Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By S K Mondal
Sand casting
Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary
mould material.
The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of
other materials, such as clay and water, to improve
mouldability and cohesive strength, and are then
packed around a pattern that has the shape of the
desired casting.
The pattern must be removed before pouring, the
and top (cope) halves of a flask, with the bottom side up.
Sand is then packed into the drag half of the mold.
A bottom board is positioned on top of the packed sand,
and the mold is turned over, showing the top (cope) half
Casting Terms
Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand
piece moulding.
Contd
Contd
sand.
Core: Used for making hollow cavities in castings.
mould cavity.
Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in
casting so that hot metal can flow back into the mould
cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due
to solidification
Contd
Padding
Tapering of thinner section towards thicker section
is known as 'padding'.
This will require extra material.
If padding is not provided, centre line shrinkage or
porosity will result in the thinner section.
IES-1996
Which of the following methods are used for
obtaining directional solidification for riser design
1.
2.
3.
Employing padding
Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications.
The main modifications are
The addition of pattern allowances,
The provision of core prints, and
Elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained
by casting and hence are to be obtained by further
processing
Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance
Shrinkage allowance
All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps
bismuth.
This is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which
Contd
Pattern Allowances
Cast Iron
Brass, Copper, Aluminium
Steel
Zinc, Lead
10 mm/m
15 mm/m
20 mm/m
25 mm/m
GATE 2011
A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes volumetric
solidification shrinkage and volumetric solid
contraction of 4% and 6% respectively. No riser is
used. Assume uniform cooling in all directions. The
side of the cube after solidification and contraction is
(a) 48.32 mm
(b) 49.90 mm
(c) 49.94 mm
(d) 49.96 mm
Draft
To reduce the chances of the damage of the mould
outer surfaces.
Draft is always provided as an extra metal.
DRAFT ALLOWANCE
Shake Allowance
At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is rapped
Distortion Allowance
A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and
therefore is likely to be distortion prone.
This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long
flat portions, V, U sections or in a complicated casting
which may have thin and long sections which are
connected to thick sections.
The foundry practice should be to make extra
material provision for reducing the distortion.
Pattern Materials
Wood patterns are relatively easy to make. Wood is not
IES-1994
Which of the following materials can be used for
making patterns?
1. Aluminium
2. Wax
3. Mercury 4. Lead
(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Types of Pattern
Single Piece Pattern
These are inexpensive and the simplest type of
patterns. As the name indicates, they are made of a
single piece.
Gated Pattern
Types of Pattern
Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate
castings. When the contour of the casting makes its
withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth
of the casting is too high, then the pattern is split into two
parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope.
Types of Pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern
Types of Pattern
Match Plate Pattern
Types of Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern
Types of Pattern
Follow Board Pattern
Types of Pattern
Sweep Pattern
Types of Pattern
Skeleton Pattern
Cooling Curve
Fluidity
The ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold is known
as fluidity.
Pouring Temperature
The most important controlling factor of fluidity is the
pouring temperature or the amount of superheat.
Higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity.
Excessive temperatures should be avoided, however. At
high pouring temperatures, metal-mold reactions are
accelerated and the fluidity may be so great as to permit
penetration.
Penetration is a defect where the metal not only fills the
mold cavity but also fills the small voids between the sand
particles in a sand mold.
Core
Used for making cavities and hollow projections.
All sides of core are surrounded by the molten metal
and are therefore subjected to much more severe
thermal and mechanical conditions and as a result the
core sand should be of higher strength than the
moulding sand.
p 5.0 g / cm 2
T 1min 25 s 1.417 min
501.28
R
70.75
5 1.417
IES 2007
What is permeability? Permeability is more important
in the basic process of sand casting than porosity. Give
one important reason for this feature.
[2 marks]
Core Sands
Used clay free silica sand.
molasses, etc.
Core oils are mixtures of linseed, soy, fish and
sands.
Clay: Acts as binding agents mixed to the moulding
sands
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O), and
Other Additives
Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.
Pitch if used up to 3% would improve the hot
strength.
Saw dust up to 2% may improve the collapsibility by
Other Sands
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the
refractory material found in the mould. This is made
Casting Yield
The casting yield is the proportion of the actual
casting mass, w, to the mass of metal poured into the
mould, W, expressed as a percentage.
w
Casting yield
100
W
Gating System
Contd
Gating System
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the
top of the mould into which the molten metal is
poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal,
from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In
many cases it controls the flow of metal into the
mould.
Runner: The channel through which the molten
metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Contd
IES 2011
In light metal casting, runner should be so designed
that:
1. It avoids aspiration
2. It avoids turbulence
3. The path of runner is reduced in area so that
unequal volume of flow through each gate
takes place
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
the mold
To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the
metal starts to solidify
To avoid shrinkage
Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the
solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must
be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic
inclusions.
mold cavity
Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
runs full
Less turbulence.
Sprue Design
Sprue: Sprue is the channel through which the molten
A t Vt A c Vc
Vc
At Ac
Vt
Contd
Where H = actual
sprue height
and ht = h + H
hc
ht
GATE-2007
A 200 mm long down sprue has an area of cross
section of 650 mm2 where the pouring basin meets the
down sprue (i.e. at the beginning of the down sprue).
A constant head of molten metal is maintained by the
pouring basin. The Molten metal flow rate is 6.5 105
mm3/s. Considering the end of down sprue to be open
to atmosphere and an acceleration due to gravity of
104mm/s2, the area of the down sprue in mm2 at its end
(avoiding aspiration effect) should be
(a)650.0 (b)350.0 (c)290.7 (d)190.0
Contd
Gating ratio
Gating ratio is defined as: Sprue area: Runner area:
Ingate area.
For high quality steel castings, a gating ratio of 1: 2: 2 or
oxidation defects.
Chvorinovs rule
Total solidification time (ts) = B (V/A) n
or
For cylinder
of diameter D
and height H
V
V
1.25
A
riser
A casting
V D2H / 4
D
A DH 2
IES 2011
The relationship between total freezing time t,
volume of the casting V and its surface area A,
according to Chvorinovs rule is :
V
(a) t k
A
A
(b) t k
V
A
(c ) t k
V
(d ) t k
Where K is a constant
IES-1998
A spherical drop of molten metal of radius 2 mm
was found to solidify in 10 seconds. A similar drop
of radius 4 mm would solidify in
(a) 14.14 seconds
(b) 20 seconds
(c) 28.30 seconds
(d) 40 seconds
GATE-2013
A cube shaped casting solidifies in 5 min. The
casting, will be
(a) 10
(b) 20
(c) 24
(d) 40
GATE-2003
With a solidification factor of 0.97 x 106 s/m2, the
solidification time (in seconds) for a spherical
casting of 200 mm diameter is
(a) 539
(b) 1078
(c) 4311
(d) 3233
IES-2006
According
to
Chvorinov's
equation,
the
cast material
(c) Directly proportional to the thermal diffusivity of
temperature.
proportional
to
the
pouring
GATE-2007
Volume of a cube of side 'l' and volume of a sphere of
radius r are equal. Both the cube and the sphere are solid
and of same material. They are being cast. The ratio of the
solidification time of the cube to the same of the sphere is:
3
4
r
a
6 l
4 r
b
6 l
4
r
c
6 l
4
r
d
6 l
GATE-2009 (PI)
A solid cylinder of diameter D and height equal to D, and a solid
cube of side L are being sand cast by using the same material.
Assuming there is no superheat in both the cases, the ratio of
solidification time of the cylinder to the solidification time of the
cube is
(a) (L/D)2
(b) (2L/D)2
(c) (2D/L)2
(d) (D/L)2
IES - 2012
The ratio of surface area of volume for a unit volume of
Area of ellipse ab
[10 Marks]
Circumference 3 a b
3a b a 3b
b2 / 2
(approx.)
[30 Marks]
Modulus Method
It has been empirically established that if the modulus
D2
4
D2
[10 - Marks]
Caines Method
Freezing ratio = ratio of cooling characteristics of casting to
the riser.
A
V
X
AV
Casting
Riser
Vriser
Vcasting
a
X= Yb c
Chills
External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity, high-thermal-
Cupola
Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for
melting cast iron.
In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to preheat the
air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in the
furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola. Coke is fuel and Lime stone
(CaCO3) is mostly used flux.
Cost of melting low.
Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not possible to
produce iron below 2.8% carbon.
Steel can be also prepared in cupola by employing
duplexing and triplexing operations.
IES - 2012
Statement (I): Cupola furnace is not employed for
melting steel in foundry
Statement (II): The temperatures generated within a
cupola are not adequate for melting Steel
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
Crucible Furnace
Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible furnace.
The crucible is generally heated by electric resistance
or gas flame.
Induction Furnace
The induction furnaces are used for all types of
materials, the chief advantage being that the heat
source is isolated from the charge and the slag and flux
get the necessary heat directly from the charge instead
of the heat source.
Ladles
Two types of ladles used in the pouring of castings.
Pouring time
Time taken to fill the mould with top gate
Where A = Area of mould
A.H
tA
H = Height of mould
A g 2ghm
Ag = Area of Gate
Hm = Gate height
Time taken to fill the mould with bottom gate
tB
2g
2A
Ag
hm hm H
GATE-2012 (PI)
A mould having dimensions 100 mm 90 mm 20 mm is filled
with molten metal through a gate as shown in the figure. For
height h and cross-sectional area A, the mould filling time is t1.
The height is now quadrupled and the cross-sectional area is
halved. The corresponding filling time is t2. The ratio t2/t1 is
1
(a)
2
(b)1
(c ) 2
(d ) 2
hm
H=h2
hc2
=h2h m
hC
hm
Top gale
top gate
hm
hm
Parting
line gate
bottom
gate
IES 2009
2 marks
Casting Defects
The following are the major defects, which are likely to
Shrinkage cavities
Molding material defects
Gas Defects
A condition existing in a casting caused by the
Shrinkage Cavities
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the
Metal penetration,
Fusion, and
Swell
Scab
This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould
Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand
Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with
Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold
wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension
of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will
correct this defect.
Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or
deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during
pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the
gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
mold can prevent this defect
Mold Shift
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag
or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.
Contd..
IES 2011
In the designation of Aluminium casting A514.0
indicates :
(a) Aluminium purity
(b) Aluminium content
(c) Percentage of alloy element
(d) Magnesium Content
Ans. (d)