ED 503: RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC WRITING

RESEARCH AND THE PROBLEM FOR INVESTIGATION

Research searching for a theory, for testing theory, or for solving problems
Scientific Research a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger 1973)
A problem exist when
a. When there is an absence of information resulting in a gap in our knowledge.
b. When there are contradictory results.
c. When a fact exists and you intend to make your study explain it.
Sources of a problem for investigation are following
a. Experiences and observations
b. The vast amount of literature in your own field.
c. Courses that you have taken
d. Journals, books, magazines or abstracts
e. Theses and dissertations
f. Your professors and your classmates.
Characteristics of a Good Problem
a. The topic should be of great interest to you.
b. It is useful for the concerned people in a particular field.
c. It possesses novelty
d. A good problem is one which invites more complex designing
e. A good problem can be completed in the allotted time desired.
f. A good problem does not carry ethical or moral impediments.
Steps you should take as soon as you have chosen your topic
a. Make the topic more specific and definitive
b. Start defining major terms in the title
c. Survey the literature.
The title should be written briefly but it should contain three things.
a. The variables you will study
b. The relationship among the variables
c. The target population
Functions of titles
a. It draws, in summary form, the content of the entire investigation
b. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.
c. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.
d. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible survey of theory.
Hypothesis a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or events which have occurred or will
occur.
- it is the most specific statement of the problem.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis:
a. a good hypothesis is researchable.
b. It should state, in definite terms, the relationship between variables.
c. It should be testable.
d. It should follow the finding of previous studies.

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Functions of the hypothesis

a. The hypothesis introduces the researchers thinking at the start of the study
b. The hypothesis structures the next stages or procedures of the study.
c. The hypothesis helps provide the format for the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the data in the
thesis.
Types of Hypothesis
a. Null means no existence of an effect, an interaction, of relationship, or of difference.
b. Alternative considered the operational statement of the research hypothesis.
- If it is based on theory, it is called deductive
- If it is based on observations, it is called inductive.
c. Non-directional does not state any direction
- two-tailed
d. Directional shows a direction of the effect or difference.
- requires a one-tailed test.
Assumption any important fact presumed to be true but not actually verified.
- does not need testing, unlike the hypothesis
Scope of the investigation defines where and when the study was conducted and who the subjects were.
- sets the delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the study.
Limitations a phase or aspect of the investigation which may affect the result of your study adversely but over
which you have no control.
- must be stated honestly.
Definition of terms necessary in research in order for the researcher and the reader to be thinking in terms of
the same thing.
Types of Definition
a. Conceptual also known as constitutive,
- definitions given in dictionaries.
- The academic or universal meaning attributed to a word or group of words.
- Mostly abstract and formal in nature.
b. Operation also known as functional.
- measured operational: states the way concept is measured in the investigation
- experimental operational: researcher may spell out the details of the manipulation of variable.
Variable characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties.
- are constructs or properties being studied (Kerlinger)
Types of variable
a. Dependent or criterion the outcome or objective of the study.
- result
b. Independent or variates property or characteristic that makes the outcome or objective vary or differ
- may be manipulable (active) or non-manipulable (assigned, organismic, classificatory or
attribute)
- manipulable; there is a possibility of randomly assigning individuals or group.
- Non-manipulable; statuses cannot be change.

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RESEARCH AGENDA FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS IN EDUCATION

Research Agendum 1 Identification and definition of variables within the bounds of specialization in
education.
Research Agendum 2 Development and validation of instrument.
Research Agendum 3 Development of theories in education, instruction and learning that are sensible to the
Filipino social and cultural milieu.
Research Agendum 4 Theory Testing
Research Grid an attractive alternative in knowing how and where to begin in implementing the research
agenda.
THEORY AND THE REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
Theory a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view
of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting
the phenomena. (Kerlinger 1973)
Functions of Theory
a. This provides the study with a conceptual framework, justifying the need for investigation.
b. It leads you into the specific questions to ask in your own investigation.

c. It presents the relationship among variables that have been investigated.

Review of Related Literature involves the systematic identification, location, and analysis of
documents containing information related to the research problem.
Functions of Review of Related Literature
a. Provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research.
b. Provides information about past researches related to the intended study.
c. Gives you a feeling of confidence since by means of the review of related literature you will have on
hand all constructs related to your study.
d. Gives you information about the research methods used, the population and sampling considered,
the instruments used in gathering the data and the statistical computation in previous research.
e. Provides findings and conclusion of past investigations which you may relate to your own findings
and conclusion.
Research Literature refers to published or unpublished reports of actual research studies done previously.
Conceptual literature pertains to articles or books written by authorities giving their opinions, experiences,
theories or ideas of what is good and bad, desirable and undesirable within the problem area.
THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical Framework refers to the set of interrelated constructs, definitions, propositions that present a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables.
Three styles of presenting the theoretical or conceptual framework.
1. Style 1 (Journalistic Style)
*TF is integrated with the problem in Chapter 1of the thesis report.
*There is no Review of Related Literature as a separate chapter but it is incorporated in Chapter 1.
*The term Theoretical or Conceptual Framework is labelled or not in this Chapter.
2. Style 2
*The TF is included in Chapter 1 and labelled as such but there is still a separate chapter for the Review of
Related Literature.

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3. Style 3
*The usual contents of Chapter 1 are presented.
*Chapter 2 consists of the relate literature and the theoretical framework is labelled at the end of chapter 2.
RESEARCH METHODS
Basic or Pure research conducted primarily to test or arrive at theory.
- its main objective is to establish general principles without known or intended practical
application of the findings.
- It is in search of knowledge for knowledges sake.
Applied research refers to the application of theory to the solution of problems.
- it is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory, and evaluating its usefulness.
Action research involves discovering an identifying a problem in the local setting, in the classroom for
example, and solving it in the same setting but without intention of generalizing its results.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
History an integrated narrative of past events which aims at the critical search for the whole truth
- both science and art in that it involves research which is science and it employs a cohesive, masterful style of
narration is art.
- regarded as much more than just a chronicle of the impressive events of the past
- its data find applicable to contemporary issues and problems.
Values of Historical Research
1. Historical investigation help broaden our experiences and make us more understanding and appreciative
of our human nature and uniqueness.
2. History can assist us to determine possibly better ways of deciding and doing things.
Characteristics of Contemporary Historical Research.
1. Present historical investigations primarily aim for critical search for truth. (the actual events and the
conditions of the time are not violated, exaggerated, or distorted.
2. Contemporary researches in history are eclectic and pluralistics in approach. (reflect the view that there is
no single cause which can adequately explain a particular period or development)
3. Modern historical studies are aided by the use of a greater number of auxiliary sciences which expedite
the work of making external criticism of the sources. (stand a better chance of checking the authenticity
of their sources.)
Methods of Historical Research
1. Formulating problem
2. Gathering source materials
a. Classification of historical sources
Primary regarded as the source of the best evidence
Secondary information supplied by a person who was not a direct observer or participant of the
event, object, or condition.
b. Places where the sources are located.
c. Systematizing your note-taking
3. Criticizing your source materials
a. External Criticism involves finding out if the source material is genuine and if it possesses
textual integrity
b. Internal Criticism check the meaning of the words and statements made by the author and the
credibility of his statement.
1. Literal versus the real meaning of the authors statement
2. Competence of the author or observer
3. Testing for truthfulness and honesty

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Strengths and Limitations of Historical Research

1. can give a fractional view of the past
2. depends on valuable materials which are difficult to preserve.
DESCRIPTIVE METHOD
Descriptive Method designed for the investigator to gather information about present existing conditions.
- describe the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of
particular phenomena. (Travers 1978)
- involving collection of data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions concerning the
current status of the subject of the study. (Gay 1976)
- determines and reports the way things are.
- Has no control over what was, what is, and it can only measure what already exists.
Ways of Obtaining Descriptive Information
1. ask them to provide the important information through questionnaire or opionnaire studies.
2. observations
activity analysis actual behavior of the participants
product analysis concentrated on the product of your participants.
Situation analysis determine the sets of conditions in which the behavior of your participants occurs.
3. use of devices or descriptive survey instrument
normative survey establishes standards of what is prevalent
developmental survey requires a combination of several crosssectional studies or in cases where it
necessitates the application of longitudinal
Extent of Use
1. More expansive and encompassing than any other methods of investigation.
2. Its contribution to science in supplying the necessary information in a new situation.
3. This method may be utilized to help you portray the probable conditions of a particular situation.
4. The gathered data in this kind of study are considered very useful in helping us adjust or meet the existing
daily common problems in life.
5. Assist us in knowing how to accomplish our desired purposes in the shortest available time.
6. Used in many areas of investigation for the reason that they apply to varied kinds of problems.
Types of Descriptive Research
1. Case Studies a detailed study about one person or unit over a considerable period of time.
- involved to inquire deeper and examine thoroughly the behaviors of a person.
2. Survey intended to gather relatively limited data from relatively large number of cases.
- involves determining information about variables rather than about individuals
Census a survey that covers the entire population of interest.
Sample deals only with a portion of the population.
a. A Census of Tangibles covers a small population where the variables are concrete.
b. A Census of Intangibles deals with constructs based from indirect measures.
c. A Sample Survey of Tangibles obtain information from large group where the variables are
concrete.
d. A Sample Survey of Intangibles deals with the measurement of psychological or sociological
constructs, as well as comparing a large population where the variables are not directly
observable.
3. Developmental Studies intends to get reliable information about the similarities of children at various
ages, how they differ at age levels, and how they grow and develop.
- requires the researcher to devote a considerable period of time in studying psychological,
intellectual and emotional growth of children.
Longitudinal Method study the same sample of participants over an extended period of time.
Cross-Sectional Method involves studying participants of various age level and other
characteristics at the same point in time.

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4. Follow-up studies employed when you intend to investigate the subsequent development of
participants after a specified treatment or condition
5. Documentary Analyses involves gathering information by examining records and documents
6. Trend Analyses for study which seeks future status.
- employed in studies which aim to project the demand or needs of the people in the future.
7. Correlational Studies designed to help determine the extent to which different variables are related to
each other in population of interest.
Advantages of Descriptive Method
1. The logical use in studies aim towards information dissemination or in creating good public relations.
2. Lends itself appropriately to investigate which provide normative standards based on what is prevalent.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Method
1. it provide only limited information about the effects of the variables under study.
2. delicate and inconsistent actuation of the participants in the study.
Cautions
1. When describing a particular group of individuals in the population, include not only the characteristics
which are common to the group but also their unique traits as well.
2. The primary objective of descriptive method is to make use of the results to facilitate predictions or
control of some behaviors
3. Demands the use of statistical procedure =s to assure a level of confidence that the results are trustworthy.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experimental Method the only method of research which can truly test hypotheses concerning cause-andeffect relationship. (Gay 1976)
- represents the most valid approach to the solution of problems, both practical and theoretical.
Method of Difference the effect of a single variable applied to one situation can be assessed and the
difference determined (Mills canon or principle of research)
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

selection and definition of a problem

slection of subjects and measuring instruments
selection of a design
execution of procedures
analysis of data
formulation of conclusions

*Experimental study is guided by at least one hypothesis which states an expected causal relationship between
two variables.
*The researcher is in on the action from the very beginning
*The researcher forms or selects the group, decides what is going to happen to each group, tries to control all
other relevant factors besides the changes which he has introduced, and observes or measures the effect on the
groups at the end of the study.
*Typically involves two groups, an experimental group and a control group.
*Experimental group typically receives a new or novel, treatment under investigation, while the control group
either receives a different treatment, or is treated as usual..
*The two groups are to receive different treatments are equated all other variables which might be related to
performance on the dependent variable.
*After the groups have been exposed to the treatment for some period of time, the researcher administer a test of
the dependent variable and then determines whether there is a significant difference between the groups.

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Manipulation and Control

*Direct manipulation of at least one independent variable is the one single characteristic which differentiates
experimental research from all other methods of research.
*Variables such as sex, socio-economic status, and mental ability are nonmanipulable variables.
*All other variables to which we can assign subjects randomly are manipulative.
*control refers to effects on the part of the researcher to remove the influence of any variable which might affect
performance on the dependent variable.
*Two kinds of variable need to be controlled.
Threats to Experimental Validity
1. An experiment is valid if the results obtained are due only to the manipulated independent variable, and if they
are generalizable to situations outside of the experimental setting.
2. Internal validity refers to the condition that observed differences on the dependent variable are a direct result
of manipulation of the independent variable, not some other variable.
3. External Validity refers to the condition wherein results are generalizable, or applicable to groups and
environments outside of the experimental setting.
Threats to Internal Validity:
1. History refers to the occurrence of any event which is not part of the experimental treatment but which
may affect performance on the dependent variable.
2. Maturation physical or mental changes which may occur within the subject over a period of time.
3. Testing improved scores on a posttest which are a result of subjects having taken a pretest and not of
the experimental treatment.
4. Instrumentation unreliability, or lack of consistency in measuring instrument which may result in
invalid assessment of performance.
5. Statistical Regression occurs when subjects are selected on the basis of their extreme scores and refers
to the tendency of the subjects who score highest on a pretest to score lower on a posttest, and of subjects
who score lowest on a pretest to score higher on a posttest.
6. Selection of subject occurs when subjects are chose by group and not by individuals.
7. Mortality facts that subjects who drop out of a study may share a characteristic such that their absence
has a significant effect on the results of the study.
8. Selection Maturation Interaction selection may also be interact with factors such as history and
testing but it is selection and maturation that commonly interact.
Threat to External Validity
1. Population Validity asks the question What population of subjects can be expected to behave in the
same way as did the sample experimental subjects?
2. Ecological Validity concerned with generalizing experimental effects to other environmental
conditions.
3. Pretest-Treatment Interaction occurs when the subjects respond or react differently to a treatment
because they have been pretested.
4. Selection- Treatment Interaction occurs when groups selected are not representative of the population
so desired in the experiment
5. Specificity of Variables refers to the fact that a given study is conducted with a specific measuring
instruments, at a specific time, under a specific set of circumstances.
6. Reactive Arrangements refers to the artificiality of the experimental setting and the subjects
knowledge that they are participating in an experiment.
7. Multiple-Treatment Interference occurs when the same subjects receive more than one treatment so
that there is a carry-over from ne treatment to the next.
Major Classes of Experimental Design
1. Single-Variable
2. Factorial Design are basically elaboration of true experimental designs and permit investigation of two
or more variables, individually and in interaction with each other.

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General Type of Experimental Design (Campbell and Stanley)

1. Pre-experimental do not do a very good job of controlling threats to validity and should be avoided.
2. True experimental represents a very high degree of control and are always preferred
3. Quasi-experimental do not control as well as true experimental designs but do a much better job than
the pre-experimental design
Pre-Experimental Designs
1. The one-shot case study involves one group which is exposed to a treatment and then posttested.
2. The one-group pretest-posttest design involves one group which is pretested, exposed to a treatment, and
then posttested.
3. The static-group comparison involves at least two groups, one receives a new or unusual treatment and both
groups are posttested.
4. In pre-experimental designs, there is no randomization done.
True Experimental Designs
1. All of the true experimental designs have one characteristic in common which is random assignment of
subjects to groups.
2. All of the true experimental designs have a control group.
The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
1. It involves at least two groups, both of which are formed by random assignment; both groups are
administered a pretest of the dependent variable, one group receives new or unusual treatment, and both
groups are posttested.
2. The combination of random assignment and the presence of a pretest and a control group serve to control
for all sources of internal.
The Solomon Four-Group Design
1. This design has the highest prestige since it has the greatest validity.
2. It is an extension of the pretest-posttest control group design. It is a combination of the pretest-posttest
control group design and posttest-only control group design.
3. The two independent variables are the treatment variable and the pretest variable.
4. The data generated by this design are computed using the two-way analysis of variance on posttestscores. This factorial analysis tells us whether there is an interaction between the treatment and the
pretest.
The Posttest-Only Control Group Design
1. This design is exactly the same as the pretest-posttest control group design except that there is no pretest;
the subjects are randomly assigned to groups, exposed to the independent variable, and posttested.
Posttest scores are then compared to determine the effectiveness of the treatment.
2. There are two group, one of them receiving the experimental treatment; both are posttested but do not
have pretests.
3. It is confused with Design 3 but its difference lies in randomization.
4. Data analysis consists of ordinary independent t-tests.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
1. When it is not possible to randomly assign subjects to groups, the quasi-experimental designs are
employed.
The time Series Experiment
1. This is an example of a quasi-experimental design.
2. The time series design is an elaboration of the one-group, pretest-posttest design.
3. The group is pretested four times, given treatment, and then it is post tested four times.

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4. The multi-testing prevents the incidence of maturation, testing and regression as threats to internal
validity.
5. If a group scores essentially the same on a number of pretests and then significantly improves following a
treatment, you have more confidence in the effectiveness of the treatment than if just one pretest is
administered.
6. History is still a problem, however, since something might happen between the last pretest and the first
post test, the effect of which might be confused with the treatment.
7. Determining the effectiveness of the treatment basically involves analysis of the pattern of the test scores.
8. A variation of the time-series design, which is referred to as the multiple time-series design. Involves the
addition of a control group to the basic design. This variation eliminates history and instrumentation as
threats to validity, and thus represent a design with no probable sources of internal invalidity.
Counterbalanced Designs
1. Another group of quasi-experimental designs, these refer to those that allow the subjects to try out all the
experimental treatments but in a different sequence.
2. They are sometimes called rotation experiments, cross-over designs, switch-over designs or Latin-square
designs.
3. Counterbalanced designs use only posttests.
4. They make use of three classifications: groups, time and treatments.
The Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
1. It is considered as one of the most widely used designs in educational research.
2. It consists of two groups, both pretested and post-tested but only one is given treatment.
3. It is commonly used in groups with participants naturally assembled such as those in classrooms. Two
classes are picked as the two groups.
Factorial Designs
1. Basically, these designs are extensions of the true experimental designs.
2. The term factorial means that two or more independent variables are being investigated, each variable
having two or more levels.
3. The purpose of a factorial design is to evaluate whether the effects of an experimental variable are
generalizable across all levels of a control variable or whether or not the effects are specific to specific
levels of the control variable. Moreover, the factorial design can tell if there is an interaction among
variables which a single-variable experiment cannot.
4. The 2 x 2 is the simplest factorial design.
5. Scores generated in the factorial designs of experiments are analyzed using the analysis of variance.
Analysis centers on the main and interaction effects of the variables.
EX POST FACTO RESEARCH OR CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE METHOD
Ex post facto means from after the fact (Gay 1976)
- the researcher investigates a problem by studying the variables in retrospect.
- It is a research in which the dependent variable is immediately observable and now your main
concern is to find out the antecedent that gave rise to this consequence.
- Systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent
variables because they are inherently not manipulable (Kerlinger 1973).
ALTERNATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
The methods considered here are the following:
1. Participatory Research Method
2. Indigenous Research Method
3. Ethnographic Research Method
Participatory Research Method (PR)
Segovia says that this method is difficult to define. In PR method, a problem is defined in terms of the people
who feel and think that it is a problem. It is the people themselves who develop their own theories and solutions to

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the problem. How they will go about solving the problem will depend on how they perceive it themselves and on
their resources which are available to enable them to solve it.
PR is people-oriented and focuses on the involvement of everyone touched by the problem from the planning
stage to the implementation and evaluation of the solutions.
Indigenous Research Method (IR)
This method questions the applicability and generalizability of western research methods. It recommends
instruments prepared in the country. Even response styles are locally oriented. Data gathering structures should be
consistent with Philippine reality. These structures should be consistent with Filipino psychology.
Ethnographic Research Method (ERM)
In a way ERM is related to indigenous research methods in the sense that local conditions are involved. But
ERM is a method that deeply concerns being very near the people being researched. The kind of information to
gather bears on the nature of information articulated by the subjects behavior.
This usually involves living in the place the research is going on. Jocano and his associates lived for 12 months
in an Ilocano village, Tagalog village, and in a Visayan village. They wanted to determine the ethnography of
rural life in those places. Other researchers have done the same method.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Sampling is the process which involves taking part of a population, making observations on this
representative group, and then generalizing the findings to the bigger population.
2. Some minimum, acceptable sizes of a sample are as follows:
a. Descriptive research 10 percent of the population. For smaller populations, a minimum of 20 percent
may be required.
b.
Correlational research 30 subjects.
c.
Ex post facto or casual comparative research 15 subjects per group.
d. Experimental research 15 subjects per group. Some authorities believe that 30 per group should be
considered minimum.
3. Random sampling is a method of selecting a sample size from a universe such that each member of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample and all possible combinations of size have an
equal chance of being selected as the sample.
4. Two basic principles in random sampling are:
a. Equi-probability
b.
Independence
5. The table of random numbers is considered the most systematic technique for getting sample units at random.
6. The lottery fish bowl technique is another type of random sampling.
7. The lottery or fish bowl technique may use either sampling without replacement or sampling with replacement.
8. Systematic sampling is strategy for selecting the members of sample that allows only chance and a system to
determine membership in the sample.
9. Stratified sampling is a strategy for selecting samples in such a way that specific subgroups or strata will have
a sufficient number of representatives within the sample to provide ample numbers for subanalysis of the
members of these subgroups.
10. Cluster sampling refers to the selection of members of a sample rather than separate individuals. It is sampling
in which groups, not individuals, are randomly selected.
11. Non-random or judgment sampling is classified into: purposive sampling, quota sampling and convenience
sampling.
DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Preparing for data collection and outlining the various considerations we should make in choosing the methods
or types of data collection instrument.

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First, in determining what instrument to use for research, certain criteria are considered against which you
may judge its merit: reliability, validity, objectivity, sensitivity and feasibility.
Second, in test construction you should observe certain standards and procedure that will guide you in
developing effective instruments:
Step 1: Content Validation
Step 2: Face Validation
Step 3: First Trial Run
Step 4: Item Analysis
Step 5: Second Run or Final Test Administration
Step 6: Evaluation of the Test
Third, different data collection methods employ different standards and procedures so that it is highly
important for you to be familiar with the nature, usefulness and applicability of each of these methods.
1. The Observation Method. The use of observation guides increases reliability of data collected. These
come in the form of checklists, observational rating scale and the critical incident technique.
2. The Questioning Technique. Used most effectively in survey research, this makes use of objective tolls
such as the research interview, questionnaire, checklist/questionnaire, and also the critical incident
technique.
3. Objective Methods. These methods are supposed to have greater degree of objectivity in that scoring
items does not pose problems of consistency or homogeneity. These include the multiple-choice tests and
the scale type. Among the scale types are the rating scales, rank-order scales, Q-sort or Q-technique,
semantic differential, forced-choice technique and the paired-comparison scales.
Include also are the most frequently used attitude scales which are the Thurstone equal-appearing interval
scales, Likert type or summated rating scales and the Guttman Scales.
SELECTING APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
1. One of the more efficient and effective methods of analyzing your data in connection with your research
objectives is the use of statistical techniques.
2. In a study where a statistical approach is needed, the first requirement is that the statistical test you will
use is appropriate.
3. The choice of a statistical test is dictated by the questions, for which the research is designed, and the
level, distribution, and dispersion of data.
4. Secondary considerations are: the extent of your knowledge of statistics and the availability of resources
in connection with the computation and interpretation of data.
5. Three items in connection with the nature of raw data are: the level or scale of measurement under which
the raw data are classified, the distribution or shape of these data when organized as a group, and the
within scatter of the same data.
6. The data on both the dependent and independent variables may be classified under any one of the
following scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
7. There are two general types of statistical tests: parametric and non-parametric.
8. The Z-test of one sample mean is used to determine if an obtained sample mean or average of scores or
values is but a random sample from a population with a given or hypothesized or expected population
mean.
9. The t-test for independent sample means is used to determine if an observed difference between the
averages of two independent groups is statistically significant.
10. The t-test for dependent sample means is used to determine if there is a significant difference between
two groups of correlated scores in terms of their means.
11. The one-way analysis of variance is used in order to determine if there are differences among means of
three or more groups.
12. The two-way analysis of variance, also called a factorial analysis of variance, is employed in order to
determine the main and interaction effects of two independent factors.

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13. When significant value yielded by the analysis of variance test (also called F-value) occurs, there is need
to do a posteriori tests in order to determine which means are different.
14. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation is employed when there are two sets of scores and you would
like to determine if the two sets are correlated.
15. The chi-square goodness-of-fit test tells if an observed frequency distribution on s variable differs
significantly from an expected or theoretical distribution of frequencies. The computation calls for data on
either the nominal or ordinal level.
16. The chi-square test of association is used to determine whether or not two variables are associated with
each other.
WRITING THE REPORT
1. Writing the thesis or dissertation will not be difficult if you had been making little notes in the form of a
log book about what happened from day to day in your study.
2. Moreover, you had written the proposal so that if you had really done a good job in writing it, the present
task will not be difficult.
3. You are advised not to stop writing after the investigation since if you do this you might not be able to
pick it up again.
4. The main purpose of the research report is to communicate to interested sectors the problem investigated,
the methods used, the findings generated, the interpretation of results, and the integration with theory.
5. Writing the introduction means going directly into what the problem is investigating.
6. The introduction may include conflicting findings of previous researchers from which you draw the
rationale for the study.
7. Some writers integrate the related literature with the introduction but most others prepare a separate
chapter for the related literature.
8. Questions are preferred to other styles of presenting the specific problems, although in a few theses or
dissertations, the hypotheses take the place of the specific questions.
9. Fox says that the earliest time that the hypothesis can be stated is towards the ends of the related
literature.
10. There are varying systems of writing the related literature which are presented below.
a. Using chronological presentation.
b. Doing a dichotomy of foreign and local literature.
c. Dividing the literature into conceptual and research.
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
Chapter I: THE RESEARCH AND ITS SETTING
Introduction
Research Locale
Theoretical Perspective
Conceptual Framework
Statement of Purpose
Hypothesis
Importance of the Study
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
Chapter II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Chapter III: METHOD AND PROCEDURE
Research Design
Participants of the Study
Research Paradigm
Sampling Technique
Instruments of the Study
Data Gathering Procedure
Statistical Treatment of Data

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Chapter IV: PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Chapter V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

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