Lab # 01

Topographical and geological map

Objective:
Find out the geological feature of any unknown area by using
topographical and geological map.

Map
A map is a visual representation of an area a symbolic depiction
highlighting relationships between
elements of that space such
as objects, regions, and themes. Although the earliest maps known are of
the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and
exist from ancient times. The word "map" comes from the medieval
Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth and mundi the
world. Thus, "map" became the shortened term referring to a 2
dimensional representation of the surface of the world.

Types of map:
Topographic map:
Topographic map give the idea about the thing which is above the surface
of earth.it is types of map characterized by large scale detail and
quantities representation of relief (surface things) usually using counter
line in modern mapinga A topographic map is a two dimensional land
surface.Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both
natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published
as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to
form the whole map. A contour line is a combination of two line segments
that connect but do not intersect; these represent elevation on a
topographic map.

Contour Lines:
Elevations on a topographic map are marked with contour lines, which
connect points of equal elevation. Imagine walking around a mountain in
a circle, never going uphill and never going downhill but staying at the
same altitude. If you traced the path you walked, you would have a
contour line on a map. Contour lines are typically separated by 40 vertical

feet, though you should check the map you're using to be sure, and every
fifth contour line is usually marked with an actual elevation.

Map scale:
Maps are often described as small scale, typically for world maps or large
regional maps, showing large areas of land on a small space, or large
scale, showing smaller areas in more detail, typically for county maps or
town plans. The town plan might be on a scale of 1:10,000 and the world
map might be on a scale of 1:100,000,000. The following table describes
typical ranges for these scales but should not be considered authoritative
because there is no standard:
Classifica
tion

Range

Examples

large
scale

1:0 1:600,000

1:0.00001 for map of virus; 1:5,000

for walking map of town

medium
scale

1:600,000
1:2,000,000

small
scale

1:2,000,000
1:

Map of a country

1:50,000,000 for world map; 1:10 21 for

map of galaxy

The terms are sometimes used in the absolute sense of the table, but
other times in a relative sense. For example, a map reader whose work
refers solely to large-scale maps (as tabulated above) might refer to a
map at 1:500,000 as small-scale.

Map legend:
Different symbols used in map for reading map .It can be located on way
side along the border, below, left side.
A Legend on a map essentially tells you which signs on a map symbolize
and represent, what is natural or a man-made feature. For example, a
miniature blue tent on a map, represents the location of a camping site.
A legend on a map provides valuable information for interpreting what it
is showing you. Gives direction by a north indication. Provides a scale to
allow for distance calculations. Depending on map, will give city names,
park
locations,
lakes,
and
rivers,
etc.
give info regarding inches vs miles, streets vs ways, identify marks on
maps which might otherwise be confusing.

Importance of topographical maps:

Topographic maps are an important tool because they can represent the
three-dimensional landscape in two dimensions. A person who can read a
topographic map can find out the location of peaks, valleys, ridges and
saddles, among other land features.Topographic maps can also show you
whether you will be traveling uphill or downhill on a particular road or

trail.
Topographic maps use a wide variety of symbols to represent human and
physical features. Among the most striking are the topo maps' diof the
topography or terrain of the area. Contour lines are usplay sed to
represent elevation by connecting points of equal elevation. These
imaginary lines do a nice job of representing the terrain. As with all iso
lines, when contour lines lie close together, they represent a steep slope;
lines far apart represent a gradual slope. Each quadrangle uses a contour
interval (the distance in elevation between contour lines) appropriate for
that area. While flat areas may be mapped with a five-foot contour
interval, rugged terrain may have a 25-foot or more contour interval.
Through the use of contour lines, an experienced topographic map reader
can easily visualize the direction of stream flow and the shape of the
terrain.
Geological map:
A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to show
geological features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by color or
symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface. Bedding
planes and structural features such as faults ,folds, foliations, and line
action are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge symbols which
give these features' three-dimensional orientations.
Stratigraphic contour lines may be used to illustrate the surface of a
selected stratum illustrating the subsurface topographic trends of the
strata. Iso pach maps detail the variations in thickness of stratigraphic
units. It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are
extremely fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are
otherwise disturbed used in under ground geology.

Map scale

Map scale can be expressed as a ratio or proportion between a distance

on a map and the actual distance on the land surface this is called
representative fraction.
Map scale can be expressed as the ratio or proportion between a distance
on a map and the actual distance on the land surface. This ratio is called
the Representative Fraction (RF). A RF of 1:100,000 indicates that 1 unit of
measure on the map represents 100,000 units on the land surface (i.e., 1
inch = 100,000 inches - 1.58 miles).

Importance of geological map:

In addition to the many uses of
geologic maps noted in the previous section, geologic mapping will continue
to be important because it is cost effect For example, looking only at the
avoidable costs associated with the cleanup of landfills and industrial
disposal sites, the Illinois State Geological Survey documented a benefit-tocost ratio that ranged from 5:1 to 54:1 for geologic mapping.The U.S.
Geological Survey also conducted a rigorous assessment of the value of new
geologic mapping in Loudoun County, Virginia and found net positive
benefits considering just two uses of the map information (for siting a new
landfill and a new highway). Similar assessments in Kentucky show the
benefit-to-cost ratio of geologic mapping there to be 50:1.
Difference between topographic and geology map:
A topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail
and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines in
modern mapping, but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional
definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and manmade features.A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose.
1.Topographic maps are three-dimensional representations of land mass
using contour lines to depict elevation.
2.Geologic maps are a special purpose map that shows the geological
properties of land from rock types, rock age, bedding planes, folds, and
faults.
3.Topographic maps are used for various reasons like hiking or mining.
Geologic maps are used to locate geological features such as layers of
rock and fault lines. Topographic maps are used to see elevations.

References:

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_a_geologic_m
ap_and_a_topographic_maphttp://www.differencebetween.net/language/w
ords-language/difference-between-topographic-and-geologicmaps/http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?
qid=20081210145158AA0EMJyhttp://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2F
BF02600459#page1http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_importance_of_a_geologic_mapht
tp://geology.utah.gov/online_html/pi/pi-66/pi66pg4.htm

Lab # 2:

Correlation
Objective:
Draw stratigraphic columns by using borehole data and correlate them.

Correlation:
Correlation is a process where in on the basis of similarity of the rock
thickness grain size ,fracture ,contact plane etc. in between two out crafts
area or succession, matching is done .It is also known as stratigraphic
correlation In geology, the term correlation refers to the methods by which
the age relationship between various strata of Earth's crust is established.
Such relationships can be established, in general, in one of two ways: by
comparing the physical characteristics of strata with each other (physical
correlation); and by comparing the type of fossils found in various strata
(fossil correlation).
Correlation is an important geological technique because it provides
information with regard to changes that have taken place at various times in
Earth history. It also provides clues as to the times at which such changes
have occurred. One result of correlational studies has been the development
of a geologic time scale that separates Earth history into a number of
discrete time blocks known as eras, periods, and epochs.

Types of correlation:

physical correlation..(By physical attributes of rocks)

biological correlation ..( By index fossils)
Chronostratigraphic correlation..(By time scale)
instrumental correlation
magmatic correlation
XRD correlation

Explanation:
Physical correlation
Using sedimentary rock strata it should be possible, at least in theory, to
write the geological history of the continents for the last billion or so years.
Some important practical problems, however, prevent the full realization of
this goal. For example, in many areas, erosion has removed much or most of
the sedimentary rock that once existed there. In other places, strata are not
clearly exposed to view but, instead, are buried hundreds or thousands of
feet beneath the thin layer of soil that covers most of Earth's surface.

Chronostratigraphic correlation
Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the age of rock
strata in relation to time.The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange

the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a
geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of the Earth.The
standard stratigraphic nomenclature is a chronostratigraphic system based
on palaeontological intervals of time defined by recognised fossil
assemblages (biostratigraphy). The aim of chronostratigraphy is to give a
meaningful age date to these fossil assemblage intervals and interfaces.

Importance of correlation.
In the Mnth Annual Report of the United States Geological Surv(1889), the
Director called attention to the importance of correlation in the work of the
Survey. His words are:In order to develop the geological history of the United
States as a consistent whole, it is necessary to correlate the various local
elements. . . It is especially important to determine the synchrony of
deposits. So far as the outcrops of strata can be continuously traced, or can
be observed at short intervals, correlation can be effected by the study of
stratigraphy alone. The correlation of strata separated by wide intervals of
discontinuity can be effected only through the study of their contained
fossils. This is not always easy, and it is now generally recognized that it is
possible only within restricted limits. As distance increases there fine ment in
detail of correlation diminishes.Recent discussions in connection with the
work of the International Congress of Geologists have shown that different
students assign different limits to the possibilities of correlation and give
different weights to the various kinds of pluton.tologic evidence
employed.The study of the data and principles of correlation is thus seen to
be a necessary part of the work of the Geological Survey."
Borehole data

Borehole data #01 (depth of 400 ft)

Lithology

Depth (ft)

Clay stone
Clay
Shale
Lime stone
Sand stone
Clay
Clay stone

0-50
50-120
120-170
170-240
240-290
290-350
350-400

Borehole data #2 (depth of 700)

Lithology
Lime stone
Clay
Coal
Shale
Lie stone
Clay stone
Sand stone
Shale
Marl
Clay stone
Marl

Depth ft
0-60
60-130
130-170
170-220
220-270
270-330
330-400
400-450
450-560
560-630
630-700

Borehole #3 (depth of 550 ft)

Lithology

Depth

Clay

0-60

Coal

60-140

Shale

140-200

Marl

200-300

Lime stone

300-380

Clay stone

380-560

Marl

460-550

Refrences:www.mw.k12.ny.us/webpages/rschiff/files/blog/eslab
%20correlation.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphyhttp://scien
ce.jrank.org/pages/1809/Correlation-Geology-Physicalcorrelation.htmlhttp://www.enotes.com/topics/correlation-geology

Lab# 3
Objective:
Find the sequence of Geological activities through relative
dating
What is relative dating?
Relative dating is the science determining the relative order of past events,
without necessarily determining their absolute age.
Principles of relative dating
a)Uniformitarianism
The principle of Uniformitarianism states that the geologic processes
observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked
in much the same way over geologic time.
b) Intrusive relationships
The principle of intrusive relationships concerns crosscutting intrusions. In
geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary
rock, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the
sedimentary rock.
c) Cross-cutting relationships
The principle of cross-cutting relationships pertains to the formation of faults
and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger
than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some
formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are
older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the
fault.
d) HorizontalityThe principle of original horizontality states that the
deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of
modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments
supports this generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall
orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal. f) Faunal successionThe
principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in
sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout

the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a

relative age of the formations in which they are found.
j) Lateral continuityThe principle of lateral continuity states that layers of
sediment initially extend laterally in all directions; in other words, they are
laterally continuous. As a result, rocks that are otherwise similar, but are now
separated by a valley or other erosional feature, can be assumed to be
originally continuous.
1)Deposition
Deposition is the geological process by which sediments, soil, and rocks are
added to a landform or land mass. Fluids such as wind and water, as well as
sediment flowing via gravity, transport previously eroded sediment, which, at
the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers
of sediment.
2) Folds
A geological fold occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar
surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of
permanent deformation.
e) Superposition
The law of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer in a
tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it
andolder than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath
a layer previously deposited.

In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock,

across which there has been significant displacement. Energy release

associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most

earthquakes.

Types of fault
Normal Faults
Normal faults occur when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the
footwall block.
Reverse Faults
Reverse faults are faults in which the hanging wall block moves up relative
to footwall block.

4) Igneous intrusions
Sills
Flat tabular body, a meter to hundreds of meter thick.some extend hundreds
of kilometers, some few meters.
Dikes
A dike or dyke in geology is a sheet of rock that formed in a crack in a preexisting rock body. However, when the crack is between the layers in a
layered rock, it is called a sill, not a dike. It is a type of tabular or sheet
intrusion, that either cuts across layers in a planar wall rock structures, or
into a layer or unlayered mass of rock.
5) Erosion
Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's
surface by exogenetic processes such as wind or water flow, and then
transported and deposited in other locations.
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40
times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally.
6) Xenoliths
A xenolith (Ancient Greek: foreign rock) is a rock fragment which becomes
enveloped in a larger rock during the latter's development and hardening.
In geology, the term xenolith is almost exclusively used to describe
inclusions in igneous rock during magma emplacement and eruption.
7) Xenocrysts
A crystal foreign to the igneous rock in which it occurs.

Importance of Relative dating

Relative dating is used to arrange geological events, and the rocks they
leave behind, in a sequence. The method of reading the order is called
stratigraphy (layers of rock are called strata). Though relative dating can
only determine the sequential order in which a series of events occurred, not
when they occur, it remains a useful technique especially in materials lacking
radioactive isotopes. Relative dating by biostratigraphy is the preferred
method in paleontology, and is in some respects more accurate (Stanley,
16769). The Law of Superposition was the summary outcome of 'relative
dating' as observed in geology from the 17th century to the early 20th
century.

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dati
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fold_(geology)

Examples of Geological activities

We have found the sequence of geological activities of following figures.

Horizontal deposition of beds P, K, M, S

Intrusion R of dike
Erosion A
Final deposition of beds F, B, J

Horizontal deposition of beds C, L, D, T, X, P

Folding A of above beds
Erosion N
Final deposition of beds M, V, K

Deposition

fbeds

Folding
Intrusion

Z,

F,

B
Y

Reverse fault A
Erosion I
Deposition of Beds P & W
Intrusion N of a dike
Erosion O

G,
of

of

Q,

S,

R,

above
dike

Erosion

T,

L
beds
U

Deposition

A,B,C,D

Erosion
2
3
4
5
6
7

Q
Deposition of M bed
Tilting T through tectonic activities
Intrusion R
Normal fault S
Erosion P
L & J deposition

1
2
3
4
5
6

Depostion,N,C,K
Folding A of beds
Normal Fault M
Erosion
Intrusion J of dike
Reverse fault T

Lab#4
Objective
To classify the given rock samples according to QFL
diagrams.
Theory
Ternary diagram
A ternary diagram is triangle with each of the three apexes representing a
composition such as sandstone, shale and limestone. It is on the basis of
percentage of minerals.
A+B+C=constant

Texture diagram
Distribution on the basis of grain size ,sand silt and clay. The sides of the soil
texture triangle are scaled for the percentages of sand, silt, and clay. Clay
percentages are read from left to right across the triangle (dashed lines). Silt
is read from the upper right to lower left (light, dotted lines).

QFL diagram
A QFL diagram or QFL triangle is type of ternary diagram that shows
compositional data from sand stone and modern sands, point counted using

the

Gazzi-Dickinson

The abrivation used are as fallows:Q = Quartz

F = feldspar
L =Litherite lithic fragments

method.

The

Quartz
Light silicate(pure SIO2) is called quartaz.it is the 2nd most abundant
element in the earth.it may be three dimensional network and conchoidal
structure as shown in figure.

There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are semiprecious gemstones. Especially in Europe and the Middle East, varieties of
quartz have been since antiquity the most commonly used minerals in the
making of jewelry and hard stone carvings.

Lithic Fragments
These are pieces of other rock that have been eroded down to sand size and
now are sand grains in sedimentary rocks. Sandstone containing lithic
fragments are called lithic sandstone.

Feldspar:The feldspars are a family of silicate minerals which occur in igneous rocks.
There are many different members to the feldspar group. Obviously, silicon
and oxygen form the foundation for the group, but calcium, sodium, and
potassium are also present. One of these elements is usually dominant, but
most of the feldspars contain all 3 in varying amounts. It is the proportions of
these 3 elements which help determine which specific feldspar is formed.
The feldspars are divided into 2 broad categories: plagioclase, which
contains calcium and sodium; and orthoclase, which contains potassium. The
plagioclase feldspars represent the "continuous branch" of Bowen's Reaction
Series, and form a complete series between anorthite (the pure calcium
member), and albite (the sodium-rich variety).

Data#1
Sample

Quartz

Feldspar

Lithic
fragments

55

25

20

40

35

25

30

51

19

35

51

14

28

67

Data#2
Sample

A
B
C

75
70
86

22
18
12

03
12
02

Referances:maps/http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?
qid=20081210145158AA0EMJyhttp://link.springer.com/article/10.1
007%2FBF02600459#pag1http://wiki.answ.

Lab# 5
Stratigraphic thickness of a rock
Objective:To find the stratiographic thickness of the rock.
RELATED THEORY:Stratiographic Thickness:The thickness of layering or strata on the rock or on the bed is called the
stratiographic thickness. Measurement of the stratiographic thickness is
important in the minning ,geo-technical and in the drilling engineering.
Measurment Of Stratiographic Thickness:Simple Method:A simple method for calculating the true stratigraphic thickness of beds
measured indirectly using tape and compass along sloping transects oblique
to the bedding strike is described. This method minimizes the need for
complex trigonometric formulae that otherwise need to be adapted to
different arrangements of bedding dip direction and traverse slope direction.
The method is equally useful in calculating the true thickness of stratigraphic
units penetrated in boreholes, and data collected from road cuttings oblique
to the strike of beds. This shown in the fig below:

(Fig 5.1 Stratiographic thickness measurement)

Measurement by the use of Jacobs Staff :Geologists often use a Jacobs Staff to measure bedding thicknesses. A
Jacobs Staff is a 1.5 meter-long pole that is marked off in suitable units, such
as decimeters. It has an attachment for a Brunton at 1.5 m above the base of
the pole. The Brunton is used as a clinometer to measure theangle of the
pole from vertical and helps align the Jacobs Staff perpendicular to bedding
foraccurate measurements.
To measure bed thickness, place the Jacobs Staff on the bedding plane at
the base of the bedsyou want to measure. Next align the staff at right angles
to bedding and sight downdip,perpendicular to strike, to the beds. The
distance from the base of the staff to the sight point onthe Brunton is equal
to the thickness of strata between the base of the staff and the point
sighted.There are a number of steps for doing this measurement accurately:

Measure the strike and dip of bedding where you intend to measure the
section; record the dataand set the clinometer on the Brunton to the
angle of dip.
Place the Brunton securely in the attachment on the Jacobs Staff, and
open the compass lid about 60.
Place the staff at the base of the unit to be measured and tilt it downdip
(exactly perpendicular to strike) until the clinometer bubble in the
Brunton is centered.

Study the point sighted on the ground and decide if the staff can be
placed on it for your next measurement; if so, note the point carefully by
eye or place an object at that point.
If the base of the Jacobs Staff can not be placed on the point you
sighted for your nextmeasurement, move the base of the staff along the
lower bedding surface until a suitable pointcan be sighted.
Draw your stratigraphic column, describing the rocks in this unit.
Measure the positions of beds within this 1.5 meter-thick interval using
the Jacobs Staff or a ruler.
Move the base of the Jacobs Staff to the sited point, and make your
next measurement. The whole procedure is shown in the fig below:

References:-

http://geography.about.com
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/Clastic.html
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/Clastic.html

LAB#06
Measurement of a dip and strike
Objective:
To find measurement of a dip and strike of the
any rock by using brunton compass.
THE BRUNTON COMPASS:
The brunton is a small piece of low precision surveying equipment that can
be put in your pocket, held in your hand, and used by one person to
complete a simple surey.distance measurement in a brunton survey is
usually done by placind. bruntons have the ability to measure strikes and
dips of a rock formations so they are still valuable remote geological work.

dip

and

strike

in

rock

structure:

Strike:
Fault strike is the direction of a line created by the intersection of a fault
plane and a horizontal surfce, 0 to 360, relative to north. strike is always
defined such that a fault dips to the right side of the trace when moving
along the trace in the strike direction. the hanging-wall block of a fault is
therefore always to the right, and the footwall block on the left. this is
important because rake (which gives the slip direction ) is defined as the
movement of the hanging wall relative to the footwall block.
Dip:
Dip is the angle between the fault and horizontal plane, 0 to 90.

strike and dip

strike and dip (vertical)

strike and dip (horizontal)

Method of measurement of strike:

i.

ii.
iii.

Place the bottom edge of compass flate against the plane of interest.
sometimes it is easier to put fieldbook against the plane outcrop then
compass against the plane outcrop.
Adjust compass orientation making sure bottom edge is always flate
against the plane until the air bubble in the bullzai level is centered.
Read either end of compass needle to obtain the value of strike.

Method of measurement of dip:

i.
ii.

After determining strike rotate copass 90 plane.

Place the side of compass against plane.

iii.
iv.

Adjust the level on the back of the compass untill air bubble untill
galvanometer level is centered.
Read the dip directly from scale in the compass.

Importance of dip and strike:

i.
ii.

iii.
iv.
v.

Dip and strike is measured for geological maping.

Dip and strike is measured in dam and tunnel construction. the
inclination of the planner structure in geology is measured by dip and
strike. this includes sedimentary bed, faults, fracture, dip, strike and
many other planner features in earth.
Measuring the attitude of the planes.
Measuring the bearing of the line between two points.
Measuring the attitude of a plane with the two-line technique.

References

http://geography.about.com
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/sedrx/clastic.html
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/sedrx/clastic.html

Figure
Figure
1 folds
2 fault