracked segments (Fig. 5(a)) and with the increase
in T, this cracking process continues within each of the
two uncracked segments, whereby each occurrence k of
c,MAX=fct corresponds to 2k uncracked segments and 2k 1
cracks (for example, refer to Fig. 5(b) for k = 2). Higher
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Fig. 5Cracking process (first two stages) in tensile reinforced concrete bar.
external loads (up to the yield load of the steel bar) correspond to larger number of shorter, uncracked segments. A
new crack develops in an uncracked segment only if the
maximum value of c (Eq. (22)) equals the value of fct within
the segment (Fig. 6).
For plain concrete, in which concrete stress at the cracks
drops to zero, the crack spacing is uniform (that is, all
uncracked segments have the same length). This, however,
is not the case for fibrous concrete, as will be shown below.
Zeroing the first derivative of c (Eq. (22)) leads to the
following expression for the location of the maximum
concrete stress x* (according to the local coordinate system
[Fig. 4 and 6])
1
B
(24)
x* ( Lc ) = arctanh
Lc
tanh 2
where
B=
+f f
(25)
2T
+f f
Ac ( nr + 1)
+f f sinh x* ( Lc )
T
1
+
Ac ( nr + 1)
2
L
sinh c
2
*
+f + f
T
1 cosh x ( Lc )
= f ct
+
2
Ac ( nr + 1)
L
cosh c
2
(27)
Lc
2
arctanh
( B ) (26)
0 f fct (29)
L
L
tanh 2 c B 2 = C sinh c (30)
2
2
2T
2 f ct
Ac ( nr + 1)
C=
(31)
2T
+f f
Ac ( nr + 1)
Equation (30) always has a solution, as ensured by Condition (Eq.) (26), which represents a physical state of cracking
and guarantees that the expression under the square root
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
95
L
L
tanh 4 c 1 + B 2 C 2 tanh 2 c + B 2 = 0 (32)
2
2
( Lc )1,2 = arctanh
1
1 + B2 C 2
2
(1 + B
C2
4 B 2 (33)
2
1
1 + B2 C 2 +
arctanh
2
(1 + B
C2
4 B 2 (34)
(35a)
L
2
2 Lc
2
sinh
cossh c
+D
+
2
2
f + f +
L
c
2
2
2
c
sinh
cosh
2
2
T=
Ac (1 + nr)
2
(35b)
L
L
2 sinh 2 c + D 2
cossh c
+
2
2
f + f +
Lc
2
2
2 Lc
sinh
cosh
2
2
96
L
f f ct cosh c
2
T = (1 + nr) Ac
(36)
Lc
1 cosh
2
Fig. 8Schematic cracking process of fibrous reinforced concrete bar under axial tension.
first crack in the segment (Eq. (36) with f = 0) for two
lengths Lc of uncracked bars: a relatively short bar and a bar
three times longer (denoted L and 3L in Fig. 7).
Figure 7 shows that as the length of the bar increases, the
stress distribution along the center of the segment becomes
more uniform and extends over a longer portion of the
segmentthat is, the gradient of c is relatively small. In
such cases, variation of fct along the length of the bar can
lead to a crack, which is not necessarily located at the calculated point of the mean concrete tensile strength.
ALGORITHM FOR CALCULATING CRACKING
PROCESS
The general procedure for calculating tensile forces that
cause cracking and the intervals between the cracks is as
follows:
Stage 1. The first cracking force Tc1 is calculated using
Eq. (36), with f = 0 and the length of the entire bar substituted for Lc. The first crack is set at the center of the bar
(x* = 0 [Fig. 5(a)]).
The following steps refer to the left-hand half of the bar,
based on a theoretical symmetric cracking pattern (Fig. 8(a)).
Note that in this case (f+ > f), x* > 0 and, therefore, L2left>
L2right. Hence, the following crack is expected to develop
within L2left, which is the (left-hand) end-segment of the bar.
Stage 3. The third cracking force Tc3 and the corresponding
crack location (x*) are calculated as in Stage 2, with Lc = L2left
(f = 0, f+ = f > 0). The lengths of the two new segments,
L3left > L3right (Fig. 8(c)), are again given by Eq. (37).
At this stage, each half of the bar is subdivided into three
segments of different lengths. (On the left hand, they are
L3leftt L3right L2right [Fig. 8(c)]).
The subsequent stages are calculated as follows:
Stage i (i 4). 1. Find the largest internal segment from
the previous stages. Substitute the length of this segment,
Lint,max, for Lc in the calculation of cracking force Tci,1 using
97
H-1
190
160
Cement
255
500
Silica fume
40
Fibers
60
60
1170
880
725
860
Water
*
Coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
30.7 (1.3)
115 (1.3)
5.9 (0.9)
13.1 (0.7)
3.7 (0.3)
13.1 (2.5)
Measured on 100 mm (3.93 in.) cubes that were wet-cured for 7 days.
||
99
First
Second Third
segment segment segment Minimum Average Maximum
Calculated
17.0
275
275
275.0
275
22.7
153
122
122
137.5
153
41.87
86
67
122
67
91.7
122
Measured*
17.6
275
275
275.0
275
20.7
158
117
117
137.5
158
43.6
87
71
117
71
91.7
117
3.4%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
9.7%
3.2%
4.3%
4.3%
0.0%
3.2%
4.0%
1.1%
5.6%
4.3%
5.6%
0.0%
4.3%
Average values of corresponding left- and right-hand segments with respect to axis
of symmetry of entire bar (Fig. 12).
Notes: 1 kN = 0.225 kip; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.
100
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by a joint grant from the Centre for Absorption in Science of the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption and the Committee
for Planning and Budgeting of the Council for Higher Education under
the framework of the KAMEA Program and by the Israeli Ministry of
Construction and Housing. The research grants are greatly appreciated. The
authors would like to thank also S. Engel, V. Eisenberg, and G. Ashuah for
their useful advice and support.
REFERENCES
101
102
TECHNICAL PAPER
INTRODUCTION
A considerable amount of work has been done on the
behavior of steel-reinforced concrete columns. Appropriately designed lateral confinement, such as the use of closely
spaced transverse steel reinforcement, externally bonded
steel jackets, or fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapping,
have proven to significantly improve the ductility, energy
dissipation capacity and flexural strength of steel-reinforced
concrete columns under seismic loading.
The corrosion of steelespecially the lateral reinforcement
in structureshas cost billions of dollars in infrastructure repair
in North America. It is estimated that $3.6 trillion are needed
by 2020 to alleviate potential problems in civil infrastructure.1
Approximately one in nine bridges in the United States are rated
as structurally deficient, requiring about $20.5 billion annually
to eliminate the bridge deficient backlog by 2028. As a relatively
new material with excellent corrosion resistance and a high
strength-weight ratio, internal glass fiber-reinforced polymer
(GFRP) reinforcement is considered a feasible and sustainable
alternative to steel reinforcement for future infrastructure. A
number of studies have been carried out on GFRP-reinforced
concrete members subjected to flexure and shear. However,
only a few experimental studies have been reported on GFRPreinforced concrete columns. Alsayed et al.2 reported that
replacing longitudinal steel reinforcement with GFRP bars
of the same volumetric ratio resulted in a 13% reduction in
the axial load capacity of columns. De Luca et al.3 reported
that at low longitudinal reinforcement ratios, the response
of GFRP-reinforced columns is very similar to that of steelreinforced columns and the contribution of GFRP bars can
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
103
Spiral diameter, mm (in.) Spiral pitch, mm (in.) Axial load level P/Po Mmax, kN.m (kip.ft) Vmax, kN (kip) Plastic hinge length, mm (in.)
P28-C-12-50
12 (1/2)
50 (2.0)
0.28
224 (165)
70.0 (15.7)
260 (10.2)
P28-C-12-160
12 (1/2)
160 (6.3)
0.28
152 (112)
71.1(16.0)
320 (12.6)
P28-C-16-160
16 (5/8)
160 (6.3)
0.28
123 (91)
59.4 (13.4)
260 (10.2)
P28-B-12-50
12 (1/2)
50 (2.0)
0.28
227 (167)
78.2 (17.6)
270 (10.6)
P42-C-12-50
12 (1/2)
50 (2.0)
0.42
219 (161)
74.9 (16.8)
250 (9.8)
P42-C-12-160
12 (1/2)
160 (6.3)
0.42
162 (119)
58.8 (13.2)
300 (11.8)
P42-B-12-160
12 (1/2)
160 (6.3)
0.42
160 (118)
63.1 (14.2)
270 (10.6)
P42-B-16-160
16 (5/8)
160 (6.3)
0.42
187 (137)
70.0 (15.7)
240 (9.4)
P42-B-16-275
16 (5/8)
275 (10.8)
0.42
154 (113)
69.8 (15.7)
370 (14.6)
104
the GFRP bar and the coupler was filled with an expansive cement mortar and capped. Figure 4 shows the GFRP
samples during the tension test. The strain was measured
using a detachable gauge attached to the bar at midheight
with a gauge length of 25 mm (1 in.). To avoid damage to the
gauge, it was removed at about a third of the ultimate load.
Elastic behavior was assumed to extrapolate the strain data
until the ultimate stress. Table 2 summarizes the results for
all the GFRP coupon tension tests.
The behavior of GFRP bars in compression is still not as
well-studied as the tensile response. For GFRP bars with
L/d < 6, where L is the free length and d is the diameter
of bars, it was reported that their compressive strength can
be 10to 50% of their ultimate tensile strength, depending
on fiber content, the manufacturing procedure, and the
resin quality.10 Based on tests on FRP bars with L/d < 6,
it was reported that the ultimate compressive strength
is approximately half of the tensile strength, while the
modulus of elasticity was found to be approximately equal
in both compression and tension.11 In this study, 15 GFRP
bar samples were tested in compression. The test setup is
shown in Fig. 5, in which the axial compression was directly
applied to the samples through steel cylindrical caps at both
ends. A different free length of GFRP bars between the two
steel caps was chosen based on the spiral pitch in different
columns. Two strain gauges were installed at the midheight
of each GFRP coupon on opposite sides to measure the
longitudinal compressive strain. The modulus of elasticity
was obtained by averaging the two strains during the initial
stages of the test before the two strain values deviated from
each other due to buckling effect. Table 3 summarizes the
results obtained from these tests.
Steel
Two types of deformed steel bars were used in specimens. In each column outside the 740 mm (29 in.) long test
region, the transverse reinforcement consisted of Grade 60
U.S. No.3 steel spirals at 50 mm (2 in.) pitch (volumetric
ratio to the concrete core sh = 1.93%). The stubs were reinforced with steel cages made of 10M (area of cross section
= 100mm2 [0.155 in.2]) stirrups spaced at 64 mm (2.5 in.)
in both horizontal and vertical directions. The mechanical
105
Actual diameter,
mm (in.)
Modulus of elasticity,
MPa (ksi)
Ultimate stress,
MPa (ksi)
Ultimate strain
C - SP
12 (0.472)
12.62 (0.497)
C - SP
16 (0.630)
16.05 (0.632)
58,399 (8470)
1454 (211)
0.0249
51,224 (7429)
1069 (155)
0.0209
0.0165
C - ST
25 (0.984)
25.11 (0.989)
65,779 (9540)
1087 (158)
B - SP
12.7 (0.5)
12.7 (0.5)
58,948 (8550)
1243 (180)
0.0211
B - SP
15.87 (0.625)
16.01 (0.630)
54,567 (7914)
1159 (168)
0.0213
B - ST
25.4 (1)
28.44 (1.120)
74,270 (10772)
1338 (194)
0.0180
The first part indicates type of GFRP material and second part identifies whether straight sample was taken from material used for straight bars (ST) or spirals (SP).
These values do not represent ultimate stress and strain. The test was terminated due to slippage of bars in coupler.
Free length,
mm (in.)
Nominal area,
mm2 (in.2)
Actual area,
mm2 (in.2)
491 (0.761)
495 (0.768)
50 (2)
C
Modulus of elasticity,
MPa (ksi)
Ultimate stress,
MPa (ksi)
Ultimate strain
55,569 (8060)
619 (90)
0.01132
160 (6.3)
56,357 (8174)
602 (87)
0.01066
50 (2)
71,018 (10300)
864 (125)
0.0104
72,165 (10467)
873 (127)
0.00932
72,701 (10544)
759 (110)
0.00901
160 (6.3)
507 (0.786)
275 (10.8)
635 (0.985)
Fig. 4GFRP coupon test (tension), left to right: 12 mm (0.47 in.) Type B-SP before and failure; and 12 mm (0.47 in.) Type
C-SP before and failure, left to right: Bar Type B with free length of 275 mm (10.8 in.) before and after failure; and Bar Type
C with free length of 160 mm (6.3 in.) before and after failure.
Area,
mm2 (in.2)
Yield strain
y
Modulus of elasticity
E, MPa (ksi)
Start of strainhardening sh
Ultimate
strain u
10M
100 (0.16)
420 (60.9)
0.0023
187,105 (27,137)
0.0251
542 (78.6)
0.1960
US No. 3
71 (0.11)
485 (70.3)
0.0025
191,570 (27,785)
0.0273
598 (86.7)
0.1632
Fig. 6Location of strain gauges on GFRP bars and spiral. (Note: 1 mm = 0.039 in.)
properties obtained from the tests on a minimum of three
samples of each type of steel bar are presented in Table 4.
Instrumentation
To monitor the deformation of GFRP reinforcement
in each specimen during testing, 18 strain gauges were
installed on the longitudinal bars and six on the spirals
three on each of the two turns adjacent to the stub faceas
shown schematically in Fig. 6. Ten linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) were installed on one side of the
column and light-emitting diode (LED) targets were used
on the other side to measure deformation of the concrete
core in the potential plastic-hinge region. The LVDTs were
mounted on the threaded rods installed inside the columns
before concrete casting to measure the inelastic deformation
of core concrete. Three LEDs were mounted on a stationary
location and were used as reference, while 14 targets were
placed on each specimen. In addition to the linear strains, the
LED targets provided three-dimensional movements at each
location. The lateral deflection along each specimen was
measured by six LVDTs. The instrumentation is displayed
in Fig. 7.
Testing procedure
Each column was tested under a constant axial load and
quasi-static lateral cyclic displacement excursions. The
axial load was applied by a hydraulic jack with a capacity
of 10,000 kN (2250 kip), while the cyclic lateral loading
was applied using an actuator with a 1000 kN (225 kip) load
capacity and approximately 100 mm (4 in.) stroke capacity.
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Fig. 7Instrumentation: (a) strain gauges on bars and spirals in the test region (left), horizontal LVDTs on one side of the
column (top right), and LED targets on the other side of the column (bottom right); and (b) location of LVDTs. (Note: 1 mm =
0.039 in.)
,
%
N80
W80
Vmax,
kN (kip)
Mmax,
kN.m
(kip.ft)
84
70.0
(15.7)
224
(165)
P28-C12-160
>9.0
3.2 3.0
17
22
99
160
71.1
(16.0)
152
(112)
P28-C16-160
>5.3
2.8 2.6
11
10
86
134
59.4
(13.4)
123 (91)
78.2
(17.6)
227
(167)
219
(161)
94
30
65
142 395
74.9
(16.8)
P42-C12-160
>7.5
3.7 3.0
16
28
50
93
58.8
(13.2)
162
(119)
P42-B12-160
>9.5
2.3 1.9
70
96
63.1
(14.2)
160
(118)
18
34
119 239
70.0
(15.7)
187
(137)
P42-B16-275
56
69.8
(15.7)
154
(113)
>8.8
2.5 2.1
60
D = dL
a+b
(1)
a
V = PL
a
(2)
a+b
V = Vcos Psin
D
(4)
a+b
M = V (L Dmd) + P
(5)
q=
Vn =
M n PD y
L
(6)
where P is the applied axial load; y is the yield displacement; and L is the shear span. Although GFRP-reinforced
columns do not undergo yielding, the procedure used by
Liu and Sheikh8 for steel-reinforced columns was also used
in this study to define a hypothetical yield displacement y
to evaluate the displacement ductility factor. Displacement
y is determined corresponding to the nominal lateral load
capacity Vn along a straight line joining the origin and a
point of 65% Vn on the ascending branch of the lateral shearversus-tip deflection curve, which is determined for a
specific axial load applied on the column.
(3)
109
110
Ductility parameters
Several ductility parameters have been used to explain the
behavior of reinforced concrete sections in the literature.7
Curvature and displacement ductility factors (, ), drift
ratio (), cumulative displacement ductility ratio (N80), and
work damage indicator (W80) are used in this study to quantify the deformability of the specimens.6 Figure 13 provides
a graphical representation of how the displacement-related
ductility parameters are calculated while parameters based
on curvature can be defined in a similar manner. The results
on ductility parameters are summarized in Table 5. The
curvature at the most damaged section is obtained from the
strain gauges on the longitudinal bars. Because the strain
gauges stopped functioning before the failure of columns,
the ultimate curvature ductility factors will be higher in most
cases than the values reported here.
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Fig. 12Moment-curvature and shear-deflection responses of columns. (Note: 1 mm = 0.039 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip; 1 kNm =
0.738 kip.ft; 1 rad/km = 305106 rad/ft.)
111
112
Maximum
spiral strain
fh,
Ultimate
spiral strain
ufh,
fh/ufh
P28-C12-50
4145
4145
24,900
0.167
P28-C12-160
3612
4031
24,900
0.162
P28-C16-160
4450
5605
19,900
0.282
P28-B12-50
9306
9779
21,100
0.463
P42-C12-50
2276
6440
24,900
0.259
P42-C12-160
7835
11,882
24,900
0.477
P42-B12-160
5010
7581
21,100
0.359
P42-B16-160
6597
13,054
21,300
0.613
P42-B16-275
5902
9723
21,300
0.456
Average
B
6704
10,034
21,200
0.473
Average
C
4464
6421
23,900
0.269
Specimen
REFERENCES
1. ASCE, 2013 Report Card for Americas Infrastructure, American Society of Civil Engineers, www.infrastructurereportcard.org. (last
accessed Oct. 15, 2014)
2. Alsayed, S. H.; Al-Salloum, Y. A.; Almusallam, T. H.; and Amjad,
M. A., Concrete Columns Reinforced by Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Rods, 4th International SymposiumFiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for Reinforced Concrete Structures, SP-188, C. W. Dolan,
S. H. Rizkalla, and A. Nanni, eds., American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 1999, pp. 103-112.
3. De Luca, A.; Matta, F.; and Nanni, A., Behavior of Full-Scale Glass
Fiber-Reinforced PolymerReinforced Concrete Columns under Axial
Load, ACI Structural Journal, V. 107, No. 4, July-Aug. 2010, pp. 589-596.
4. Tobbi, H.; Farghaly, A. S.; and Benmokrane, B., Concrete Columns
Reinforced Longitudinally and Transversally with Glass Fiber-Reinforced
Polymer Bars, ACI Structural Journal, V. 109, No. 4, July-Aug. 2012,
pp. 551-558.
5. Choo, C. C.; Harik, I. E.; and Gesund, H., Strength of Rectangular
Concrete Columns Reinforced with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bars, ACI
Structural Journal, V. 103, No. 3, May-June 2006, pp. 452-459.
6. Sharbatdar, M. K., and Saatcioglu, M., Seismic Design of FRP Reinforced Concrete Structures, Asian Journal of Applied Sciences, V. 2, No. 3,
2009, pp. 211-222. doi: 10.3923/ajaps.2009.211.222
7. Sheikh, S. A., and Khoury, S. S., Confined Concrete Columns with
Stubs, ACI Structural Journal, V. 90, No. 4, July-Aug. 1993, pp. 414-431.
8. Liu, J., and Sheikh, S. A., Fiber-Reinforced Polymer-Confined
Circular Columns under Simulated Seismic Loads, ACI Structural
Journal, V. 110, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 2013, pp. 941-952.
9. ASTM C39/C39M-12, Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2012, 7 pp.
10. ACI Committee 440, Guide for the Design and Construction of
Structural Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars (ACI 440.1R-06), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2006, 44 pp.
11. Deitz, D.; Harik, I.; and Gesund, H., Physical Properties of Glass
Fiber Reinforced Polymer Rebars in Compression, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, V. 7, No. 4, 2003, pp. 363-366. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)1090-0268(2003)7:4(363)
12. CAN/CSA-S806-12, Design and Construction of Building Components with Fiber-Reinforced Polymers, Canadian Standards Association,
Mississauga, ON, Canada, 2012, 198 pp.
DISCUSSION
Discussion 111-S22/From the March-April 2014 ACI Structural Journal, p. 257
Bond Strength of Spliced Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement. Paper by Ali Cihan Pay, Erdem Canbay,
and Robert J. Frosch
Discussion by Jos R. Mart-Vargas
Professor, ICITECH, Institute of Concrete Science and Technology, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Valncia, Spain
The discussed paper presents an interesting experimental study on the bond behavior of unconfined tension
lap-spliced reinforcement. Steel-reinforced concrete beams
and reinforced beams with ber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
barsglass FRP and carbon FRPwere tested to provide
additional experimental data for a better understanding of
the bond strength between FRP and concrete.
Variables such as splice length, surface condition, modulus
of elasticity, axial rigidity, and bar casting position on bond
strength were considered. The authors should be complimented
for producing a detailed paper with comprehensive information. This is acknowledged by the discusser, who would like to
offer the following comments and questions for their consideration and response, mainly about some aspects included in
the Bond Strength section and the corresponding conclusions.
The authors conclude that bond strength depends on splice
length, the modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, and the axial
rigidity of reinforcement, among other factors. These conclusions are supported by Fig. 6 to 10, as follows: (a) Fig. 6 (for
No. 5 bars) and 7 (for No. 8 bars) depict the effect of splice
length on bond strength; (b) Fig. 8 depicts the effect of modulus
of elasticity on bond strength; and (c) Fig. 9 (for No. 5 bars)
and 10 (for No. 8 bars) depict the effect of axial rigidity on bond
strength. As stated by the authors, bond strength rises nonlinearly with increasing splice length, and linearly as the modulus
of elasticity and/or the axial rigidity increase. However, despite
the values being normalized by the fourth root of concrete
compressive strength to eliminate the effect of variations in
concrete strength, these figures present the computed reinforcement stress reached at failure ftest instead of average bond stress
avg. Therefore, it seems that some conclusions should correspond to reinforcement stress rather than to bond strength.
By way of example, for the glass-sand coated case in
Fig. 6, normalized reinforcement stresses approximately
range from 30 to 50 ksi (207 to 345 MPa), whereas splice
length ranges from 12 to 54 in. (305 to 1372 mm). Then
normalized reinforcement stresses increase by 67%, whereas
splice length increases by 350%. It is true that the effect is
nonlinear. However, as bar size does not vary and the hypothesis of uniform distribution of bond stresses along splice
length is assumed, this implies that the average bond stress
is lower for the longer splice length case. In other words,
normalized reinforcement stress at failure increases when
splice length becomes longer, but bond strength decreases. If
the discusser is right, this conclusion is the opposite of that
reached by the authors. The same interpretation can be made
for the remaining cases included in Fig. 6 and 7.
Regarding the effect of the modulus of elasticity of the
reinforcement on bond strength (Fig. 8, No. 5 bars), one can
interpret that for one same deformation, a greater reinforcement stress results for a higher modulus of elasticity. By way
of example for the fabric texture case in Fig. 8, normalized
reinforcement stresses approximately range from 47 to 62 ksi
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
bar resisting bond remains the same. While the paper did
not discuss average bond stress, the average bond stress for
these cases would be directly computed from the bar force
divided by the surface area of the bar (pdbls), which is independent of the bar deformation or surface treatment. It is not
clear why the discussion indicates that additional information based on reinforcement deformation is needed to know
the effect on average bond stress. Regardless, bond strength
was found to be essentially independent of the surface deformation for the bars tested as discussed in the paper.
Behavior of Epoxy-Injected Diagonally Cracked Full-Scale Reinforced Concrete Girders. Paper by MatthewT.
Smith, Daniel A. Howell, Mary Ann T. Triska, and Christopher Higgins
Discussion by William L. Gamble
FACI, Professor Emeritus, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL
AUTHORS CLOSURE
The authors would like to thank the discusser for his
thoughtful comments and for reading our paper. These allow
us to provide additional detail regarding the design considerations for our specimens that could not be reported in the
original paper due to space constraints.
The issues related to what many would consider a shear
problem for 1950s-era RCDGs are several. We respectfully
submit Table 3, which highlights the relevant changes in the
AASHTO 1944, 1949, and 1953 standards from the period
considered. In addition, the AASHTO allowable stress for the
transverse reinforcing steel changed from 16 ksi (110 MPa)
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2015
Table 3Comparison of relevant AASHTO-specified concrete shear and bond stresses, noting changes
occurring around 1950
Allowable shear stress in concrete, psi
With web reinforcement
Without web reinforcement
Longitudinal bars not Longitudinal bars Longitudinal bars not Longitudinal bars
Design specification and year
anchored
anchored
anchored
anchored
AASHTO 1944
AASHTO 1949
AASHTO 1953
0.046fc
0.046fc
0.075fc
0.06fc
0.06fc
0.075fc
0.02fc
0.02fc
0.02fc
0.03fc
0.03fc
0.03fc
0.033fc(max 100)
0.05fc(max 150)
0.10fc(max 350)
117
NOTES:
118
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