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Oilplatform
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anoilplatform,offshoreplatform,or(colloquially)oilrigisa
largestructurewithfacilitiestodrillwells,toextractandprocess
oilandnaturalgas,ortotemporarilystoreproductuntilitcanbe
broughttoshoreforrefiningandmarketing.Inmanycases,the
platformcontainsfacilitiestohousetheworkforceaswell.
Dependingonthecircumstances,theplatformmaybefixedto
theoceanfloor,mayconsistofanartificialisland,ormayfloat.
Remotesubseawellsmayalsobeconnectedtoaplatformby
flowlinesandbyumbilicalconnections.Thesesubseasolutions
mayconsistofoneormoresubseawells,orofoneormore
manifoldcentresformultiplewells.

OilplatformP51offtheBrazilian
coastisasemisubmersibleplatform.

Contents
1History
2Types
2.1Fixedplatforms
2.2Complianttowers
2.3Semisubmersibleplatform
2.4Jackupdrillingrigs
2.5Drillships
2.6Floatingproductionsystems

OilplatformMittelplateintheNorth
sea

2.7Tensionlegplatform
2.8Gravitybasedstructure
2.9Sparplatforms
2.10Condeepplatforms
2.11Normallyunmannedinstallations(NUI)
2.12Conductorsupportsystems
3Particularlylargeexamples
4Maintenanceandsupply
5Crew
5.1Essentialpersonnel
5.2Incidentalpersonnel
6Drawbacks
6.1Risks
6.2Ecologicaleffects
7Deepestoilplatforms
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8Seealso
9References
10Externallinks

History
Around1891,thefirstsubmergedoilwellsweredrilledfrom
platformsbuiltonpilesinthefreshwatersoftheGrandLakeSt.
Marys(a.k.a.MercerCountyReservoir)inOhio.Thewidebut
shallowreservoirwasbuiltfrom1837to1845toprovidewater
totheMiamiandErieCanal.
Around1896,thefirstsubmergedoilwellsinsaltwaterwere
drilledintheportionoftheSummerlandfieldextendingunder
theSantaBarbaraChannelinCalifornia.Thewellsweredrilled
frompiersextendingfromlandoutintothechannel.
Othernotableearlysubmergeddrillingactivitiesoccurredonthe
CanadiansideofLakeErieinthe1900sandCaddoLakein
Louisianainthe1910s.Shortlythereafter,wellsweredrilledin
tidalzonesalongtheGulfCoastofTexasandLouisiana.The
GooseCreekfieldnearBaytown,Texasisonesuchexample.In
the1920s,drillingwasdonefromconcreteplatformsinLake
Maracaibo,Venezuela.

Offshoreplatform,GulfofMexico

TheoldestsubseawellrecordedinInfield'soffshoredatabaseistheBibiEibatwellwhichcameon
streamin1923inAzerbaijan.LandfillwasusedtoraiseshallowportionsoftheCaspianSea.
Intheearly1930s,theTexasCompanydevelopedthefirstmobilesteelbargesfordrillinginthe
brackishcoastalareasofthegulf.
In1937,PureOilCompany(nowpartofChevronCorporation)anditspartnerSuperiorOilCompany
(nowpartofExxonMobilCorporation)usedafixedplatformtodevelopafieldin14feet(4.3m)of
water,onemile(1.6km)offshoreofCalcasieuParish,Louisiana.
In1946,MagnoliaPetroleumCompany(nowpartofExxonMobil)erectedadrillingplatformin18ft
(5.5m)ofwater,18milesoffthecoastofSt.MaryParish,Louisiana.
Inearly1947,SuperiorOilerectedadrilling/productionplatformin20ft(6.1m)ofwatersome18miles
offVermilionParish,Louisiana.ButitwasKerrMcGeeOilIndustries(nowAnadarkoPetroleum
Corporation),asoperatorforpartnersPhillipsPetroleum(ConocoPhillips)andStanolindOil&Gas
(BP),thatcompleteditshistoricShipShoalBlock32wellinOctober1947,monthsbeforeSuperior
actuallydrilledadiscoveryfromtheirVermilionplatformfartheroffshore.Inanycase,thatmadeKerr
McGee'swellthefirstoildiscoverydrilledoutofsightofland.[1][2]
TheBritishMaunsellFortsconstructedduringWorldWarIIareconsideredthedirectpredecessorsof
modernoffshoreplatforms.Havingbeenpreconstructedinaveryshorttime,theywerethenfloatedto
theirlocationandplacedontheshallowbottomoftheThamesandtheMerseyestuary.[2][3]

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Types
Largerlakeandseabasedoffshoreplatformsanddrillingrigforoil.

1,2)conventionalfixedplatforms3)complianttower4,5)verticallymooredtensionlegandmini
tensionlegplatform6)spar7,8)semisubmersibles9)floatingproduction,storage,andoffloading
facility10)subseacompletionandtiebacktohostfacility. [4]

Fixedplatforms
Theseplatformsarebuiltonconcreteorsteellegs,orboth,
anchoreddirectlyontotheseabed,supportingadeckwithspace
fordrillingrigs,productionfacilitiesandcrewquarters.Such
platformsare,byvirtueoftheirimmobility,designedforvery
longtermuse(forinstancetheHiberniaplatform).Varioustypes
ofstructureareused,steeljacket,concretecaisson,floatingsteel
andevenfloatingconcrete.Steeljacketsareverticalsections
madeoftubularsteelmembers,andareusuallypiledintothe
seabed.ToseemoredetailsregardingDesign,constructionand
installationofsuchplatformsreferto:[5]and.[6]

Afixedplatformbaseunder
constructiononaLouisianariver

Concretecaissonstructures,pioneeredbytheCondeepconcept,
oftenhaveinbuiltoilstorageintanksbelowtheseasurfaceand
thesetankswereoftenusedasaflotationcapability,allowing
themtobebuiltclosetoshore(NorwegianfjordsandScottishfirthsarepopularbecausetheyare
shelteredanddeepenough)andthenfloatedtotheirfinalpositionwheretheyaresunktotheseabed.
Fixedplatformsareeconomicallyfeasibleforinstallationinwaterdepthsuptoabout520m(1,710ft).

Complianttowers
Theseplatformsconsistofslender,flexibletowersandapilefoundationsupportingaconventionaldeck
fordrillingandproductionoperations.Complianttowersaredesignedtosustainsignificantlateral
deflectionsandforces,andaretypicallyusedinwaterdepthsrangingfrom370to910metres(1,210to
2,990ft).

Semisubmersibleplatform
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Theseplatformshavehulls(columnsandpontoons)ofsufficientbuoyancytocausethestructuretofloat,
butofweightsufficienttokeepthestructureupright.Semisubmersibleplatformscanbemovedfrom
placetoplaceandcanbeballastedupordownbyalteringtheamountoffloodinginbuoyancytanks.
Theyaregenerallyanchoredbycombinationsofchain,wireropeorpolyesterrope,orboth,during
drillingand/orproductionoperations,thoughtheycanalsobekeptinplacebytheuseofdynamic
positioning.Semisubmersiblescanbeusedinwaterdepthsfrom60to3,000metres(200to10,000ft).

Jackupdrillingrigs
JackupMobileDrillingUnits(orjackups),asthename
suggests,arerigsthatcanbejackedupabovetheseausinglegs
thatcanbelowered,muchlikejacks.TheseMODUs(Mobile
OffshoreDrillingUnits)aretypicallyusedinwaterdepthsupto
120metres(390ft),althoughsomedesignscangoto170m
(560ft)depth.Theyaredesignedtomovefromplacetoplace,
andthenanchorthemselvesbydeployingthelegstotheocean
bottomusingarackandpiniongearsystemoneachleg.

Drillships

400feet(120m)talljackuprigbeing
towedbytugboats,KachemakBay,
Alaska

Adrillshipisamaritimevesselthathasbeenfittedwithdrilling
apparatus.Itismostoftenusedforexploratorydrillingofnewoil
orgaswellsindeepwaterbutcanalsobeusedforscientificdrilling.Earlyversionswerebuiltona
modifiedtankerhull,butpurposebuiltdesignsareusedtoday.Mostdrillshipsareoutfittedwitha
dynamicpositioningsystemtomaintainpositionoverthewell.Theycandrillinwaterdepthsupto
3,700m(12,100ft).[7]

Floatingproductionsystems
ThemaintypesoffloatingproductionsystemsareFPSO(floatingproduction,storage,andoffloading
system).FPSOsconsistoflargemonohullstructures,generally(butnotalways)shipshaped,equipped
withprocessingfacilities.Theseplatformsaremooredtoalocationforextendedperiods,anddonot
actuallydrillforoilorgas.Somevariantsoftheseapplications,calledFSO(floatingstorageand
offloadingsystem)orFSU(floatingstorageunit),areusedexclusivelyforstoragepurposes,andhost
verylittleprocessequipment.Thisisoneofthebestsourcesforhavingfloatingproduction.
Theworld'sfirstfloatingliquefiednaturalgas(FLNG)facilityiscurrentlyunderdevelopment.Seethe
sectiononparticularlylargeexamplesbelow.

Tensionlegplatform
TLPsarefloatingplatformstetheredtotheseabedinamannerthateliminatesmostverticalmovement
ofthestructure.TLPsareusedinwaterdepthsuptoabout2,000meters(6,600feet).The"conventional"
TLPisa4columndesignwhichlookssimilartoasemisubmersible.Proprietaryversionsincludethe
SeastarandMOSESminiTLPstheyarerelativelylowcost,usedinwaterdepthsbetween180and
1,300metres(590and4,270ft).MiniTLPscanalsobeusedasutility,satelliteorearlyproduction
platformsforlargerdeepwaterdiscoveries.

Gravitybasedstructure
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AGBScaneitherbesteelorconcreteandisusuallyanchoreddirectlyontotheseabed.SteelGBSare
predominantlyusedwhenthereisnoorlimitedavailabilityofcranebargestoinstallaconventional
fixedoffshoreplatform,forexampleintheCaspianSea.ThereareseveralsteelGBSintheworldtoday
(e.g.offshoreTurkmenistanWaters(CaspianSea)andoffshoreNewZealand).SteelGBSdonotusually
providehydrocarbonstoragecapability.Itismainlyinstalledbypullingitofftheyard,byeitherwettow
or/anddrytow,andselfinstallingbycontrolledballastingofthecompartmentswithseawater.To
positiontheGBSduringinstallation,theGBSmaybeconnectedtoeitheratransportationbargeorany
otherbarge(provideditislargeenoughtosupporttheGBS)usingstrandjacks.Thejacksshallbe
releasedgraduallywhilsttheGBSisballastedtoensurethattheGBSdoesnotswaytoomuchfrom
targetlocation.

Sparplatforms
SparsaremooredtotheseabedlikeTLPs,butwhereasaTLPhas
verticaltensiontethers,asparhasmoreconventionalmooring
lines.Sparshavetodatebeendesignedinthreeconfigurations:
the"conventional"onepiececylindricalhullthe"trussspar",in
whichthemidsectioniscomposedoftrusselementsconnecting
theupperbuoyanthull(calledahardtank)withthebottomsoft
tankcontainingpermanentballastandthe"cellspar",whichis
builtfrommultipleverticalcylinders.Thesparhasmoreinherent
stabilitythanaTLPsinceithasalargecounterweightatthe
bottomanddoesnotdependonthemooringtoholditupright.It
alsohastheability,byadjustingthemooringlinetensions(using
chainjacksattachedtothemooringlines),tomovehorizontally
andtopositionitselfoverwellsatsomedistancefromthemain
platformlocation.ThefirstproductionsparwasKerrMcGee's
Neptune,anchoredin590m(1,940ft)intheGulfofMexico
however,spars(suchasBrentSpar)werepreviouslyusedas
FSOs.

Devil'sTowersparplatform

Eni'sDevil'sTowerlocatedin1,710m(5,610ft)ofwaterintheGulfofMexico,wastheworld'sdeepest
sparuntil2010.Theworld'sdeepestplatformiscurrentlythePerdidosparintheGulfofMexico,
floatingin2,438metresofwater.ItisoperatedbyRoyalDutchShellandwasbuiltatacostof$3
billion.[8][9]
ThefirsttrusssparswereKerrMcGee'sBoomvangandNansen.Thefirst(andonly)cellsparisKerr
McGee'sRedHawk.[10]

Condeepplatforms
Condeepplatformgotitsbreakthroughinthesummerof1973.Whenacontractwassignedbetweenthe
NorwegianContractors(NC)andMobilontheconstructionofBerylAandtheShellBrentB.Ithadnot
beenimplementedonboldbuildingprojectsinNorwaysincetheRjukandevelopment.TheNorwegian
Condeepplatformsattractedinternationalattention,andtheconstructionwasawardedtheprizeforthe
technologicalinnovationintheworld'slargestoilconferenceinHoustonin1975.
InternationallyCondeepistheepitomeofoiloperationsintheNorthSea.Condeepplatformshavebeen
themostsignificantindependentcontributionstotheoffshoreindustry.ThelatestandgreatestCondeep
platformisTrollA,whichwassubmittedtoShellin1995.
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Table31providesanoverviewofallCondeepplatformbuilt,11arelocatedintheNorwegiansector.
ThefirstconcreteplatformsintheUKsectorwasCondeepplatformsbuiltbytheNC.Severalofthe
nextBritishconcreteplatformhadmultipledesignresemblingCondeep.
In1978,thereweredemandsfromNPDthatplatformsshouldalsobedesignedforremoval,this
includedthenineCondeepplatformsfromtheStatfjordB.However,thefullextentoftheremoval
processisnotgenerallyconsideredintheoriginaldesign.

Normallyunmannedinstallations(NUI)
Theseinstallationsarethenaddedtotheseawater.(sometimescalledtoadstools)aresmallplatforms,
consistingoflittlemorethanawellbay,helipadandemergencyshelter.Theyaredesignedtobe
operatedremotelyundernormalconditions,onlytobevisitedoccasionallyforroutinemaintenanceor
wellwork.

Conductorsupportsystems
Theseinstallations,alsoknownassatelliteplatforms,aresmallunmannedplatformsconsistingoflittle
morethanawellbayandasmallprocessplant.Theyaredesignedtooperateinconjunctionwithastatic
productionplatformwhichisconnectedtotheplatformbyflowlinesorbyumbilicalcable,orboth.

Particularlylargeexamples
ThePetroniusPlatformisacomplianttowerintheGulfof
MexicomodeledaftertheHessBaldpateplatform,whichstands
2,000feet(610m)abovetheoceanfloor.Itisoneoftheworld's
talleststructures.[11]
TheHiberniaplatforminCanadaistheworld'slargest(interms
ofweight)offshoreplatform,locatedontheJeanneD'ArcBasin,
intheAtlanticOceanoffthecoastofNewfoundland.This
gravitybasestructure(GBS),whichsitsontheoceanfloor,is
111metres(364ft)highandhasstoragecapacityfor1.3million
barrels(210,000m3)ofcrudeoilinits85metre(279ft)high
caisson.Theplatformactsasasmallconcreteislandwith
serratedouteredgesdesignedtowithstandtheimpactofan
iceberg.TheGBScontainsproductionstoragetanksandthe
remainderofthevoidspaceisfilledwithballastwiththeentire
structureweighinginat1.2milliontons.
A'Statfjord'gravitybasedstructure
RoyalDutchShelliscurrentlydevelopingthefirstFloating
underconstructioninNorway.
LiquefiedNaturalGas(FLNG)facility,whichwillbesituated
Almostallofthestructurewillend
approximately200kmoffthecoastofWesternAustraliaandis
upsubmerged.
dueforcompletionaround2017.[12]Whenfinished,itwillbethe
largestfloatingoffshorefacility.Itisexpectedtobe
approximately488mlongand74mwidewithdisplacementofaround600,000twhenfullyballasted.[13]

Maintenanceandsupply
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Atypicaloilproductionplatformisselfsufficientinenergyandwaterneeds,housingelectrical
generation,waterdesalinatorsandalloftheequipmentnecessarytoprocessoilandgassuchthatitcan
beeitherdelivereddirectlyonshorebypipelineortoafloatingplatformortankerloadingfacility,or
both.Elementsintheoil/gasproductionprocessincludewellhead,productionmanifold,production
separator,glycolprocesstodrygas,gascompressors,waterinjectionpumps,oil/gasexportmeteringand
mainoillinepumps.
LargerplatformsassistedbysmallerESVs(emergencysupportvessels)liketheBritishIolairthatare
summonedwhensomethinghasgonewrong,e.g.whenasearchandrescueoperationisrequired.During
normaloperations,PSVs(platformsupplyvessels)keeptheplatformsprovisionedandsupplied,and
AHTSvesselscanalsosupplythem,aswellastowthemtolocationandserveasstandbyrescueand
firefightingvessels.

Crew
Essentialpersonnel
Notallofthefollowingpersonnelarepresentoneveryplatform.Onsmallerplatforms,oneworkercan
performanumberofdifferentjobs.Thefollowingalsoarenotnamesofficiallyrecognizedinthe
industry:
OIM(offshoreinstallationmanager)whoistheultimateauthorityduringhis/hershiftandmakes
theessentialdecisionsregardingtheoperationoftheplatform
operationsteamleader(OTL)
offshoreoperationsengineer(OOE)whoistheseniortechnicalauthorityontheplatform
PSTLoroperationscoordinatorformanagingcrewchanges
dynamicpositioningoperator,navigation,shiporvesselmaneuvering(MODU),stationkeeping,
fireandgassystemsoperationsintheeventofincident
automationsystemsspecialist,toconfigure,maintainandtroubleshoottheprocesscontrolsystems
(PCS),processsafetysystems,emergencysupportsystemsandvesselmanagementsystems
secondmatetomeetmanningrequirementsofflagstate,operatesfastrescuecraft,cargo
operations,fireteamleader
thirdmatetomeetmanningrequirementsofflagstate,operatefastrescuecraft,cargooperations,
fireteamleader
ballastcontroloperatortooperatefireandgassystems
craneoperatorstooperatethecranesforliftingcargoaroundtheplatformandbetweenboats
scaffolderstorigupscaffoldingforwhenitisrequiredforworkerstoworkatheight
coxswainstomaintainthelifeboatsandmanningthemifnecessary
controlroomoperators,especiallyFPSOorproductionplatforms
cateringcrew,includingpeopletaskedwithperformingessentialfunctionssuchascooking,
laundryandcleaningtheaccommodation
productiontechstoruntheproductionplant
helicopterpilot(s)livingonsomeplatformsthathaveahelicopterbasedoffshoreandtransporting
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workerstootherplatformsortoshoreoncrewchanges
maintenancetechnicians(instrument,electricalormechanical).
Fullyqualifiedmedic.
Radiooperatortooperateallradiocommunications.

Incidentalpersonnel
Drillcrewwillbeonboardiftheinstallationisperformingdrillingoperations.Adrillcrewwill
normallycomprise:
Toolpusher
Driller
Roughnecks
Roustabouts
Companyman
Mudengineer
Motorman
Derrickhand
Geologist
WeldersandWelderHelpers
Wellservicescrewwillbeonboardforwellwork.Thecrewwillnormallycomprise:
Wellservicessupervisor
Wirelineorcoiledtubingoperators
Pumpoperator
Pumphangerandranger

Drawbacks
Risks
Thenatureoftheiroperationextractionofvolatilesubstancessometimesunderextremepressureina
hostileenvironmentmeansriskaccidentsandtragediesoccurregularly.TheU.S.Minerals
ManagementServicereported69offshoredeaths,1,349injuries,and858firesandexplosionson
offshorerigsintheGulfofMexicofrom2001to2010.[14]OnJuly6,1988,167peoplediedwhen
OccidentalPetroleum'sPiperAlphaoffshoreproductionplatform,onthePiperfieldintheUKsectorof
theNorthSea,explodedafteragasleak.TheresultinginvestigationconductedbyLordCullenand
publicizedinthefirstCullenReportwashighlycriticalofanumberofareas,including,butnotlimited
to,managementwithinthecompany,thedesignofthestructure,andthePermittoWorkSystem.The
reportwascommissionedin1988,andwasdeliveredNovember1990.[15]Theaccidentgreatly
acceleratedthepracticeofprovidinglivingaccommodationsonseparateplatforms,awayfromthose
usedforextraction.

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Theoffshorecanbeinitselfahazardousenvironment.InMarch1980,the'flotel'(floatinghotel)
platformAlexanderL.KiellandcapsizedinastormintheNorthSeawiththelossof123lives.[16]
In2001,Petrobras36inBrazilexplodedandsankfivedayslater,killing11people.
Giventhenumberofgrievancesandconspiracytheoriesthatinvolvetheoilbusiness,andthe
importanceofgas/oilplatformstotheeconomy,platformsintheUnitedStatesarebelievedtobe
potentialterroristtargets.Agenciesandmilitaryunitsresponsibleformaritimecounterterrorisminthe
US(CoastGuard,NavySEALs,MarineRecon)oftentrainforplatformraids.
OnApril21,2010,theDeepwaterHorizonplatform,52milesoffshoreofVenice,Louisiana,(property
ofTransoceanandleasedtoBP)exploded,killing11people,andsanktwodayslater.Theresulting
underseagusher,conservativelyestimatedtoexceed20millionUSgallons(76,000m3)asofearlyJune,
2010,becametheworstoilspillinUShistory,eclipsingtheExxonValdezoilspill.

Ecologicaleffects
InBritishwaters,thecostofremovingallplatformrig
structuresentirelywasestimatedin2013at30billion.[17]
Aquaticorganismsinvariablyattachthemselvestothe
underseaportionsofoilplatforms,turningtheminto
artificialreefs.IntheGulfofMexicoandoffshore
California,theseaaroundoilplatformsarepopular
destinationsforsportsandcommercialfishermen,because
ofthegreaternumbersoffishneartheplatforms.TheUnited
StatesandBruneihaveactiveRigstoReefsprograms,in
whichformeroilplatformsareleftinthesea,eitherinplace
ortowedtonewlocations,aspermanentartificialreefs.In
theUSGulfofMexico,asofSeptember2012,420former
oilplatforms,about10percentofdecommissioned
platforms,havebeenconvertedtopermanentreefs.[18]

NOAAmapofthe3,858oilandgas
platformsextantintheGulfofMexicoin
2006

OntheUSPacificcoast,marinebiologistMiltonLovehasproposedthatoilplatformsoffCaliforniabe
retainedasartificialreefs,insteadofbeingdismantled(atgreatcost),becausehehasfoundthemtobe
havensformanyofthespeciesoffishwhichareotherwisedecliningintheregion,inthecourseof11
yearsofresearch.[19]Loveisfundedmainlybygovernmentagencies,butalsoinsmallpartbythe
CaliforniaArtificialReefEnhancementProgram.Divershavebeenusedtoassessthefishpopulations
surroundingtheplatforms.[20]

Deepestoilplatforms
Theworld'sdeepestoilplatformisthefloatingPerdido,whichisasparplatformintheGulfofMexico
inawaterdepthof2,438metres(7,999ft).
Nonfloatingcomplianttowersandfixedplatforms,bywaterdepth:
PetroniusPlatform,535m(1,755ft)
BaldpatePlatform,502m(1,647ft)
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BullwinklePlatform,413m(1,355ft)
PompanoPlatform,393m(1,289ft)
BenguelaBelizeLobitoTombocoPlatform,390m(1,280ft)
TombuaLandanaPlatform,366m(1,201ft)
HarmonyPlatform,366m(1,201ft)
TrollAPlatform,303m(994ft)
GulfaksCPlatform,217m(712ft)

Seealso
Accommodationplatform
ChukchiCap
NorthSeaoil
Offshoreconcretestructure
Offshoredrilling
Offshoregeotechnicalengineering
ProtocolfortheSuppressionofUnlawfulActsagainsttheSafetyofFixedPlatformsLocatedon
theContinentalShelf
RigstoReefs
Submarinepipeline
SAR201
TEMPSC
TexasTowers
UnitedStatesoffshoredrillingdebate

References
1. Refaccessed021289bytechnicalaspectsandcoastmapping.KerrMcGee
2. ProjectRedsand(http://www.projectredsand.com/)
3. 11.2Azerbaijan'sOilHistoryBriefOilChronologysince1920Part2byMirYusifMirBabayev
(http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai112_folder/112_articles/112_chronology.html)
4. OfficeofOceanExplorationandResearch(15December2008)."TypesofOffshoreOilandGasStructures"
(http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06mexico/background/oil/media/types_600.html).NOAAOcean
Explorer:ExpeditiontotheDeepSlope.NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration.Retrieved23May
2010.
5. http://www.slideshare.net/amirkabirsadeghi/jsas0020401sadeghi
6. http://www.slideshare.net/amirkabirsadeghi/jsas004077sadeghi
7. "ChevronDrillshipaccessdate=20100524"(http://www.chevron.com/news/press/release/?id=20100311).
20100311.
8. ShellstartsproductionatPerdido(http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN3123683920100331)

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9. Fahey,Jonathan,AssociatedPress,"DeepGulfdrillingthrives18mos.afterBPspill
(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45825598/ns/us_newsenvironment/t/deepgulfdrillingthrivesmosafterbp
spill/)",JapanTimes,4January2012,p.11"Theoffshoredrillinglife:crampedanddangerous
(http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gzJrDDvRM0_zBWa3CWjEGhvB0xw?
docId=7c57a1cc233d4a2d9ee7d047ef6d32cc)",1January2012.
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(http://www.fmctechnologies.com/en/SubseaSystems/GlobalProjects/NorthAmerica/US/KMGRedHawk.aspx?
tab=%7BB01D40AB5E2F4710954319C658AF29F5%7D).
11. "WhatistheWorld'sTallestBuilding?"(http://www.allaboutskyscrapers.com/tallest_building.htm).All
AboutSkyscrapers.2009.Retrieved23May2010.
12. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9ccaed4a82ba11e0b97c00144feabdc0.html#axzz1NADgzzOH
13. http://gastoday.com.au/news/flng_gets_serious/042981/
14. "Potentialforbigspillafteroilrigsinks"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/36683314/ns/us_newslife/).
MSNBC.20100422.Retrieved20100604.
15. http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/issues/piperalpha/v0000864.cfm
16. "NorthSeaplatformcollapses"
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/27/newsid_2531000/2531091.stm).BBCNews.1980
0327.Retrieved20080619.
17. http://www.raeng.org.uk/publications/reports/decommissioninginthenorthsea.
18. NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,GulfdecomissioningandRigstoReefs,FAQs
(http://sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat_conservation/documents/pdfs/efh/gulf_decommissioning_and_rigs_to_reefs
_faqs_final.pdf),2012.
19. PageM,DuganJ,LoveM,LenihanH."EcologicalPerformanceandTrophicLinks:ComparisonsAmong
PlatformsAndNaturalReefsForSelectedFishAndTheirPrey"
(http://www.coastalresearchcenter.ucsb.edu/cmi/ecoperformance.html).UniversityofCalifornia,Santa
Barbara.Retrieved20080627.
20. SACox,CRBeaver,QRDokken,andJRRooker.(1996)."Diverbasedunderwatersurveytechniquesused
toassessfishpopulationsandfoulingcommunitydevelopmentonoffshoreoilandgasplatformstructures"
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ExploringtheFutureofOffshoreOilandGasDevelopmentinBC:LessonsfromtheAtlantic
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OffshoreOilDrillingNews(http://www.offshoremag.com/drillingandcompletion/)OffshoreOil
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TheMaureenAlphaStory(http://www.maureenalpha.eu)
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TouringtheHermosaOilPlatformoffthecoastofLompoc,California(http://semicultured.com/?
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