AEROCONTROLS

RP.

Some Aspects of
Flight Dynamics and Flight Control

Ralph Paul
Unstable

ETHZ. Ed.; Status: October 2012

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

1 Overview: Flight Dynamics and Design

RP.

Embedding of Flight Dynamics into the Design Process

Balanced/Harmonic Overall Design

Multi Object Optimization Performance, ....

Configuration/Payload/Stores/Propulsion

Physical/
Technical Constraints

Flight
Dynamics

 Stabilization Capability
 Agility, Maneuverability
 Trim ability, !

Integrative
Interactions

Integrative
Controller Design
 Robust Control
 Carefree Handling
 Engine Control
 Control Allocation

Flight Mechanics Requirements

 Nz- -Envelope

 Basic/natural (In-)Stability SM

 Control Potential w.r.t. all 3 Axis

 Performance & Flying Qualities (MIL)
Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Aerodynamics

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

 Aerodynamic Quality CL/CD, (CL)max

 Control Effectiveness/Power
2

1 Fundamental Requirements

AEROCONTROLS
RP.

Fundamental Design Objective of a Flight Dynamics/Controller Development

Provision of excellent Flying/Handling Qualities in order to exploit the Potential
of a configuration which is optimized w.r.t. other objecives like performance and
/or economy and/or stealth and/or passenger comfort, !
 Flying & Handling Qualities
 Controllability, Maneuverability, Agility
 Disturbance Rejection: Gust Load & Pilot

Work Load reduction Care-Free-Handling

 Reliability, Safety, Failure Scenarios & Fault Detection/

Analysis/Tolerance, Reversionary Modes Robustness Qualities

Design Problem:
 In the Past: Natural (basic) Stability of the Aerodynamic Design Cm , Cn , ...
 Today: Adequate Stabilization of the optimized (maybe unstable) Layout!
Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

2 Unstable Configuration

RP.

Natural Stability

Lift

Zero
Moment

Disturbance

CG

Trim

CG

Ltrim

(Gust)

Weight

Weight
 Zero moment Cm(L=0)<0 top-heavy  HT produces down force CL , CD

 Worse flight performance

Instability: Artificial Stabilization

Zero
Moment

Lift
L

Zero
Moment

Lift

Disturbance

Trim

Weight

CG Center of Gravity
NP Neutral Point
Point of attack for the
additional lift L of
wing/body and tail due to a
disturbance in the AoA .

Zero
Moment

Lift

L
Trim

(Gust)

 HT produces lift CL , CD

Trim

NP

NP

Ltrim
Weight

 (CL)max , better flight performance

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

2 Stabilization Capability

RP.

Limitation of Stabilization
()ma

pitching moment

control
moment
built up

not stabilizable

uncontrolled

M&

()ma
20

maximum control moment

stabilizable

disturbance ( )
TD

Tt

with control
activity
t

dead time

Delays in the inner loop decisively limit the admissible,

i.e. the controllable, instability!
Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

2 Required Control Power

RP.

Estimation of the Required Control Potential/Power:

Taileron/Flaperon Superposition of Long-/Lat-Demand = r + l ,
2

 Trimming: trim trim (steady turn)

r l
2

 Maneuver Long/Lat:

Load factor
Bank angle

e.g. qreq = 0.3 1/s2

nz n

e.g. nz= 0 -2 g

Pitch acceleration qreq q

T45 T45 e.g. T45 < 1.9s

 Stabilization (gusts)
 Turbulence/cross wind

stab, stab

e.g. Stabilization demand via initial value disturbance or

=1 and turbulence/gust-simulation according to MILSpec.

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

2 Required Control Power

RP.

Estimation of the Required Control Potential/Power:

Taileron/Flaperon Superposition of Long-/Lat-Demand
 Trimming: trim trim (steady turn)

le,ri
[]

 Maneuver Long/Lat:

Load factor
Bank angle

r + l

r l

2
2

Straight & Level Flight

e.g. qreq = 0.3 1/s2

nz n

e.g. nz= 0 -2 g

Pitch acceleration qreq q

T45 T45 e.g. T45 < 1.9s

 Stabilization (gusts)
 Turbulence/cross wind

stab, stab

le,ri
[]

Steady Turning Flight: nz = 2 g

e.g. Stabilization demand via initial value disturbance or

=1 and turbulence/gust-simulation according to MILSpec.

( l , r ) req = trim sup (| q& | , | n | ) | stab | | trim | | T 45 | | stab |

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Primary Goals & Requirements: Basic CSAS

Conventional Control System (SAS)

Integrated FCS

 Pitch-/yaw damper

 Control of a flight state (, , nz ,...)

 Attitude control (, ) trimming

control support or coordination

 Full authority control system (Fly by Wire)

 Mechanical (or electr.) feed through

(mechanical backup/direct link
e.g. Tornado, Mirage)

 Highly control configured dynamic: CCV

 Envelope protection "Care-free handling"
 Absolutely safety critical "fail safe"

Automatic Modes & Higher Functionalities: Autopilot

 Goal: pilot relief, safety increase by standardization of procedures
 Basic functionalities: attitude control, altitude control, auto-throttle, heading-hold
 Higher functionalities: route-steering (navigation), automatic landing, h-/ -acquire, ...
Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Principle and Functionality CSAS (Fly-By-Wire)

 Artificial stabilization (stability augmentation SAS)

CSAS

 Control behavior demand (control augmentation CAS)

defined aircraft response to a pilot command

 Pilot flies aerodynamic configuration through the control system

CCV - Control Configured Vehicle with highly control configured dynamic
 Idea: Control system compares current command input of the pilot with the measured (flight)
state (sensors) of the aircraft and performs correction by adequate computed control surface
deflection.
stick
command

required
control moment

autopilot
trimming

command
path

demand
signal

stabilization
limitation

commanded
control deflaction

CSAS
control
distribution

actuators

aircraft

Path
sensor
signal

control tap

ADS
Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Purpose and Goals: Stability Augmentation System (C)SAS

 Modification of the Eigen Modes, i.e. SP/DR frequency &

opt =

damping , 0, Lat evt. also the eigenvectors, Roll time

constant TR, !. How? Of Course by feedback!

K q ,opt

2
2

Knowledge of basic Root Loci of the aircraft is important!

 Improvement of the transition behavior (i.e. step response)

Handling Quality Requirements have to be met

How? Command Augmentation & (Pre-)Filtering.
 Disturbance rejection/supression (gusts, turbulence, !)

 Standardization/simplification of the aircraft behavior

Pilot feels unified flying qualities over a wide range

of the envelope (different flight conditions)
Compensation/Coordination basis for autopilots

Control Path
Pitch Axis

q&

dt

&

Mq

dt

M
Kq
K

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

10

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Example Pitch Axis: Rate Command/Attitude Hold System (RC/AH)

Stick released:
return to neutral

 Pilot commands with the stick the

pitch rate qc (rate command)

 Release of the stick forces pitch rate

q = 0 and thereby hold of the pitch angle

& q (Attitude Hold)
 no trim button necessary!
c-demand

 Insures a simple

trajectory control!

y
filter

qC

 q = qC especially q = 0 for
stick neutral q hold
 phugoid damping

 Integral q-feed back:

KIq

+
+

dt

aircraft
q

proportional-/integral
q- feed back

filter

 feed back optional

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

11

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

CAREFREE- Properties
 Angle


1
s

s
Rate-Limiter

of attack: Limitation of and dependent on flight state

.

Load factor limit: Limitation of nz and nz dependent on flight state

 Actions:

Limiter

 Limits of the demand signal (limiter)

 Limits of the demand rate (rate limiter)
 Minimization of the overshoot (e.g. nl-feed back)
 Fading of the lateral control command (pedals, SPILS)

Knl
nonlinear feed back

g-Compensation (Long)


Independent from the position and from the direction of the earth acceleration, a
conventional flight behavior despite a q-feed back should be insured.
Straight & Level Flight
q=0
L

 Actions:

 qc-demand dependent from flight attitude/-path

r
direction cosine (a, ) on
g
V
 (Lead by deviation of the direction cosines)
Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

Inverted Flight
q>0
Xg
Zg

mg

mg

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3 Flight Control System Design

AEROCONTROLS
RP.

Basic Control System of the Lateral Motion (Demands/Goals/Problems)



Weakly damped Dutch Roll leads to heavy coupling in (,)

[1/s]

Artificial damping of the yaw movement

Dutch Roll

Artificial decoupling of roll and yaw axis

Spiral Mode

Roll subsidence mode, primary degree of freedom (p)

Artificial damping of the roll mode (roll damper)

-4

-2

Roll Sub. Mode

[1/s]

-2

Spiral mode, primary degree of freedom ( )

Command of a required pilot behavior spi = 0 (attitude control)
Steady state decoupling

Turning coordination and turning compensation, e.g. -demand

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AS is finished!

13

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Decoupling of Roll an Yaw Movement



Command decoupling:
Stick commands roll around
velocity vector V0 with
, constant!

Steady decoupling:
Coordinated turn with 0 (stick)
or angle of sideslip with 0 (pedals)

Roll around body fixed x-axis

Transformation from angle of attack to angle
of sideslip

Roll around velocity vector

Constancy of angle of attack and sideslip

Dynamic decoupling (| / |):

Angle of sideslip disturbance does not induce
a large bank angle and vice versa!
Longitudinal and lateral decoupling
always if 0 and 0, inertial coupling

Coordinated use of all 3 rudders

p
q

V0
pa

0 : p = pa cos , r = pa sin

r
= tan
p

pa = p cos + r sin
inertial coupling pitch up (bar-bell model)

required, compensation paths!

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

14

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

DR 2 / 2

Feed Back Path

Dutch Roll

Primary feed back gains:

Allegation of stability characteristics"

K - basically frequency of the dutch roll

Kr - basically damping of the durch roll
Kp - roll time constant TR


Remaining feed back coefficients

Degrees of freedom for decoupling:
especially feed back
for reduction of the roll-yaw coupling
Illustration: Lead through proper
aileron deflection at a disturbance in

-8

-4

-6

-2

Spiral Mode
[1/s]

|/|dr < 5 ... 7

-2

Roll Mode
permitted

prohibited

(TDS ) min

(TR ) max
p

p
r
r

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

15

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

roll stick

command
filter

H
feed forward

&C

& V
arctan
arctan
g

r -

KI

c (=0)

y
lat. dynamics
+ actuators
+ sensors

ua

a
r

P
I

+
c -limiter

Multivariable state controller:

Control Law:
u a = K SAS y + H r K I e

Integral , feed back

for disturbance compensation

Optional: Stick or turn rate input

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

basic controller

(=: 0)

output feed back: y ua



trim values

dead zone


K SAS

Command Filter

roll stick

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

Feed forward control H

16

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Dimensioning of the Feed Back Path

Eigen Vector Placement Lat

Modell j
Ma = 0.5

Modell i
Ma = 0.2

Demand: Dynamic decoupling: First choice"

Eigen Structure Placement (ESP)

(e.g.: A320 lat, ...)

pole
Placement

roll
mode

spiral
mode

d =-0.3 s

Due to the existence of multiple control variables, besides the

eigen values also the eigen vectors can be placed partially.

eigen vector

Td =3.33 s

p
r

=x

Lateral motion:

-1

Spiral- & roll mode with 0

KSAS
Basic Controller

dutch
roll

d =-2.0 s

-1

0d =1.3 s

-1

d =0.89

Td =0.5 s

0
vd = 0

0
x

~
=
~
=

vd = 0

vd =

to zero specified eigen vector component

unlimited component

Placement of the eigen values of dutch roll, roll and

spiral mode, as well as partially of their eigen vectors:
Roll-yaw coupling |/ |dr 0

Modell k
Ma = 0.9

vd
z
Projection of the
1
eN
eigen vectors
y
zero space
e N2

vi

Ni
Nullraum

Solution of the state equations:

y (t ) = C V e t V 1 x0

i =1

C V e (t ) V 1 B u( ) d + D u(t ) = C eit vi ci

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

t n

+ C ei (t ) vi wiT B u( ) d + D u(t )

0 i =1

17

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Further Design Aspects for the Lateral Motion Control Systems

about g-compensation in lat.

Steady

decoupling by feed forward control H

Inversion of the nominal steady process dynamics

Command Decoupling:
Definition of alternate rudders", which only act on
the desired rotational axis plus g-compensation,
demand values, ...
Riccati-Design (LQR)
with proper choice of weighting
satisfying decoupling reachable
Nonlinear Dynamic Inversion (partial)
Negative feed back of the inner coupling terms
(nonlinear), e.g. inertial coupling, adaptation of
stability characteristics by pole placement
Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

Straight & Level Flight

A
r=0
Xg
Zg

mg

Turn (Knife Edge Flight)

r>0
Xg
Zg

c
c

mg

H
feed forward

v
v

H = + [G mod (0)] 1
= [C T ( A Ba K C ) 1 Ba ] 1

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3 Flight Control System Design

AEROCONTROLS
RP.

Evaluation of the Control Design (Assessment)

 Initial point: existence of a control design
 Validation of the design necessary

Proof of concept (requirements, stability, certification)

 Problem: Multiple uncertainties (partly unknown),

model deviations or neglected dynamics,

e.g. CG-position, ADS, aerodynamics, masses, ...
Worst case combination of various influence
parameter must be tolerated robust stability/quality
 Linear analysis: Evaluation of sufficient stability reserves (robustness) and performance
 Nonlinear analysis: complex mathematical implementation of all (sub-)systems and

effects (aerodynamics/engine, actuators, sensors, discrete controller, ...)

Non real time simulation: influence of nonlinear effects, limit cycles, limitations
Manned real time simulation: special maneuver, pilot evaluation, critical corners

Proof of sufficient stability- and handling-qualities

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

19

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Robustness & Stability Reserves ?

Sideslip

angle nonlinearities: Design with

= 0 Behavior & stabilization for 0?

Tt

High angle of attack area:

Departure (=Spin) threat rudder power

typical Cn -nonlinearity

neutral C
n

fading out of the pedal commando 0

stable

unstable

Carefree qualities Limitation of:

 Roll rate & acceleration
 Angle of sideslip & increment &

0
unstable

 Roll priority: At fast roll will be faded out

in favor of the roll rate pa

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

20

3 Flight Control System Design

AEROCONTROLS
RP.

Test and Certification of the Complete System with the Rig

FCS Rig Tests contain
Integration sensor- and actuator LRIs with the FCCs
System tests (air data system, fuel/store system,
autopilot, flight control system)
End-to-end tests and closed loop tests with
aircraft model and pilot
Contribution to Certification
Proof of all FCS flight safety
aspects for the approved flight
envelope (e.g. validation fault tree)
Contribution to Qualification
Proof of compliance of the requirements
from the system specification

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

21

AEROCONTROLS

3 Flight Control System Design

RP.

Design & Analysis for 99% Linear. But The World is Nonlinear







Parameter excitation
+ Gain scheduling hidden gains

hybrid systems

Implementation (nonlinear)

Error analysis & propagation

Failure safety

Reconfiguration, fallback solution

Integrator wind up"

Transonic pitch-up
Local instabilities
Rate/deflection limitations
PIO (own discipline, Gibson Spider)

Nonlinear aerodynamics &

engine characterisitics

structural coupling

Moding & cross-fade

Software design
+ safety critical
+ real time validated

sensors, tolerances

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

 Aeroelastic &


CG-movement & areas

 ADS-systems,


Discretization

and, and, and ...

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

AS is
ENLIGHTNED!

Certification & Proof

22

Recommended Literature

AEROCONTROLS
RP.

Flight Dynamics Part I: Aircraft Stability and Control

 [1] DiStefano, J.J.: Feedback and Control Systems (2/ed);

V0

Schaums Outline Series, McGraw-Hill Inc.,1990.

z

 [2] Brockhaus, R.: Flugregelung. Springer Verlag, Berlin 1994.

(German Language!)
 [3] Steven, Lewis: Aircraft Control and Simulation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York 1992.
 [4] McRuer: Aircraft Dynamics & Automatic Control. Princeton University Press, 1973.
 [5] Etkin, B. & Reid L.D.: Dynamics of Flight - Stability and Control, 3rd Edition,

John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1995

 [6] Fllinger, O.: Regelungstechnik. 8. Auflage, Hthig Verlag, Heidelberg 1994.

(Good German Feedback Control Textbook)

Flight Dynamics I ETHZ Ed., WS 2012/13

Dr. M. Heller, R. Paul

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