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Metal Casting

By S K Mondal

Sand casting
Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary
mould material.
The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of
other materials, such as clay and water, to improve
mouldability and cohesive strength, and are then
packed around a pattern that has the shape of the
desired casting.
The pattern must be removed before pouring, the

mold is usually made in two or more pieces.


An opening called a sprue hole is cut from the top of
the mold through the sand and connected to a
system of channels called runners.
Contd.

The molten metal is poured into the sprue hole, flows


through the runners, and enters the mold cavity

through an opening called a gate.


Gravity flow is the most common means of
introducing the metal into the mold.
After solidification, the mold is broken and the
finished casting is removed.
The casting is then fettled by cutting off the ingate
and the feeder head.
Because the mold is destroyed, a new mold must be
made for each casting.
Contd

Sequential steps in making a sand casting


A pattern board is placed between the bottom (drag)

and top (cope) halves of a flask, with the bottom side up.
Sand is then packed into the drag half of the mold.
A bottom board is positioned on top of the packed sand,
and the mold is turned over, showing the top (cope) half

of pattern with sprue and riser pins in place.


The cope half of the mold is then packed with sand.
Contd

The mold is opened, the pattern board is drawn


(removed), and the runner and gate are cut into the

surface of the sand.


The mold is reassembled with the pattern board

removed, and molten metal is poured through the


sprue.
The contents are shaken from the flask and the metal
segment is separated from the sand, ready for further
processing.

Casting Terms
Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand

mould intact. It is made up of wood for temporary


applications or metal for long-term use.
Drag: Lower moulding flask.
Cope: Upper moulding flask.

Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three-

piece moulding.
Contd

Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be

made with some modifications.


Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two

moulding flasks that makes up the sand mould.


Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood,

which is used at the start of the mould making.

Contd

Moulding sand: The freshly prepared refractory

material used for making the mould cavity. It is a


mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate
proportions.
Backing sand: This is made up of used and burnt

sand.
Core: Used for making hollow cavities in castings.

Pouring basin: A small funnel-shaped cavity at the top

of the mould into which the molten metal is poured.


Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal

from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity.


Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through

which molten metal flow is regulated before they reach

the mould cavity.


Gate: The actual entry point through which molten

metal enters the mould cavity in a controlled rate. Contd

Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the

mould cavity.
Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in

the mould to increase the cooling rate of castings.


Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the

casting so that hot metal can flow back into the mould
cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due
to solidification
Contd

Padding
Tapering of thinner section towards thicker section

is known as 'padding'.
This will require extra material.
If padding is not provided, centre line shrinkage or
porosity will result in the thinner section.

IES-1996
Which of the following methods are used for
obtaining directional solidification for riser design
1.

Suitable placement of chills

2.

Suitable placement of chaplets

3.

Employing padding

Select the correct answer.


(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications.
The main modifications are
The addition of pattern allowances,
The provision of core prints, and
Elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained
by casting and hence are to be obtained by further
processing

Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance

Shrinkage allowance
All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps

bismuth.
This is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which

are amplified by an increase in temperature.


The shrinkage allowance is always to be added to the

linear dimensions. Even in case of internal dimensions.

Contd

Liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage


Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in

volume when the metal changes from liquid to


solid state at the solidus temperature. To account
for this, risers are provided in the moulds.
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume
caused, when a metal loses temperature in the

solid state. The shrinkage allowance is provided to


take care of this reduction.

Pattern Allowances

Cast Iron
Brass, Copper, Aluminium
Steel
Zinc, Lead

10 mm/m
15 mm/m
20 mm/m
25 mm/m

In grey cast iron and spheroidal graphite iron, the


amount of graphitization controls the actual

shrinkage. When graphitization is more, the


shrinkage would be less and vice versa.

GATE 2011
A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes volumetric
solidification shrinkage and volumetric solid
contraction of 4% and 6% respectively. No riser is
used. Assume uniform cooling in all directions. The
side of the cube after solidification and contraction is
(a) 48.32 mm
(b) 49.90 mm
(c) 49.94 mm
(d) 49.96 mm

Draft
To reduce the chances of the damage of the mould

cavity at the time of pattern removal, the vertical faces


of the pattern are always tapered from the parting line.

This provision is called draft allowance.


Inner surfaces of the pattern require higher draft than

outer surfaces.
Draft is always provided as an extra metal.

DRAFT ALLOWANCE

Shake Allowance
At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is rapped

all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould


cavity slightly to facilitates its removal.
It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to

those dimensions, which are parallel to the parting


plane.

Distortion Allowance
A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and
therefore is likely to be distortion prone.
This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long
flat portions, V, U sections or in a complicated casting
which may have thin and long sections which are
connected to thick sections.
The foundry practice should be to make extra
material provision for reducing the distortion.

Pattern Materials
Wood patterns are relatively easy to make. Wood is not

very dimensionally stable. Commonly used teak, white


pine and mahogany wood.
Metal patterns are more expensive but are more
dimensionally stable and more durable. Commonly used
CI, Brass, aluminium and white metal.
Hard plastics, such as urethanes, and are often preferred
with processes that use strong, organically bonded sands
that tend to stick to other pattern materials.
In the full-mold process, expanded polystyrene (EPS) is
used.
Investment casting uses wax patterns.

The pattern material should be


Easily worked, shaped and joined
Light in weight
Strong, hard and durable

Resistant to wear and abrasion


Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in

temperature and humidity.


Available at low cost.

IES-1994
Which of the following materials can be used for
making patterns?
1. Aluminium

2. Wax

3. Mercury 4. Lead

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:


Codes:

(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Types of Pattern
Single Piece Pattern
These are inexpensive and the simplest type of
patterns. As the name indicates, they are made of a
single piece.
Gated Pattern

Gating and runner system are integral with the


pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of
the runners and gates and help in improving the
productivity of a moulding.

Types of Pattern
Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate
castings. When the contour of the casting makes its
withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth
of the casting is too high, then the pattern is split into two
parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope.

Types of Pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern

These are similar to split patterns. In addition to


splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of
the pattern along with the gating and riser systems
are attached separately to the metal or wooden
plates along with the alignment pins. They are
called the cope and drag patterns.

Types of Pattern
Match Plate Pattern

The cope and drag patterns along with the


gating and the risering are mounted on a single
matching metal or wooden plate on either side.

Types of Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern

This type of pattern is also used when the


contour of the part is such that withdrawing the
pattern from the mould is not possible.

Types of Pattern
Follow Board Pattern

This type of pattern is adopted for those


castings where there are some portions, which
are structurally weak and if not supported
properly are likely to break under the force of
ramming.

Types of Pattern
Sweep Pattern

It is used to sweep the complete casting by means


of a plane sweep. These are used for generating
large shapes, which are axi-symmetrical or
prismatic in nature such as bell-shaped or
cylindrical.

Types of Pattern
Skeleton Pattern

A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood


is used for building the final pattern by packing
sand around the skeleton. After packing the
sand, the desired form is obtained with the help
of a strickle. This type of pattern is useful
generally for very large castings, required in
small quantities where large expense on
complete wooden pattern is not justified.

Cooling Curve

Fluidity
The ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold is known
as fluidity.
Pouring Temperature
The most important controlling factor of fluidity is the
pouring temperature or the amount of superheat.
Higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity.
Excessive temperatures should be avoided, however. At
high pouring temperatures, metal-mold reactions are
accelerated and the fluidity may be so great as to permit
penetration.
Penetration is a defect where the metal not only fills the
mold cavity but also fills the small voids between the sand
particles in a sand mold.

Core
Used for making cavities and hollow projections.
All sides of core are surrounded by the molten metal
and are therefore subjected to much more severe
thermal and mechanical conditions and as a result the
core sand should be of higher strength than the
moulding sand.

Desired characteristics of a core


Green Strength: A core made of green sand should
be strong enough to retain the shape till it goes for
baking.
Dry Strength: It should have adequate dry strength
so that when the core is placed in the mould, it
should be able to resist the metal pressure acting on
it.
Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the core is
surrounded all around it is desirable that the core
material should have higher refractoriness.
Contd

Permeability: Gases evolving from the molten metal


and generated from the mould may have to go

through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence


cores are required to have higher permeability.
Permeability Number: The rate of flow of air passing

through a standard specimen under a standard pressure is


termed as permeability number.

The standard permeability test is to measure time


taken by a 2000 cu cm of air at a pressure typically of

980 Pa (10 g/cm2), to pass through a standard sand


specimen confined in a specimen tube. The standard
specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a length of
50.8 mm.

Then, the permeability number, R is obtained by


VH
R
pAT

Where V= volume of air = 2000 cm3


H = height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm
p = air pressure, g/cm2
A = cross sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm2
T = time in minutes for the complete air to pass through
Inserting the above standard values into the
expression, we get
501.28
R
p.T

Calculate the permeability number of sand if it takes 1 min

25 s to pass 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure of5 g/cm2 through


the standard sample.

p 5.0 g / cm 2
T 1min 25 s 1.417 min
501.28
R
70.75
5 1.417

IES 2007
What is permeability? Permeability is more important
in the basic process of sand casting than porosity. Give
one important reason for this feature.
[2 marks]

Collapsibility: At the time of cooling, casting shrinks, and

unless the core has good collapsibility (ability to decrease


in size) it is likely to provide resistance against shrinkage
and thus can cause hot tears.

Friability: The ability to crumble should be a very

important consideration at the time of removal.


Smoothness: Surface of the core should be smooth

for good finish to the casting.


Low Gas Emission

Core Sands
Used clay free silica sand.

Binders used are linseed oil, core oil, resins, dextrin,

molasses, etc.
Core oils are mixtures of linseed, soy, fish and

petroleum oils and coal tar.


The general composition of a core sand mixture could

be core oil (1%) and water (2.5 to 6%).

Carbon Dioxide Moulding


Sodium silicate (water glass, SiO2:Na2O) is used as a binder.

This is essentially a quick process of core or mould


preparation.
The mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate and
sand and then treated with carbon dioxide for two to three
minutes such that a dry compressive strength of over 1.4
MPa is arrived.
The carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak acid, which
hydrolyses the sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica,
which forms the bond.
The introduction of CO2 gas starts the reaction by forming
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O).
Contd

The compressive strength of the bond increases with

standing time due to dehydration.


Because of the high strength of the bond, the core need not

be provided with any other reinforcements.


It does not involve any distortions due to baking and also

better dimensional accuracies are achieved.


The sand mixture does not have good shelf life and

therefore should be used immediately after preparation.

Moulding Sand Composition


Sand: Ordinary silica Sand (SiO2), zircon, or olivine

sands.
Clay: Acts as binding agents mixed to the moulding

sands
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O), and

Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O nH2O).


Water: Clay is activated by water.

Other Additives
Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.
Pitch if used up to 3% would improve the hot

strength.
Saw dust up to 2% may improve the collapsibility by

slowly burning, and increase the permeability.


Other materials: sea coal, asphalt, fuel oil, graphite,

molasses, iron oxide, etc.

Moulding Sand Properties


Porosity or Permeability: Permeability or porosity of

the moulding sand is the measure of its ability to


permit air to flow through it.
Strength: It is defined as the property of holding
together of sand grains. A moulding sand should have
ample strength so that the mould does not collapse or
get partially destroyed during conveying, turning over
or closing.
Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding sand
mixture to withstand the heat of melt without showing
any signs of softening or fusion.
Contd

Plasticity: It is the measure of the moulding sand to flow

around and over a pattern during ramming and to uniformly


fill the flask.
Collapsibility: This is the ability of the moulding sand to
decrease in volume to some extent under the compressive
forces developed by the shrinkage of metal during freezing
and subsequent cooling.
Adhesiveness: This is the property of sand mixture to
adhere to another body (here, the moulding flasks). The
moulding sand should cling to the sides of the moulding
boxes so that it does not fall out when the flasks are lifted
and turned over. This property depends on the type and
amount of binder used in the sand mix.

Other Sands
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the
refractory material found in the mould. This is made

up of used and burnt sand.


Green Sand: The molding sand that contains
moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
should have enough strength so that the constructed
mould retains its shape.
Dry sand: When the moisture in the moulding sand is
completely expelled, it is called dry sand.

Grain size number


ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)

grain size number, defined as


n-1
N 2
Where N is the number of grains per square inch
visible in a prepared specimen at 100X and n is the
ASTM grain-size number.
Low ASTM numbers mean a few massive grains; high
numbers refer to many small grains.

Casting Yield
The casting yield is the proportion of the actual
casting mass, w, to the mass of metal poured into the
mould, W, expressed as a percentage.

w
Casting yield
100
W

Gating System

Contd

Gating System
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the
top of the mould into which the molten metal is
poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal,
from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In
many cases it controls the flow of metal into the
mould.
Runner: The channel through which the molten
metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Contd

Ingate: A channel through which the molten metal


enters the mould cavity.

Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape


of air and gases.

Types of Gate or In-gate


Top gate: Causes turbulence in the mould cavity, it is prone

to form dross, favourable temperature gradient towards the


gate, only for ferrous alloys.
Bottom gate: No mould erosion, used for very deep moulds,
higher pouring time, Causes unfavourable temperature
gradients.
Parting Gate: most widely used gate, easiest and most
economical in preparation.
Step Gate: Used for heavy and large castings, size of ingates
are normally increased from top to bottom.

IES 2011
In light metal casting, runner should be so designed
that:
1. It avoids aspiration
2. It avoids turbulence
3. The path of runner is reduced in area so that
unequal volume of flow through each gate
takes place
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

The goals for the gating system


To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into

the mold
To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the
metal starts to solidify
To avoid shrinkage
Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the
solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must
be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic
inclusions.

Types of Gating Systems


The gating systems are of two types:
Pressurized gating system
Un-pressurized gating system

Pressurized Gating System


The total cross sectional area decreases towards the
mold cavity
Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the
metal flow

Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates


Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the
sprue always runs full

Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high


velocity leading to more turbulence and chances of
mold erosion.

Un-Pressurized Gating System


The total cross sectional area increases towards the

mold cavity
Restriction only at the bottom of sprue

Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates


Aspiration in the gating system as the system never

runs full
Less turbulence.

Sprue Design
Sprue: Sprue is the channel through which the molten

metal is brought into the parting plane where it enters the


runners and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity.
The molten metal when moving from the top of the cope to
the parting plane gains in velocity and some low-pressure
area would be created around the metal in the sprue.
Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air would
be breathed into this low-pressure area which would then
be carried to the mould cavity.
To eliminate this problem of air aspiration, the sprue is
tapered to gradually reduce the cross section as it moves
away from the top of the cope as shown in Figure below (b).
Contd

The exact tapering can be obtained by the equation of


continuity. Denoting the top and choke sections of The sprue by
the subscriptst and 'c' respectively, we get

A t Vt A c Vc

Vc
At Ac
Vt
Contd

Since the velocities are proportional to the square of


the potential heads, as can be derived from
Bernoulli's equation,
At Ac

Where H = actual
sprue height
and ht = h + H

hc
ht

GATE-2007
A 200 mm long down sprue has an area of cross
section of 650 mm2 where the pouring basin meets the
down sprue (i.e. at the beginning of the down sprue).
A constant head of molten metal is maintained by the
pouring basin. The Molten metal flow rate is 6.5 105
mm3/s. Considering the end of down sprue to be open
to atmosphere and an acceleration due to gravity of
104mm/s2, the area of the down sprue in mm2 at its end
(avoiding aspiration effect) should be
(a)650.0 (b)350.0 (c)290.7 (d)190.0
Contd

Gating ratio
Gating ratio is defined as: Sprue area: Runner area:

Ingate area.
For high quality steel castings, a gating ratio of 1: 2: 2 or

1: 2: 1.5 will produce castings nearly free from erosion,


will minimize oxidation, and will produce uniform
flow.
A gating ratio of 1: 4: 4 might favour the formation of

oxidation defects.

Risers and Riser Design


Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid
metal to the solidifying casting as a means of
compensating for solidification shrinkage.
To perform this function, the risers must solidify after
the casting.
According to Chvorinov's rule, a good shape for a riser
would be one that has a long freezing time (i.e., a small
surface area per unit volume).

Live risers (also known as hot risers) receive the last


hot metal that enters the mold and generally do so at a
time when the metal in the mold cavity has already
begun to cool and solidify.

Chvorinovs rule
Total solidification time (ts) = B (V/A) n

where n = 1.5 to 2.0


[Where, B = mould constant and is a function of (mould
material, casting material, and condition of casting]
n = 2 and triser = 1.25 tcasting
2

or
For cylinder
of diameter D
and height H

V
V
1.25
A
riser
A casting

V D2H / 4

D
A DH 2

IES 2011
The relationship between total freezing time t,
volume of the casting V and its surface area A,
according to Chvorinovs rule is :
V
(a) t k

A
A
(b) t k

V
A
(c ) t k

V
(d ) t k

Where K is a constant

IES-1998
A spherical drop of molten metal of radius 2 mm
was found to solidify in 10 seconds. A similar drop
of radius 4 mm would solidify in
(a) 14.14 seconds
(b) 20 seconds
(c) 28.30 seconds
(d) 40 seconds

GATE-2013
A cube shaped casting solidifies in 5 min. The

solidification time in min for a cube of the same


material, which is 8 times heavier than the original

casting, will be
(a) 10

(b) 20

(c) 24

(d) 40

GATE-2003
With a solidification factor of 0.97 x 106 s/m2, the
solidification time (in seconds) for a spherical
casting of 200 mm diameter is
(a) 539

(b) 1078

(c) 4311

(d) 3233

IES-2006
According

to

Chvorinov's

equation,

the

solidification time of a casting is proportional to:


(a) v2
(b) v
(c) 1/v
(d) 1/v2
Where, v = volume of casting

GATE 2010 (PI)


Solidification time of a metallic alloy casting is

(a) Directly proportional to its surface area


(b) Directly proportional to the specific heat of the

cast material
(c) Directly proportional to the thermal diffusivity of

the molten metal


(d)Inversely

temperature.

proportional

to

the

pouring

GATE-2007
Volume of a cube of side 'l' and volume of a sphere of
radius r are equal. Both the cube and the sphere are solid
and of same material. They are being cast. The ratio of the
solidification time of the cube to the same of the sphere is:
3

4
r
a
6 l

4 r
b

6 l

4
r
c
6 l

4
r
d
6 l

GATE -2011 (PI)


In a sand casting process, a sphere and a cylinder
of equal volumes are separately cast from the same
molten metal under identical conditions. The
height and diameter of the cylinder are equal. The
ratio of the solidification time of the sphere to that
of the cylinder is
(a) 1.14
(b) 0.87
(c) 1.31
(d) 0.76

GATE-2009 (PI)
A solid cylinder of diameter D and height equal to D, and a solid

cube of side L are being sand cast by using the same material.
Assuming there is no superheat in both the cases, the ratio of
solidification time of the cylinder to the solidification time of the

cube is
(a) (L/D)2
(b) (2L/D)2
(c) (2D/L)2
(d) (D/L)2

IES - 2012
The ratio of surface area of volume for a unit volume of

riser is minimum in case of


(a) Cylindrical riser

(b) Spherical riser


(c) Hemispherical riser

(d) Cuboids riser

IES 2011 Conventional


A round casting is 20 mm in diameter and 50 mm in

length. Another casting of the same metal is elliptical in


cross section, with a major to minor axis ratio of 2, and
has the same length and cross-sectional area as the
round casting. Both pieces are cast under the same
conditions. What is the difference in the solidification

times of the two castings ?

Area of ellipse ab

[10 Marks]

Circumference 3 a b

3a b a 3b

b2 / 2

(approx.)

Conventional Question ESE 2003


Compare the solidification time of two optimum side
risers of the same volume with one has cylindrical shape

and other is parallopiped.

[30 Marks]

Modulus Method
It has been empirically established that if the modulus

of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting by a


factor of 1.2, the feeding during solidification would be
satisfactory.
MR = 1.2 Mc
Modulus = volume/Surface area
In steel castings, it is generally preferable to choose a

riser with a height-to-diameter ratio of 1.


Contd

D2
4

D2

Conventional Question IES-2008


Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and diameter

equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting of dimensions


30 x 30 x 6 cm with a side riser, casting poured horizontally
into the mould.
[Use Modulus Method]

[10 - Marks]

Caines Method
Freezing ratio = ratio of cooling characteristics of casting to
the riser.
A

V
X
AV

Casting

Riser

The riser should solidify last so x > 1


According to Caine
Y=

Vriser
Vcasting

a
X= Yb c

and a, b, c are constant.

Table: Constants in Caines Method

Conventional Question IES-2007


Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and

diameter equal) necessary to feed a steel slab


casting of dimensions 25 x 25 x 5 cm with a side
riser, casting poured horizontally into the mould.
[Use Caines Method]

[ For steel a = 0.10, b = 0.03 and c = 1.00 ]

Chills
External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity, high-thermal-

conductivity material that are placed in the mould (adjacent to


the casting) to accelerate the cooling of various regions.
Chills can effectively promote directional solidification or
increase the effective feeding distance of a riser. They can often
be used to reduce the number of risers required for a casting.
Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed within the
mould cavity to absorb heat and promote more rapid
solidification. Since some of this metal will melt during the
operation, it will absorb not only the heat-capacity energy, but
also some heat of fusion. Since they ultimately become part of
the final casting, internal chills must be made from the same
alloy as that being cast.

Cupola
Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for
melting cast iron.

In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to preheat the
air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in the
furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola. Coke is fuel and Lime stone
(CaCO3) is mostly used flux.
Cost of melting low.
Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not possible to
produce iron below 2.8% carbon.
Steel can be also prepared in cupola by employing
duplexing and triplexing operations.

IES - 2012
Statement (I): Cupola furnace is not employed for
melting steel in foundry
Statement (II): The temperatures generated within a
cupola are not adequate for melting Steel
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true

Electric Arc Furnace


For heavy steel castings, the open-hearth type of

furnaces with electric arc or oil fired would be generally


suitable in view of the large heat required for melting.
Electric arc furnaces are more suitable for ferrous

materials and are larger in capacity.

Crucible Furnace
Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible furnace.
The crucible is generally heated by electric resistance
or gas flame.
Induction Furnace
The induction furnaces are used for all types of
materials, the chief advantage being that the heat
source is isolated from the charge and the slag and flux
get the necessary heat directly from the charge instead
of the heat source.

Ladles
Two types of ladles used in the pouring of castings.

Casting Cleaning (fettling)


Impurities in the molten metal are prevented from
reaching the mould cavity by providing a
(i) Strainer
(ii) Bottom well
(iii) Skim bob

Pouring time
Time taken to fill the mould with top gate
Where A = Area of mould
A.H
tA
H = Height of mould
A g 2ghm
Ag = Area of Gate
Hm = Gate height
Time taken to fill the mould with bottom gate

tB

2g

2A
Ag

hm hm H

GATE-2012 (PI)
A mould having dimensions 100 mm 90 mm 20 mm is filled
with molten metal through a gate as shown in the figure. For
height h and cross-sectional area A, the mould filling time is t1.
The height is now quadrupled and the cross-sectional area is
halved. The corresponding filling time is t2. The ratio t2/t1 is

1
(a)
2
(b)1
(c ) 2
(d ) 2

Expression for choke area


m
CA
mm2
ct 2gH
Where m = mass of the casting, kg
= Density of metal, kg / m3
t = pouring time
c = Efficiency factor and is the function of gate
system used
H = Effective head of liquid metal
= h for top gate
Contd

hm
H=h2
hc2
=h2h m

for bottom gate


for parting line gate

hC
hm

Top gale

top gate

hm

hm

Parting line gate

parting line gate

Parting
line gate
bottom
gate

IES 2009
2 marks

Casting Defects
The following are the major defects, which are likely to

occur in sand castings:


Gas defects

Shrinkage cavities
Molding material defects

Pouring metal defects


Mold shift.

Gas Defects
A condition existing in a casting caused by the

trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases


evolved during the pouring of the casting.
The defects in this category can be classified into
blowholes and pinhole porosity.
Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present
in the casting on the surface or inside the casting.
Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of
molten metal.

Shrinkage Cavities
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the

solidification of the casting.


To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is
required. For this reason risers are placed at the
appropriate places in the mold.
Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the
proper location, causing shrinkage cavities.
It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage
cavities.

Molding Material Defects


Cuts and washes,
Scab

Metal penetration,
Fusion, and
Swell

Cut and washes


These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and

are caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing


metal.
This is caused by the molding sand not having enough
strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity.
The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of
molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the
proper design of the gating system.

Scab
This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould

lifts or breaks down and the recess thus made is filled by


metal.
When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be
disengaged with such violence as to break up the sand,
which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled
with metal.
The reasons can be: - too fine sand, low permeability of
sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven mould
ramming.

Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand

grains, the result is a rough casting surface.


This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was
applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand
grains more the metal penetration.

Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with

the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance


on the casting surface.
The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand

particles are of lower refractoriness or that the

pouring temperature is too high.

Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold
wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension
of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will
correct this defect.

Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or
deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during
pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the
gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
mold can prevent this defect

Pouring Metal Defects


The likely defects in this category are
Mis-runs and
Cold shuts
A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill
the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled
cavities.
A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus
forming a discontinuity in the casting.
Contd

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by


a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section

thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be


improved by changing the composition of the metal
and by increasing the pouring temperature of the
metal.

Mold Shift
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag
or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.

Cast Aluminium Code


Four digit identification system
First digit indicates alloy group

1 Aluminium, 99% or more


2 copper
3 Silicon, with copper and/or magnesium
4 silicon
5 magnesium
6 not used
7 zinc
8 tin
9 other elements

Cast Aluminium Code

Contd..

Second two digits identify the aluminium alloy or


indicate the aluminium purity.
The last digit is separating from the other three by a
decimal point and indicates the product form; that is,
castings or ingots
A modification of the original alloy is indicated by a
serial letter before the numerical designation.
Alloy A514.0 indicates an aluminium alloy casting with
magnesium as the principal alloy. One modification to
the original alloy has made, as indicated by the letter A.

IES 2011
In the designation of Aluminium casting A514.0
indicates :
(a) Aluminium purity
(b) Aluminium content
(c) Percentage of alloy element
(d) Magnesium Content

Ans. (d)

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