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MAPPING
BY
L. BIEBERBACH
FRIEDRICH-WILHELM'S UNIVERSITY
TRANSLATED BY
F. STEINHARDT
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
COPYRICHT 1953 BY
CHELSEA PUBLISHING COMPANY
COPYRIGHT 1964 BY
CHELSEA PUBLISHING COMPANY
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
This book is a translation of the fourth (latest)
edition of Bieberbach's well-known Einfuhrung
in die Konforme Abbildung, Berlin 1949. Various
minor corrections have been made (particularly
in 12 and 14) and the bibliography has been
added to.
F. Steinhardt
...
111
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
Page
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE .. . . iii
1. Analytic Functions and Conformal Mapping. . . . . 1
. . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2. Integral Linear Functions
3. The Function w
1/z
15
Appendix to 3: Stereographic Projection. . . . . . . . . .. 21
4. Linear Functions .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
5. Linear Functions (continued) ................ 33
6. Groups of Linear Functions
43
7.
8.
Rational Functions
III.
51
62
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
9.
IV.
= +
79
84
92
95
T ABLE OF CONTENTS
vi
v.
Page
15. The Mapping of a Given Region onto the Interior
of a Circle (Illustrative Examples)
109
16. Vitali's Theorem on Double Series
119
125
17. A Limit Theorem for Simple Mappings
18. Proof of Riemann's Mapping Theorem
128
19. On the Actual Construction of the Conformal Mapping of a Given Region Onto a Circular Disc
131
20. Potential-Theoretic Considerations
137
21. The Correspondence Between the Boundaries under
Conformal Mapping
152
22. Distortion Theorems for Simple Mappings of the
Disc I z I < 1 ................................ 156
23. Distortion Theorems for Simple Mappings of
Iz I 1
168
24. On the Conformal Mapping of Non-Simple,
Simply-Connected Regions Onto a Circular Disc .. 186
Remark on the Mapping of Non-Simple, MultiplyConnected Regions Onto Simple Regions
193
25. The Problems of Uniformization
194
26. The Mapping of Multiply-Connected Plane Regions Onto Canonical Regions
209
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........ 230
INDEX
231
>
CHAP'"rER ONE
Foundations. Linear Functions
I. Analytic Functions and Conformal Mapping
au ov
aU.
ox === By ,
ov
oy === -ox
I.
w ===
Co
+ c1(z -
a) + c2(z - a)2 +
1.
1.
1.
{} = arg zi(O)
{} = arg z~() =
({J2 -
({Jl
w;(O)
z~(O)
{},
1.
10
ou ou
d(u, V)
d(x, y)
oX
ov
ox
oy
ov
oy
ov
ox - ox
OV ou
ox ox
===
(aU) 2
ox
'
1.
u'(t) =
ou
ou
OX x'(t) + oy y'(t)
V'(t) =
~; X'(t) + ~ y'(t).
(3)
11
12
I.
Let us now go back to our definition of conformal mapping; its requirement of "similitude in
the small" includes isogonality, as one part. Let
us relax this requirement to the extent that only
the magnitude, but not necessarily the sense of
rotation, of every angle is to be preserved. A conformal mapping which preserves the sense of
rotation will be called strictly conformal, and one
which reverses the sense of every angle will be
called anti-conformal. We may then ask whether
or not every conformal mapping is given by an
analytic function, or-which by our last result
amounts to the same-whether or not every conformal mapping is strictly conformal.
A simple example shows that the answer is no.
If
denotes the complex conjugate of z, then
w = z represents a mapping of the z-plane onto
the w-plane. In geometric terms, this mapping is
a reflection in the real axis; that is, if we accommodate z and w both in the same plane in such a
way that equal values of z and w correspond to
the same point, then the mapping sends every
point of the z-plane into its mirror image with
respect to the real axis. This mapping is evidently
conformal; the length of any curve is the same as
that of its image curve, and the magnitude of every
angle is preserved. However, the sense of rotation
of every angle is reversed under the mapping.
Thus the mapping is anti-conformal. We can
2.
13
obtain additional examples of this kind by combining any given strictly conformal mapping with
the mapping just considered.
We may still ask whether every conformal mapping is either a strictly conformal mapping or else
a combination of a strictly conformal mapping
with the above reflection (and therefore anticonformal). The answer here is yes, as can be
shown by an argument very similar to the one
used in proving our last isogonality result, and
which we omit here for that reason. Hence every
conformal mapping is represented either by
w = f(z) (strictly conformal mapping) or by
W = f(z) (anti-conformal mapping), where f(z)
is an analytic function. Every conformal mapping
14
I.
points in the same plane, then this mapping, geometrically interpreted, is a translation. For, as
is well known, to every complex number there
corresponds a vector, and the addition of complex
numbers then corresponds to vector addition.
Therefore the translation must be one in the
direction of the vector b, and the magnitude of
the translation is the length of b. Thus any given
region R is mapped onto a congruent region which
is obtained from R by a translation.
2. w == e;rp z represents a rotation of the plane
through the angle C{J, about the fixed center of
rotation z == O.
3. w == rz, with r > 0, represents a similarity
transformation (magnification in the ratio r: 1) .
4. The most general integral linear transformation w == az + b can be built up step by step
from the three types just considered. We set
This shows how the given transformation is
built up from the above three types. Another
method, just as simple as the one just used, will
give us an even better insight into the geometric
nature of the mapping w == az + b: Observe
that it can always be brought into the form
W - <X == re~(z - eX)
with suitable eX, a == rr!rp , provided only that the coefficient a in w == az + b is
not equal to 1. Therefore the most general in-
3.
THE FUNCTION W
== liz
15
The discussion of this function offers no particular difficulty, at least at all those points at
which neither z nor w become infinite, that is to
say, at all finite points of the z-plane other than
z = o. The point z === 0 itself is not covered by
the general investigations of 1 ; thus if we now
include that point in the discussion of our function, we shall at the same time be supplementing
the material of 1 in a special case.
We shall find it useful to introduce polar coordinates, by setting z == reirp , W = eeifJ Then our
mapping is expressed by e === 11r, {) === - cp. This
will give us a clear geometric picture of the mapping, as follows. Let us once more locate z and w
in one and the same plane. The points for which
r === 1 obviously playa special role in the mapping.
These points make up a circle! whose radius is
unity and whose center is at z === 0, the unit circle
as we shall henceforth call it for short; and this
circle is mapped onto itself under our mapping
By circle we shall always mean the periphery of a circular disc.
1
16
I.
1V ===
I1
r1 =
1,
{)1
=-
cp;
II
1
e = -,
1
{} =
{)1 .
3.
THE FUNCTION
UJ
== liz
17
18
3.
THE FUNCTION W
== liz
19
20
with ao =f=
+a
(z -
o.
Hence we obtain
a) 11 ( a o
(z -
a)
+ . ..),
.J
We call z == a, in this case, a non-essential singularity, or a pole, of I (z). If n ~ 1, then the mapping represented by I (z) is isogonal at z ~ a, in
accordance with our agreements above.
ApPENDIX TO
3:
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
21
22
4.
LINEAR FUNCTIONS
23
w = ::
t~
bc- ad
c+ (cz+ d)c
And then it would be easy to represent our function as built up from four simple types of functions such as were discussed in 2 and 3. But
such a procedure would make the further study
of the linear function somewhat laborious, and for
this reason we shall prefer a different approach.
Let us, however, note the following corollary to
our initial calculation:
24
THEOREM
+ b)/(cz + d)
(~t ~) =w
is regular at 3 = 0, except if
(dd
) = be
3 3=0
t~
4.
LINEAR FUNCTIONS
25
use 8 to stand for any linear function, whose inverse-that we have just seen how to calculate
above-we shall then denote by 8-I, as is usual
in algebra. The following further result is now
almost immediate:
THEOREM III: The composition of any number
of non-constant linear functions always leads to
further non-constant linear functions.
In proof, let 8 1 === II (z) and 8 2 = l2 (z) ; then
8 1 8 2 stands for l1 (l2 (z) ). The inverse of this last
is 8 21 8 t 1 The determinant of 8 1 8 2 is the product
of the determinants of 8 1 and 8 2 , and can not
vanish since neither of the factors vanishes.
THEOREM IV: If the z-plane is mapped onto
the w-plane by means of a non-constant linear
function, then the totality of straight lines and
circles of the z-plane is mapped onto the totality
of straight lines and circles of the w-plane.
In proof, note first that the equations of lines
and circles can always be written as follows in
rectangular coordinates: a z z + fJ z + f3 z + y === 0,
where a and yare real, fJ and f3 are complex conjugates, z === x + iy, and z === x - iy. Theorem IV
can then be easily verified by simply going through
the actual calculations. Under such a mapping,
as the calculations would show, a straight line
may very well be mapped onto a circle, but never
onto any other conic section nor, say, onto a curve
26
Z-(X
fJ-y
and
W'-lX I
f3' - y
== w-y ( p-C(.
R'
I
4. LINEAR FUNCTIONS
27
82 81 =
_ az+ b
cz -I - d
z==-ez+ d
or
z2 c+ z(d-a)-b=O
must have the three solutions a, f3, y. But then
all the coefficients of the quadratic equation must
vanish, by an elementary theorem of algebra.
This gives b === 0, c = 0, a === d. Hence w = z is
the only linear function which leaves more than
three points fixed. We have thus obtained the
following further result:
VI. Every linear function other than
w === z leaves at most two points fixed.
THEOREM
28
z=
a-dV(a-d)2-r 4bc
2c
...,
""_
w-z1
w -z"..
4.
LINEAR FUNCTIONS
29
==eX Z-Zl
W-Z 2
Z-Z2
two distinct finite fixed points). In order to determine the value of a in terms of the original coefficients of S, note that
whence a short calculation yields
a+ d+ V(a-d)2+ 4bc
eX=-----:.,:===============_
a+ d-V(a-d)2+ 4bc
30
I.
4. LINEAR FUNCTIONS
31
FIG.
32
to
==
tv _
Z '
1
5 ==
1
Z_
whence we obtain
This yields
W-Z 1
Z-Zl
\v ===
+ fJ
0 + f3,
as the
5.
LINEAR FUNCTIONS
(continued)
33
34
3= fI 1
(z)-a
35
az+ b
-bz+ a
36
5.
LINEAR FlTNCTIONS
This yields
(1)
(continued)
37
z-(X fJ-y
w-- z-y 0
p -(X
= az + b
cz+ d
All of these
functions map the real axis onto itself, but not all
of them map the upper half-plane onto itself; they
may interchange the two half-planes, as does, for
instance, w = liz. How can we distinguish between the two cases? We shall show that the upper
half-plane is mapped onto itself if and only if
ad - b c > 0; indeed, this follows from the representation (1) of our functions. For, the determinant of (1) equals (fJ-y) (3-a) (a-y).
Now for the upper half-plane to be mapped onto
itself, it is necessary and sufficient that the order
of a,;3, y agree with that of 0,1, 00; but this implies that the value of the determinant is positive,
and vice versa. We thus have the following theorem: All linear conformal mappings of the 'upper
half-plane onto itself are given by
w ~ az + b
cz+ d
be> 0.
(,
38
I.
bz+ a
,aa - bb
> 0.
39
40
I.
inverse with respect to K lies on a circle perpendicular to K, the points of the image pair must
be mutually inverse with respect to the image of
K, which is what we wished to prove.
4. The solution, indicated above under 3., of
the problem of determining all linear mappings
of a circular disc onto itself, acquires an even
greater importance through the fact, to be proved
presently, that there are no other one-to-one conformal mappings of a circular disc onto itself.
z === al
+ a2z +
5.
LINEAR FUNCTIONS
(continued)
41
fez)
z
can not have a maximum of its modulus occurring
in the interior of the circular disc I z I < e < 1,
whence
-e
1 for every
Iz I <
1,
I f(a) I = I a I,
the function
then unless
f(z)
z
f(z)
z
is a constant,
z == a on a neighborhood of
tea)
a'
f~)
1,
f~) > 1.
f(zz)
1--
42
1.
43
I.
44
-2hin
z' === e
n Z
(h
z' == e
n Z
and
2h.in
z"
== e
z'
2(h 1 +ha)in
z"
== e
2(n - h)in
45
en
46
I.
6.
47
would lead us too far afield here. We shall, however, give a few more examples of groups and
their fundamental regions:
1. The group of mappings 1V === Z + h, where
h is an integer, has as a fundamental region a
strip of width unity, bounded, say, by two parallels
to the imaginary axis.
2. z' == Z + 2h + 2h W (where h and h'2 are
integers and w is a non-real complex number).
As a fundamental region we may take a parallelogram two of whose sides are the vectors joining
the origin to 1 and w.
1
2in
3. z' == -z , z' == e It z and their composite mappings, with n an integer. This is a so-called
dihedral group. A fundamental region is the cir-
eft
to
in
and to e n
4. The groups of rotations of the other regular
solids. Note that under stereographic projection
(cf. pp. 21-22), the groups in 3. above correspond
to groups of rotations of the sphere that map
dihedra onto themselves, these dihedra being
double pyramids whose "points" are at the north
e1&
48
1.
6.
49
integers satisfying ad -
be === 1. A fundamental
.
circle from + i to - t + ~ V3 and from + i to
.
+ t +; V3
I.
50
It is concerned with functions that remain unchanged under groups of linear functions, in other
words, with functions f(z) that satisfy all functional equations f(z) == f(li(Z, where the li(Z)
represent all the mappings of the given group of
linear functions. In simple cases it is easy to find
such functions. For example, W == zn remains
2hin
+ ZR-
~'
== e
11
z. Similarly,
CHAPTER TWO
Rational Functions
7. w
== zn
52
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
53
54
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
7. w
== zn
55
FIG. 9
FIG.
10
56
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
7. w=zn
57
= v' w -=.-ti
n
T
t()
z=V
= Vw
because it is suitable for giving us a geometric picture in the large, so to speak, of the
Z
mapping represented by z =
V;.
For if we label
II.
58
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
7. w == zn
59
II.
60
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
+ ... , where an =F 0,
an(z -
a)n
Here,
PI = Van =F o.
z - a = (Xl t + (X2t2 + ..
7. w= zn
61
62
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
8.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
63
64
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
+ 6 z + 6 ~ O.
8.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
65
- 3 = x3 -
3 Xy2
+ 3 x! -
3 y2
+ 6 x + 1,
t = 3x 2 y - yS + 6xy + 6y.
FIG.
11
66
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
The dotted segment of the line x = - 1, between fl = - 1 + 2i and v = - 1 - 2i, corresponds to the finite segment between a and f3 of
our straight line in the 'lv-plane, as can easily be
seen from t = y (3 - y2), and therefore does not
correspond to any part of the system of cuts.
Only the two branches of the hyperbola play an
essential role in the construction of the Riemann
surface, since the two half-lines each lie entirely
within one of the three regions and therefore are
not part of the common boundary of t\VO different
sheets; in joining the Riemann surface together,
one merely closes up a cut within a sheet if that
cut corresponds to one of the two half-lines just
mentioned. Sheets I and II of the Riemann surface are joined along the half-line from - 3 + 2i
to 00 of the w-plane; sheets II and III, along the
half-line from - 3 - 2i to 00. All the remaining
cuts are to be closed up within the individual
sheets where they occur. This completes the construction of the Riemann surface.
We shall see presently that the example we have
just treated is typical of the mappings represented
by integral rational functions of degree three.
For, all Riemann surfaces associated with such
functions must have a third-order branch-point at
infinity, and the finite branch-points are determined from a quadratic equation in z. Hence the
three values of w which are possible branch-points
8.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
67
68
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
8. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
69
70
II.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
CHAPTER THREE
General Considerations
9. The Relation Between the Conformal
72
III.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
f w-~W
d'w
i'
73
74
III.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
75
WI
= {()lZI + fJ) a
f( tXt,
_
WI
+ fJ) -
f(xz 1
+ f1) a
Now if we
76
III.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
77
ft(C)
2ni , - z ~
JC-z~'
f(C)
78
III.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
where the path of integration is the positive periphery of the original region, we choose for z a
value from the interior of the new semi-circle. If
we add the last two expressions, we obtain
( f(''L d1;
~n~ J
z
t-
+ ~f f](()
2nt
C- z
dt.
CHAPTER FOUR
Further Study of Mappings Represented
by Given Functions
II. Furt)ter Study of the Geometry of w
== ~2
80
IV.
11.
81
I
I
-+
I
I
I
I
x=o
-FIG.
14
FIG. 15
X~C
FIG. 16
82
IV.
== Z2
83
double the width of each of the two just considered, lying above the real axis of the z-plane
and extending from x = - I c I to x = + I c I ;
the vertical half-lines bounding this double halfstrip correspond to the parabola itself, and the
segment from w = 0 to w = c2 of the real axis
of the w-plane corresponds to the line-segment
from x = - I c I, y = 0 to x = + I c I, y = o.
If we wish to deal with only one of the two
branches of the function z = ViC, we must think
of the axis of the parabola as being cut from the
vertex to the focus. Instead of the branch that
we have just been using in the above description,
we could use the other branch; then the parabola,
with the same cut as before, would be mapped onto
the mirror image below the real axis of the z-plane
of our above double half-strip. Finally, let us go
back to the mapping of the region shaded in Fig. 15
onto that shaded in Fig. 16; suppose that this time
we cut the axis of the parabola from w = 0 to 00
along u < 0, instead of as before. Noting that
the segment from w = 0 to IW = c2 goes into the
segment 0 < x < I c I of the real axis of the
z-plane, we then see, by the same sort of reasoning as before, that the whole interior of the
parabola is mapped by one branch of VW onto
the strip 0 < x < Ie!, and is mapped onto the
strip - I c I < x < 0 by the other branch of VW .
84
IV.
> 0,
y2
=== r 2 ,
4r2u (u 2
+ "r) -
4,Av2 = 0 .
r)
+ V 2)2 -
+ I/z
12. w
== z + liz
85
A detailed study of the mapping will be simplified by setting w = u + ~v, z = e~ and then separating real and imaginary parts. This yields
u = (r + l/r) cos qJ, v = (r -l/r) sin qJ. The
circles r = const. of the z-plane are mapped onto
ellipses with semi-axes r + l/r, I r - l/r I. For
every r =f= 1, the two circles whose radii are rand
l/r are mapped onto the same ellipse of the
w-plane, corresponding to the two sheets of the
Riemann surface. The circle r = 1 is mapped
onto the line-segment from w = - 2 to w = + 2,
Le. onto the segment joining the common foci of
all the above ellipses.
The straight lines cp = const. are mapped onto
the hyperbolas
u2
2
cos ffJ
v2
. 2
SIn ffJ
= 4, whose semi-
86
IV.
12. w==z
+ liz
87
L~
lJA
BC
.B
.D A
FIG. 18
FIG. 19
= -
88
IV.
FIG.
20
FIG.
21
c
D
FIG.
22
AD
FIG.
C.B
23
12. w
FIG. 24
== z + 1/z
89
FIG. 25
,
,,
~~~~h-------
FIG. 26
FIG. 27
90
IV.
FIG. 28
FIG. 29
12. w==z
+ liz
91
92
IV.
13.
93
94
IV.
eiz _
e-iz
== --2i--'
eiz
cos Z ==
+ e-iz
2
' tan z ==
e iz - e- iz
(eiz
e-iz) i
From this it is evident that we need merely combine suitably such mappings as have already been
discussed. Let us first take up the mapping
w = cos z. We start by mapping the z-plane
onto a 3-plane by means of 3 = eiz ; we next
pass to a ill-plane by means of \11 = 3 + 1/3, and
thence to the w-plane by means of w = \11/2. This
combination yields w = cos z. Therefore the mapping w = cos z takes the straight lines and circles
of the z-plane that we considered above in connection with w = eiz , into the confocal ellipses and
hyperbolas with their foci at Ill' == 1 .
The mapping w = sin z is now taken care of
by the remark that sin z = cos (rr/2 - z), and we
14.
95
e"'3, to
==
Z-l
Z l' W ==
ito.
fO=
dz
Y(z-a.) (Z- a2) (Z- a 3) (Z- a 4)"
96
IV.
V(z -
~) (z - a2 ) (z -
03)
(z - a4 )
Vz -
al
~(z -
l)
w=Vz-a]. ~1(Z- al ).
Here, as usual, ~ and ~1 denote power series of
the form Co + Cl (z - a 1 ) + .... We see at the
same time that the function represented by the
integral is finite everywhere on the Riemann
surface.
In spite of its local single-valuedness, we shall
see shortly that our integral is not a single-valued
function on the entire surface. To get a picture of
the mapping which it represents, we first cut our
Riemann surface along the real axis (recall that
we assumed the ai to be real), through both sheets,
into four half-planes. Let us first deal with the
mapping of one of these half-planes, say of an
upper one; the mapping of the remaining ones can
14.
97
fke ilpk
(k
'=
1, 2, 3, 4)
Vz -
.~
,,1,/e
~
Jt
ak =
2
FIG. 31
This being agreed
on, we see that the integrand is a positive pure
imaginary for z between a l and a 2 , that it is negative and real for z between a 2 and a 3 , that it is a
negative pure imaginary for z between as and a4'
and finally that it is positive and real for z between
a4 and a l Considering now the integral itself, let
us choose its lower limit to be at the point ~.
Then if z goes from a4 via 00 to at, along the real
axis, then by what has just been observed, the
integral w is always positive and increasing, so
that w travels in the positive direction along the
real axis of the w-plane, from 0 to some point WI.
As z continues from a l to ~, the integral will
change because of positive pure imaginary contributions, so that w will travel in a constant direction, parallel to the imaginary axis of the w-plane,
98
IV.
14.
99
the line-segment' from aa to a4 Across this linesegment we may pass from one sheet to the other;
the two sheets are joined cross-wise along the
segment. We therefore obtain the image of the
entire Riemann surface by reflecting in the linesegment from - ())2 to Wi) the double rectangle
obtained just before by reflection in 0 WI of the
original rectangle. Thus the image of the entire
Riemann surface is a large rectangle whose
vertices are
built up from four congruent smaller rectangles
each of which corresponds to one of the four halfplanes of which the Riemann surface is made up.
It can now be seen
+'' "'tdz
1'1!tq,
that our integral is --- f - - - - - - not a single-valued ----~-------~----ofunction on the Rie:
:0
:UJt
mann surface; for in ----9-.--------6---- ----0--I
order to complete the
:
:
:
FIG. 32
construction of the
closed Riemann surface from its four half-planes,
we have yet to join suitably the remaining edges
of the cut along the real axis that correspond to
the sides of the rectangle. Consider, say, the segment from ~ to as of the real axis; along this
segment, we must simply close up a slit in each
of the two sheets. But at the points that are thus
I
100 IV.
101
102 IV.
= WI + 2hw l + i'kwa ,
103
104 IV.
+ 2hw + 2k(2) =
l
z(w), W(w
14.
105
w ==
fV
4z3
00
dz
+ g2Z + g3 .
J/4z3+ g2Z
1 + t:r~ [1
1]
w-w
w
2
1
(J'(w) === -w - 2 (W-W)8'
pew) == w2
Z(1V) =
+ g3 =
0)
=== 2hw 1
+ 2kw
2 -
2,
h2
+k
'
=F 0 .
106 IV.
W(z)=-z-1(1-:~z-2+ ...) ,
and from this we obtain
~2 = e (1+ {5 Z-2 + .) .
Therefore the desired principal part is 11w2 ,
since
lim(~-z)==o.
z-.+oo w
Hence
z(w)-fJ(w) is a
lim (~z) .
w
10-+0
lim (P(W) -
w~o
12 )
= o.
But
14.
w~o
-~
-(P(w) W
107
\))
w
=lim(Z(W)-~)-lim
(P(W)- \) =0.
w---+o
W
w~o
W
\Ve thus have the following result:
~2+ I[(w--=m)2-~2]
z(w) = pew) =
00
dz
}!4z3 + g2Z + ga
dz
dz == V4z 3 + g2Z + g3
-2
1
dW==P'(w)= uP -2~ (W-W)3
dz
The details of the mapping of the Riemann surface by an integral of the first kind for the case
that the branch-points do not all lie on a circle
108 IV.
CHAPTER FIVE
Mappings of Given Regions
15. The Mapping of a Given Region
Onto the Interior of a Circle
(Illustrative Examples)
~w
> o.
110
V.
w=(:~~r
;for,3=(l
+ z)/(l-z)
maps the
3 = rei", ,
w==(ZR+l)2
zR-l
4. A convex lens formed by two circular arcs
that intersect at an angle rt/n at the points z = a
and z = b, is mapped onto a half-plane by
_(Z- a)n
w- z- b
A CIRCLE
111
~+ yo [lz~W)l!-~2]
ti
2 hW 1 + 2 kW 2
)
0, 1, 2, . . . h2 + k2 =F 0
w=p(z;wl'wz)=
=
( h, k =
OJ
112
V.
=- e
FIG. 33
W
FIG. 34
gives 3 === O.
Now consider the function 1
===
00
,= (~ + 1)2
3 -1
an
h2
(n2c'
liZ)
FIG. 35
Recall that sinh z= (eJ!- e -z) /2, cosh z= (eJ! + e -.2') /2,
tanh z = sinh z/ cosh z.
1
113
t).
(71.
(n VZ\
We thus have the following result: The interior of the parabola y2 == 4 c2 (x + c2 ) (where
z == x + iy) is mapped onto the upper half-plane
bounded by the real axis of the w-plane, by means
of the function w = i cosh
(nt) .
11. The regions bounded by ellipses or hyperbolas can be mapped onto a half-plane by methods
similar to the above. We have to call on the function w == z + liz, studied in 12, whose inverse
maps the region bounded by the two branches of
the hyperbola
u
v
(2cosa)2-(2sina)2=1
2
(1)
n)
w===u+~v,O<a<2
114
V.
w+Vw2
z ==
-4
is used
JI
. w + w2 2
( e-1,a
4)
1(
n-h
2 -4
w+Vw
z ===
~
that is
on q; ===
o.
115
-"
116
V.
which maps w ~ 0 onto z ~ i. This quadrangular region is then mapped onto the rectangle log r < 913 < 0,
< ~3 < 7l by the function
3 ~ log z, and the rectangle is mapped in turn
onto a half-plane by means of P(3, log T, in) .
15. Polygons. The half-plane~z > 0 is mapped
by
r
dt
J11(t _
W ==
ak)()t.k'
Erxk
=== 2,
15.
< 1 onto a
117
regular
w=f
dt
2
o (l-tn)f&
w == a
(t
dt
l)t} ttl(t -l)~
+b
118
V.
_jetz
a1 )t( (t - an)txn
t1 +
2)2
dt
maps the half-plane ~z > 0 onto the domain indicated in Fig. 36. The corners are the images
,.
FIG. 36
FIG. 37
119
1+
1-
i\1.l
.,
~\1.l
tl:>=z+-z
120
V.
The reader is familiar with Weierstrass' Theorem on Double Series,l which we state here as
follows: Let the functions f.,(z) be regular in
I z I < r, and let Ef.. (e) be uniformly convergent
in I z I < e < r, for every e < r. Then f(e) = Lf.,(z)
is regular in I z I < r.
Several authors-especially Stieltjes, Osgood,
Vitali, and Montel-have modified the hypotheses
of this theorem, still obtaining uniform convergence as the conclusion. The most far-reaching
result in this direction is Vitali's Double-Series
n
Theorem:
sn(z) = .I f.,(z).
Let
n~oo
that
16.
>0
2M
121
I Zx I
arbitrarily, pick a
Sf
I Zx I < 4M'
> N,
holds.
Then we have
I S.,(O) -
s(z,,)1 ==
<"2+"2==e.
Hence if f.1 > N,
>N, then
and hence
linl Sv (0) ===
So
1'~OO
==
Es.,).. t/
A. ===
lhn S.,). ==
S).
1'-+00
rA
122
V.
+ 1.
s,(z) - ~S'J.e'
o
zn+l
s, (z) ==
< r.
Since we have
lltJ
M -t-
Z rr"';'
o~-t
1.
"",1
(21
> (!,
i n+1
el
I S , (z ) I =
in I z I ~
,In
Iz I<
"-+00
:=:;;
8"+1 ,
and we have
123
I S".n+l I ~ r nt-'1
for all v by Cauchy's inequality on coefficients.
Therefore the series
I z I < T.
ex)
in I z I <
have
1+1
Since I s" I
<:;
and I S.IS I ~
t:-' we
i(S,,-S'IJ)Zpl~2Mi(!!..)P
for Izl~e
A+l r
l+1
l+1
,I(sp - s,p)zP
o
< 2"
lim s'/J = sp
t""-+CI)
v,
we have
for
124
V.
I S (e) -
s, (e)
I<
I sp (e) I < M
17. A
125
lim 8n ,1 (ZI)
n~oo
126
V.
17. A
-.!-f
f~(z)
2ni fn (z) -
127
dz
ex
holds. But
-.!-
r f' (z) +
A[f~ (z)
l' (z)]
dz
'
ex I ~ I f(z) - ex I- A I fn (z - f (z) I
>E-e=O.
128
V.
V:=~
18.
129
of these In must stay less than a fixed bound independent of n, since Il (In) can not exceed e by very
much for all large enough n.
Hence, by 16, a suitable subsequence of the I rt
converges uniformly to a limit function. To simplify the notation in what follows, let us take the
In to be that convergent subsequence to begin with,
and denote the limit function by I (z). Since
I (zo) === 0, I' (zo) === 1, the limit function is not a
constant in R, and by 17 it therefore represents
a simple mapping of R. Furthermore, f.l (I) < e
holds, since I(z) is the limit of functions In whose
Il (11t) exceeds e by arbitrarily little if n is sufficiently large; therefore I (z) belongs to the set iW.
Hence we have f.1(/)===e, recalling that e was
defined as the greatest lower bound of the f.l'S for
functions in we. We also have e > O.
We shall now prove that w === I (z) maps the
130
V.
2
e
(w t =
e2
WI (0))
w1(0)U'1
131
e+ Ix I
2V-oc.e
The modulus of this number exceeds unity.
However, the function
2w2
V-rx(!
w3 = e+ IlXl =h(w,e,x)
132
V.
e+Ix\
V--:,
()t.,(!
2 -
19.
133
134
V.
If
f (z) === z +
~ Z2
+ ...
n (r 2
+ 2 1a
I~ 4
+ + 11 I
2 2n
an 1 r
+ .) ,
Proof. We have
r In
=JJ
Vz
Izl<r
ll
135
,. 211
0
l'
271
= JJ(1 + 2~ eeifP + .) (1 + 2a
o
ee-i4p - )eded,qJ
JJ I q/ (w) /2 dudv
B
136
V.
137
L1 U
cu
2
=ox2+ oy2 == 0
(,
138
V.
+ ..
(~=f=
0).
Hence
f'(C,z)
1
{(C,Z)=C-z+ f1 (C,z).
(1)
1 f (C) 1; _1 z
f (z) = 2ni
dC,
(3)
f(z) =
139
l.r
f(C,z)
2m) f(C) f(C, z) dl: .
If we set
log f(C, z)
= - (g + 1:h) ,
in (3), we obtain
where
a
as
arc-length. Here, the direction of increasing arclength is the same as the positive direction of
traversal, described in connection with (2) above.
140
V.
~=
ok os
os
0 ; and since
,where ~ denotes
= 2~ff(c)~ds.
1
u(x, y) = 2n
u(~, 1}) og ds .
on
==
Hence if
,=
-
ReiD, Z
reiVJ , then
Therefore
+71
(5)
u(x, y)
141
0:::=
1
2n
R2 - r 2 ) d{)
u(fJ) R2 + r2 _ 2r R cos (0 _ tp)'
31
u(O, 0) =
2~
+n
u((}) d{} ,
-31
142
V.
~ ~: '
fI
u(t9) I db
-31
20.
POTENTIAL-THEORETIC CONSIDERATIONS
143
scribed boundary value as a point {) of the boundary is approached. This will indeed be the case
for every point {) where u ({) is continuous, provided only that the approach to the point {) takes
place within an angular sector whose vertex is
at the point {) and all of whose remaining points
in a neighborhood of the point {) lie in the interior
of our circle. For every e > 0, we can then cut
from the angular sector a sector of a circle, with
center at the point {), so that within the circular
sector,
I u(x, y) -
u(t9')
I< e
holds.
To prove the above statement, let us start by
writing the Poisson Integral in the form (3),
where we must substitute
R(C-z)
f(C, z) = HZ - zC
The values of the function f that enter here are
those assumed on I C I = R. But on this periphery,
we have I f I = 1. Therefore we may set
f = eiw , w
real.
Then
f' dC
T ds
;::=
ds log f =
. dw
~ ds
144
(7)
V.
u(x, y)
2~
+'1
U(w)dw, U(w)
u({}(w)).
-31
20.
POTENTIAL-THEORETIC CONSIDERATIONS
145
u(x, Y)
inf
U(w)dw +
-.n+s
n
+ i1r
-n+s
in f
U(w)dw
-11
U(w)dw,
11-6
11-8
2(n I_E)
-
U (0) dw = U(o)
= u('I?o)
.11+8
146
V.
147
I u (~) -
u( ~o)
I < "2
holds.
148
V.
20.
POTENTIAL-THEORETIC CONSIDERATIONS
149
150
V.
schlicht) mapping.
20.
POTENTIAL-THEORETIC CONSIDERATIONS
151
-n
1
u
t
t
( l' 2) - 2n
f
+ 2n
11
u{}
() R2
(R2 - r 2 )d{)
r 2 - 2r R cos ({) - qJ )
u.
152
V.
H. A. Schwarz was one of the first investigators to occupy himself with the problem of how
the points of the boundary of a given simplyconnected region correspond to the points of the
boundary (periphery) of a circle onto which the
region is mapped conformally. His principal
result is the following:
Let a region D, bounded by a finite number of
arcs of analytic curves,! be mapped one-to-one
onto the interior of a circle by means of an
analytic function. Then there is a one-to-one
continuous mapping, which is an extension of the
given analytic mapping, of the closure 2 of D onto
the closure of the circular disc. This mapping is
regular, and has a non-vanishing derivative at
every point other than a corner, of each analytic
boundary arc.
The method we shall use in proving this theorem
is due to Schwarz himself.
Proof. Let the region D lie in the (-plane, and
let w == f (" z) be a function that gives a simple
mapping of D onto I w I < 1 under which (== z
goes into w == o. We note first that the Green's
Any such arc is represented by an anal ytic function z ( t)
ha ving the property that z' (t) + 0 along the arc.
2 Cf. footnote 4 of the preceding section.
1
153
154
V.
21.
155
156
V.
22.
Iz I< 1
157
158
V.
lim f f wv
(2)
Or
r -+1
W"
(ldedq;
> 0
f fWW"(!fledtp =f fe'V+1fledcp
(3)
G'T
G, I
2n
== -
d<p
d{)
e2V +2
dD- 2v
+2> 0.
We have
cp
=-s::
arg w ==
3 log w ==
Hence we obtain
qrp
df}
10'
log w -log w
2i
.
wz 4- W' wi
2ww
(4)
But we have
<
O.
I < 1 159
integer
the relation
J,jkiiJd{} === 0
holds. In this
way we obtain
1+ (l'+ l)(v+ 2) I a21 2 r 2
+ (v+ l)(v+ 3)
For r
1, this yields
(6) 1 + (v
+ 1) (v + 2)
a2
+ ... 2
O.
Hence
ak-l)
= .
la2 1<2.
160
V.
(1-1 zf=c+!_2
,
V (~2)W
mapping w === z
know that
+a
Z2
+ . ..
I ak I
I zl
Iz I
of
<1
< 1,
161
we
< ek
=== z
(1- z)2
+ 2z + 3z3 + .. + kzJk + ..
2
of the exterior I z I > 1 of the unit circle, inequalities similar to (6) can be obtained. Arguments very similar to those used above yield
1
+ (v ~ 1)
1 (Xl 1
+ (v - 2)
+ (v -
I (X2 1
3)
(Xa
'2
162
V.
v=
0 we
1.
= f (z) =
+ a2 z! + ...
I z I < 1. Let f (z) =F c
z
f1 (z) =
cf(z)
f(z) = z
C_
+ (1)
a2 + r Z2 +
a2
+C
<
< 1, so that
2.
Hence we have
Ic/21.
We have thus proved that no bou,ndary point of
the image region of I z I < 1 under the mapping
f (z) is closer to the origin than 1/4, which
<1
163
f (z) === z +
a 2 Z2
+ ...
fU~::c)
g(C)
f' (z) (1 -
ze)
Here,
Therefore
Hence
Th
us
f'(e)
zf" (z) _ 2 I e 12
<
< 4
= .
4 IeI
f' (z)
2I
1-1 Z 12 = 1 -I Z 2
Z 2 - 4\ Z < m(Zf (Z)) < 4 z + 21 e 2
1_ Z 2 =
(z) ===
1- Z 2
1
But SInce
ll
ffi,
(Zf"f' (z)(Z)) =
=
r
1
(z)
IZlo~ZllOglf'(.z)I,
164
V.
we obtain
Therefore if Zl and
circle, we have
r)4 <
1(1 r
From
=-
Zz
r)4
r
If(z)
1=
I z I < 1 165
If(z)j>
(l~~~UZ.
by
z/(1-Z)2.
==
166
V.
zf"
1+~7>O
22.
I z I < 1 167
<'
<
1
(1 + I Z 1)2 = I f (z) 1= (1 - I Z 1)2
Iz I
Iz I
1 + I z l ~ 1 f z) I = 1 - I z I
1
168
V.
Iz I >
>1
169
a< I
b= -p.
H ere the sign of equality holds only in case F (C)
represents a similarity transformation and the
above image curves all are of length f3. If the sign
of equality does not apply, then there is in the
rectangle a line-segment parallel to b whose image
has a length greater than f3, and a positive number p dependent only on this line-segment and
satisfying
a
b<fJ~-1J.
v.
170
I=
Jm
f F' deo
d'YJ == Jd~ JI F'
o
2
d1} .
Hence
1"L
JI
F' (E
o
1
l,
"I) I d'fJ
Xl
!(g(x)
X:a
Ak(x2dx= !(g(X2
XI
+ 2J.!g(x)k(x)dx +
X2
At! !(h.(a;)2dx,
~
Xl
it follows that
Xl
Xl
I(g(x)
Al h(x2dx
Xl
Iz I> 1
171
f IF
I d'YJ > 8 .
Therefore
>!:b {32 .
I=
If for any
we have
J,F'(El,'YJ)ld1]>{3+c,
c>O,
-'1 I<
IE
in
<5
fR
b\f-'
This yields
Now if
1
b"= f32
a
have
JI F' I d1] = {3
<5
0, Le. we must
must have the sign of equality in Schwarz' inequality. By what we have seen in footnote 1
172
V.
JutiII F'
2
1
dEd1]
+i
230
DISTORTION THEOREMS OF
Iz I>1
173
Now if
b
II
F' I d1] > (3 + t,
o
>0
1)< tJ2 -
If
4~c
bfo
174
V.
0<
1}
<
b.
< I"
= (J2'
7J<p2.
The sign of equality can hold here only if it holds
in each of the constituent inequalities, Le. for each
of the rectangles 9f". Then F (C) must be linear
in each ffi". But since the slits do not decompose
the rectangle, F () can be continued from 9l" to
9t,,+1 and must therefore be linear (and free of
singularities) in all of 9t.
As an application, we shall now prove the
Grotzsch-Rengel theorem on circular-slit domains :
Consider the interior of the plane that has been
cut along a finite number of circular arcs with
center at the origin, and let tu = f (3) give a simple
23.
DISTORTION THEOREMS OF
Iz I>1
175
+ ., I at I === 1
1.
a == log"
b == 2n ,
f3 === 2n ,
<
Q(R)R
2n log q (r)r .
176
v.
<
Q(R)
0= log q(rf.
I.e.
Since
I.imq(r) =
r~o
If' (0) I,
lim Q(R) = 1
R~oo
-~
0, R ~
00
'1
f (3) === 3A eB ,
A a positive integer.
=== 3eB .
00
an expan-
~3 + ao + + ., I a1 I = 1
is to hold, shows that I eB I === 1. Hence the map((3) =
23.
DISTORTION THEOREMS OF
Iz I>1
177
a_I
~
(')
+ ."
I a1 I =
1.
178
V.
'1
a = 2n, b ==
R
Q' (R)R I < 2'fT 10 Q(R)R.
log-,-, {3 == log q' (1)1'
_
g q~ryr
H
21l
log
R~
qr
Q (R)R)2
<
log Q(R)
q(f)
Q' ( R)
+ log R) log R
r
.,.
Q' (R)
R (
R-)!
log q, ('f) -t- 210g q'()
logr log-+
1
r
Q'(R)
Q'(R)
R<
Q(R)
R
log q' (",.) + 2 log q, (1) log-_log
() logl' q1
1
Q' (R)
log q' (1')
210 Q' (R) < 10 Q(R).
Il
g q' {r) g q {T )
log1=
1"
Now we have
limq(r) == limq' (r) == 11'(0)
1'---+0
1'~0
Hence as r
0 and R
I,
~
lim Q(R)
R---+oo
00,
.=::
R---+oo
2log
log f'
~O)
I:s::
log
>1
179
f' (0)
0
1
'1
a_1
1.
180
V.
then maps I Z I > 1 onto one of the two abovementioned slit domains in such a way that Z === Zl
goes either into the center of the circular slit or
into a point on the extension of the straight slit.
We therefore have
IF' (Zl)
I=
Idf~~tu)
l1l=o
dqJ~z) LZ1.
23.
DISTORTION THEOREMS OF
I t~(O) /2 1,
Iz I> 1
181
Iti(O) I < 1.
Hence we obtain
eiIJI
e-iIJlz
+ -z
(1 _ 1 )
-iIJ
e
l l z1 12
The calculation of Fk(z) is a little more laborious. We start from the observation that the
182
V.
Zl
2
1
1.
Z-
Zl
Zl /2 -
1,
Z 12
= 1.
>1
183
Hence
= e'L
(1I I ~. 1- 1)
Zl
I Zl 12
Therefore
1- 1
.Q.
u1.v 1
F
1
--+
1
- - -
I Zl 12
I Zll2
z- - (1f l u.1
.0
\ z]
1-
1
Zl
12
to satisfy
184
V.
Hence we have
---1
-
- ~ei{Jl
1-,
zll2
23.
DISTORTION THEOREMS OF
Let tv ===
Iz I>1
185
if
aI IatI = 1 .
ep (Z) ==atz+ao+-Z+
...,
Then the following inequalities hold in I z I
1 - I Z1 12 <I'
<
== ep (z) 1==
>
1:
11 .
1-
/2
A F, (z)
+ B,
IA I
=== 1 ,
IAI===1.
all
186
V.
=-a
1V
==
Vz---a
is
24.
187
188
V.
24.
189
two regions have a simple, simply-connected subregion in common. Then we shall show that the
union of the two given regions, Le. the region
consisting of all points belonging to either of the
two given regions, can itself be mapped one-to-one
and isogonally onto the interior of a circle. It is
no restriction of generality to assume that the
boundaries of any pair of regions under consideration each consist of a finite number of analytic
arcs and intersect at angles different from zero.
For if necessary, the region that is to be mapped
may be considered to be a sub-region of a larger
region for which the conditions just mentioned are
satisfied;2 then its image will at any rate be a
simple region which may then be treated by the
methods of the preceding sections. We proceed to
the proof of the "fundamental problem" :
Let A + B be the first and B + C the second of
the two given regions, B being their common subregion. We illustrate their inter-relation in Figs.
38a and 38b (on the following page.)
The region A is bounded by the two arcs a and y,
while C is bounded by j3 and b. The common subTo prove this in all necessary detail, we have to make
use of a theorem proved in 21 above, viz. the following:
If an analytic function maps a region that is bounded by
a finite number of analytic arcs onto another such region,
then the function is regular on these analytic arcs as well
as in the interior of the region, and can therefore be continued beyond these analytic boundary arcs.
Z
190
V.
region B and its boundary arcs (3 and yare reproduced in both Fig. 38a and Fig. 38b. By our above
assumption, the curves (3 and y meet at their points
M and N of intersection at angles different from
zero, and to avoid complications we assume M and
N are not corners of the boundary of either of the
FIG.38a
FIG.38b
191
tI,
FIG. 39
FIG.
40
192
V.
FIG. 41
FIG. 42
24.
193
194
V.
25.
195
t ===
+ Vl- Z2
z
196
V.
197
two planes, being one-to-one and regular throughout, must be a linear mapping. Therefore all
possible parameters t can be obtained from one
of them by means of linear transformations.
So far so good; but can the second of the above
parametric representations of the circle be
obtained in this way? It can not, since it involves
trigonometric functions, whereas all the parametric representations to which we have just been
led are expressed in terms of rational functions.
Wherein lies the difference?
The difference lies in the fact that in all the
(rational) uniformizations obtained above, we
started from one-to-one mappings of the Riemann
surface of VI - Z2. But this two-sheeted Riemann surface is by no means the only one on
which w = Vl- Z2 is a single-valued function of
the place on the Riemann surface. Let us consider,
for instance, the Riemann surface of four sheets
that has its branch-points at z = 1 ; on this
surface too, Vl-z 2 is single-valued. If we map
this surface one-to-one onto a t-plane by means
.&
of t =
V~
+: '
198
V.
The function
log
Z-l)
(+1
Z
===
2ti maps
25.
199
200
V.
25.
201
202
V.
25.
203
204
V.
25.
205
206
V.
25.
207
208
V.
26.
209
210
V.
< (].
211
(21
212
V.
large number of others that can be used as canonical regions. They can frequently be characterized
by extremal properties.
Considering the results we obtained in 23
above, we shall first investigate mappings onto
circular-slit domains and radial-slit domains as
canonical regions, and we therefore proceed to
prove the following theorem:
THEOREM. Let D be an n-tuply connected region
z + ao + a1 /z + ... ;
w == fl (z) maps every component of the boundary
onto a circular arc with center at w == 0 (mapping
onto a circular-slit domain); w == f2 (z) maps
every component of the boundary onto a straightline segment whose line passes through w == 0
(mapping onto a radial-slit domain).
Proof. We consider the set 9)( of all functions
f (z) that give simple mappings of D, satisfy
z + ao + al / z + ..
26.
213
hJ=
f(~)
214
V.
215
t(:)
z + ao + a1 / z + ....
By 17, the limit functions give simple mappings
of the region D, and therefore belong to 9)(.
Now to show that the image of D under 11 (z)
is a circular-slit domain, \ve proceed as follows.
Assume that w === 11 (z) did not map the component ~ of the boundary of D onto a circular arc
with center at w ~ 0; denote the image of ~ by ~',
and denote by D' the simply-connected region, containing the image of D, whose boundary consists
entirely of the boundary component ~' of the image
of D. We map D' onto a circular-slit domain by the
methods of 23. The derivative at z ~ 0 of the
mapping function exceeds 1 in absolute value,
once more by 23. By combining the last mapping with that given by 11 (z), we would thus
obtain a mapping that belongs to 9J( and whose
derivative at z === 0 is larger in modulus than
I It' (0) I. But this would be incompatible with
the definition of 11 (z). Hence 11 (z) maps D onto
a circular-slit domain. We can prove in the same
216
V.
26.
217
218
V.
z+ (Xl-+
...
z
of D satisfies
z+ lXl
-+
...
z
of D for which the 91 al converge to the above least
upper bound. Using the same arguments as we
did in the proofs of the two preceding theorems,
we can select a subsequence that converges uniformly to a simple mapping
z+ -+
...
z
lX l
26.
219
+ -Z + ...
Z2 =
+ ~l + .,
Zl
(Xl
Zl
===
+ ... '
w=z
+R
/z
z+ lX,-+
...
Z
of D satisfy the inequality I a1 I < R2, hence also
ma1 < R2. The sign of equality holds here, by the
area theorem, only for the mapping w = z + R2 I z.
d) If D is simply-connected, and subjected to
simple mappings of the form
220
V.
Xl
z+-z+ .. '
then by a) and c) above, 91al assumes its largest
possible value in the case that the image region
of D has as its entire boundary a slit parallel to
the real axis.
e) Now consider the simple mapping of a given
multiply-connected region D by means of that
function
z+ <Xl-+
...
z
for which 9t al assumes its largest possible value,
and suppose that the image of a boundary component of D were not a straight slit parallel to
the real axis. Take the region D I whose boundary
is the image of just that boundary component;
D I is simply-connected and contains the image
of D. If we map D I onto a parallel-slit domain,
the mapping function
z+tb.+
z
satisfies fft. PI > 0, in accordance with d) above.
If this mapping is combined with the mapping of D
considered just before-Leo with the one that gives
rise to the maximum of 9'ta l -then by a), we
obtain a mapping of D for which the real part of
the coefficient of liz is even larger than the supposed maximum. This contradiction shows that
26.
221
aXIS.
222
V.
this way ad infinitum, we build up a covering surface of infinitely many sheets over the original
circular-slit domain. This covering surface enjoys
the property of being mapped onto itself by any
reflection in one of the circular arcs. Now we map
this covering surface, by the method described on
p. 186ff., one-to-one and conformally onto a simple
region. We can do this, for instance, by immediately following up each of the reflections that are
used in building up the covering surface, with a
simple mapping onto a circular-slit domain, the
pre-image in each case being a region of just two
sheets. From the resulting sequence of mappings
we can select a uniformly convergent subsequence
\vhose limit function gives a simple mapping of
the covering surface. The (simple) image region
of the covering surface under this mapping has
the property of going over into itself under any
"reflection" in an image of anyone of the circular
arcs on the surface; here, "reflection," for the
moment, means merely a one-to-one anti-conformal
mapping (cf. I)-viz., the mapping induced via
the above simple mapping of the covering surface
by one of the (actual) reflections of this surface
in one of its circular arcs-but we shall proceed
to prove that the images of the circular arcs of
the surface all are complete circles, and that therefore the "reflections" of the simple image region
are actual reflections, in circles; accordingly, we
26.
223
224
V.
hence also
< Q,
Max I l' I
225
f' 2 L
L
]f'< MIn I f' 12 y< Q2 y "
U2
Max
Since there are only a finite number of the doublyconnected embedding neighborhoods that are being
mapped, there is a f1 such that Q2 ~ < f1 holds
for all of them. Hence
Q.E.D.
226
V.
z+ -(Xlz + ....
Under L8 2 8 1 , the image region of the covering
surface goes into a region that is itself made up
of sub-regions that are perrrluted among each other
by the "reflections." Therefore for this new region
as well, the boundary curves have circumferences
the sum of whose squares converges. Now let us
consider a sub-region of the image region that
excludes only those individual image regions (of
individual sheets) whose labels are large. For
this sub-region, as well as for its image under
L82 8 1 == f (z), the sum of the squares of the circumferences of the boundary curves is as small
as we please. We draw a circle K that separates
all these boundary curves from 00, and we apply
Cauchy's Integral Formula to the finite region
bounded by K and by the boundary curves R i
(whose circumferences have a small sum of
squares) . We obtain
f (z) == ~f
('lJ) d3 + ~
2n~
~ _. z
.
K
Ri
((3) d3
- Z
227
For, we have
d3
f o-z
=== 0
'
Ri
J3-
Ri
228
V.
Furthermore, we have
l~l. < li
~ ~=
+
l2
2 .
Hence
But
Ri
~f f(5) d
fe z) -- 2ni
3- z 3
K
26.
229
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. GENERAL WORKS ON THE THEORY OF FUNCTIONS:
Bieberbach, L., Lehrbuch der Funktionentheone (Vol. I,
4th ed.; Vol. II, 2nd ed.) ; New York, Chelsea Publishing
Co. (1945)
Caratheodory, C., The Theory of Functions, 2 Vols.; N. Y.,
Chelsea Publishing Co. (1953)
Knopp, K., Theory of Functions, 2 Vols.; N. Y., Dover
Publications (1950)
2. SPECIALIZED WORKS ON CONFORMAL MAPPING:
Bergmann, S., The Kernel Function and Conformal Mapping; Amer. Math. Soc. (1950)
Caratheodory, C., Conformal Representation; Cambridge
Univ. Press (1931)
Courant, R., Dirichlet's Principle and Conformal Mapping
(with an Appendix by M. Schiffer) ; N. Y., Interscience
(1950)
Nehari, Z., Conformal Mapping; N. Y., McGraw-Hill (1952)
Schaeffer, A. C., and Spencer, D. C., Coefficient Regions for
Schlicht Functions, Amer. Math. Soc. (1950)
Study, E., Vorlesungen iiber ausgewiihlte Gegenstiinde der
Geometrie, Vol. 2: Konforme Abbildung einfachzusammenhiingender Bereiche. (With W. Blaschke). Leipzig,
Teubner (1913)
3. WORKS ON RELATED TOPICS:
Ford, L. R., Automorphic Functions; N. Y., Chelsea (1951)
Fricke-Klein, Vorlesungen iiber die Theone der automorphen Funktionen; Leipzig, Teubner (1897-1912)
Klein-Fricke, Vorlesungen ilber die Theme der elliptischen
Modulfunktionen; Leipzig, Teubner (1890/92)
230
INDEX
ALGEBRAIC curve, 205
algebraic functions, 67
amplitude, 7
analytic function, 1
angle-preserving, 5 ff.
anti-conformal, 12
area theorem, 162
argument, 7
automorphic functions,
49,206,207
BERGMANN, 230
boundary-value problems of
potential theory, 142
branch-point, 51,55, 199,200
CARATHEODORY, 156, 188, 230
cardioid, 84, 90, 91
Cauchy-Riemann equations,
1
circular-slit domain,
174,212,217
closure, 149
conformal, 9
anti-, 12
strictly, 12
convex lens, 110, 133
convex mapping, 166
convex region, 166
Courant, 230
covering surface, 102
crescent, 43, 110, 133
domain, 1
double-series theorem,
Vitali's, 119, 120
Weierstrass', 120
doubly-periodic functions,
104,206
ELLIPSE, 85, 88, 113, 115
elliptic integral, of the first
kind, 25 ff.
of the second kind, 118
elli ptic modular function,
201
elliptic modular group,
49,205
equilateral hyperbola, 80
exponential function, 92 ff.
FIXED points, 28
Ford, L. R., 230
fractional linear function,
23
Fricke, 230
fundamental region, 43
GREEN'S formula, 140
Green's function, 139
Grotzsch, 229
-Rengel distortion
theorems, 174, 177
group, of linear functions,
43 ff.
dihedral, 47
elliptic modular, 49, 205
DIEUDONNE, 161
distortion theorems,
156 ff., 168 ff.
231
232
INDEX
INFINITY, 19
inner content, 172
integral linear function, 13
inversion, 17
isogonal, 5 ff.
JUKOWSKI profile, 91
MAXIMUM-modulus
principle, 5, 141
meromorphic function, 168
method of osculation, 132
modulus of a doublyconnected region, 211
monodromy theorem, 103
Montel, 120
KLEIN, 230
Knopp, 230
Koebe, 156,208,221
distortion theorem,
157, 164
NEHARI, 230
Nevanlinna, R., 208
normal form, of a linear
function, 29, 32
Weierstrass', 105
LANDAU, 137
lens, 110, 133
level curves, 31
Lindelof, 156
linear functions, 13 ff., 23 ff
elliptic, 29
hyperbolic, 29
integral, 13
loxodromic,29
parabolic, 32
linear mappings, corresponding to rotations
of the sphere, 33-35
of a circular disc onto
itself, 36, 38, 42
of a half-plane onto
itself, 37
INDEX
polygons, 116
potential function, 92, 137
preservation-ofneighborhoods theorem,
2,60
principal part, 105
principle of reflection, 73, 76
problem of types, 208
RADIAL-slit domain,
177,212,217
rational functions,
51 ff., 62 ff.
rectangle, 98, 107,111,169
reflection, in a line, 16
in a circle, 17, 18
reflection principle,
Schwarz', 73, 76
region, 1, 56
canonical, 209 ff.
convex, 166
doubly-connected, 209
multiply-connected,
193,209
of planar character, 187
schlichtartig, 187
simple, 4
simply-connected, 187
star-shaped, 161, 166
regular function, 1
regular at infinity, function,
19
Rengel's distortion theorem,
169
Riemann mapping theorem,
109, 128
Riemann surface, 55
Ringleb, F., 133
233
rotations, 14
with magnification, 14, 15
of the sphere, 33 ff.
Rouche's theorem, 126
234
INDEX
local, 61
principal, 207
uniformizing variable, 61
unit circle, 15
VITALI'S double-series
theorem, 119, 120
WEIERSTRASS' normal form,
105
Weierstrass'theorem, 120