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CH AP TER

4
I

Traditional Survey
Positioning Techniques

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knowledge is available on the size and shape of the earth, the next
Orr..
question is "Where are we on that earth?" or "Where on earth are we?"
(figure 18).
One of the main functions of geodesy is to determine the exact positions of
points on or near the earth's surface. This includes points below the surface for
mining or tunneling, under the oceans for underwater engineering structures
or oil wells, and above the surf'acefor rocketry or radio telescope positioning.
Recent years have seen the traditional techniques supplemented by new
ones. It would now seem to be only a matter of time before the older methods
are fully superseded by satellite methods and the need for permanent survey
marks disappears. This is not to suggest that all marks would be destroyed or
let fall into disrepair since undoubtedly there would still be small operators
who would require them.
This chapter will concentrate on the time-honored approaches, and later
chapters will cover the newer techniques. While there is interest in all three
spatial dimensions, it is convenient to separate the horizontal positioning
from the vertical element since in traditional survey work they tended to be
separate operations. With the newer methods this is not so since the data
used can normally solve for all three dimensions at the same time.
Horizontal positioning methods include
l. astronomical techniques

3. trilateration

2. triangulation

4. traversing

while positioning in the vertical plane includes


l. precise or geodetic leveling,

3. barometric leveling

2. trigonometric leveling

4. echo sounding

47

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TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

North Pole
( cel esti al )

Zenith

North Pole
(c el esti al )

H ori zon
pl ane

Tradititxrd

From the very early days of


positioning. Until the last fs
far easier to find than was the
had to await the invention of
latitude was relatively straigh
astronomywas used for marine
in uncharted regions. Then
measurements to establish
Single isolated fixes by
surveyor, because they could
were connected by other
From early times itwas
the heavens and that there rrar
Even before the idea of an
by traveling north or south thc
by amounts that could be
the surveyor, as well as the
visible in the Southern Heni
the position of the South
constellation known as the
any time requires computati
In the early centuries a-fter
as many of the heavenly
Primative observatories carD
edge of the movements and
preciated.
Arnong the methods used
celestial sphere are those
l . by right ascension (RA)

(b )

2. by hour angle (HA) and


3. by azimuth (Az) and

1 9 . C e l e s ti aC
l o o rd i n a te
S ystems
where
right ascension : the anglc
point
circle of,
declination

the arc

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

H O R IZ O N TA L
Astronomical

P OS ITION IN G
Techniques

From tJre very early days of civilization the heavens have been used to aid
positioning. Until the last few centuries the N-S component, or latitud,e,was
far easier to find than was the E-W component, or longitude.While the latter
had to await the invention of good chronometers getting an indication of
latitude was relatively straightforward using simple stellar observation. Initially
astronomywas used for marine navigation; later explorers found itvery useful
in uncharted regions. Then the geodesist used it in combination with other
measurements to establish precise positions on which to base national surveys.
Single isolated fixes by astronomical methods were of little value to the
surveyor, because they could not be interrelated. But taken at positions that
were connected by other means, they were of extreme importance.
From early times it was recognized that the stars appeared to rotate around
the heavens and that there was a star near to the apparent hub of that rotation.
Even before the idea of an Equator was fully appreciated, itwas observed that
by traveling north or south the elevation of this hub star (Pole Star) changed
by amounts that could be related to the distance traveled. Unfortunately for
the surveyor, as well as the navigator and explorer, there is no equivalent star
visible in the Southern Hemisphere that gives a direct approximation to
the position of the South Pole. The nearest star there is o Octantis in the
constellation known as the Southern Cross, but its relationship to the pole at
any time requires computation.
In the early centuries after Christ, strenuous efforts were made to catalogue
as many of the heavenly bodies as possible in terms of their relative positions.
Primative observatories came and went as the importance of detailed knowledge of the movements and positions of the stars and planets came to be appreciated.
Among the methods used for describing the positions of the stars on a
celestial sphere are those shown in figure 19:
l. by right ascension (RA) and declination (6) (figure l9a)
2. by hour angle (HA) and declination (6) (figure l9a)
3. by azimuth (Ar) and altitude (a) (figure 19b)
where
right ascension : the angle along the celestial equator from an initial

:,:'#'#T*t:f;"
declination

o"t" t ofAries (7) tothedecrination

: the arc between the body and the celestial equator

TraditionalSurveypositioningTechniques
TraditionalStrl

hour angle
azimuth
altitude

G ri do r
magneticnorth

Gri d or
magneti cnorth

tI

f-.,-------B
AT

\l

(b ) Be a ri n g

Ao.
t*

">;

14"32'29"
r08"24'11"

,/o\..

the meridiad
: the vertical
i
body

Of the three systems, the firsr


is independent of the observer's
field observations in conjunction
tation.

The 17th century sawrhe

s"

: the angle b{
Greenwich d
: the horizon(

Theodol i teci rcl e


AngleAOB = q
= D i re cti onB - D i recti onA
= I08" 24' Il" - I4o 32,29,,
= 9 3 " 5I' 42"

(c ) D i re c ti o n
2 0 . A z i m u th ,B e a ri n g a
, n d D i recti on

the Academy of Sciences in F


encourage these among numerc
foundation of the Royal Greenrri
King Charles II and with
John Fln
other major observatories on tie
stimuli to production of accurate
improvements in the methods of
Astronomical methods for
latitude and longitude, although
a rectangular coordinate system
are also normally interested in the
found from similar observations_
Azimuth, bearing, and direction
ure 20). The azimuthfrom point
-{
at,4 between the plane containing
B. There are subtle differences bet
azimuth. The former relates to
adopted ellipsoid.
The term bearingis normallv
grid north when working in terrns
Directionis used to denote t}le <
theodolite, and the difference be
at that point.
We must accept, however, thar.
the same definitions and termi
some other surveyterms are unir
in the context of the publication in

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

hour angle
azimuth
altitude

: the angle between the plane of the meridian through


Greenwich and the plane through the body
: the horizontal angle along the horizon plane between
the meridian of the observer and that through the body
: the vertical angle from the horizon to the plane of the
body

it
Of the three systems,the first is used in tabulating star catalogues since
for
used
are
systems
is independent of the observer's position. The other two
and orienfield observations in conjunction with determining point position
tation.
as
The 17th century saw the formation of important scientific bodies, such
r
to
in
'ondon'
the Academy of Sciences in France and the Royal Society
saw the
encourage th.r. u-ong numerous other aspects of science-.It also
from
warrant
under
foundatiln of the Royai Greenwich Obsewatory in 1675
and
observator"'
"astronomical
King Charles II and withJohn Flamsteed as
great
were
These
othlr major observatories on the continent of Europe.
and to
stimuli to'production of accurate tables of the stars (ephemerides)
improvements in the methods of recording time'
in terms of
Astronomical methods for positioning yield results essentially
into
converted
be
stage
latitude and longitude, although they may at a later
we
elements
tlvo
these
a rectangular coordinate system of some form. with
be
can
line,
which
are also normally interested in the azimuth of a particular
e c i ! 'c le
O B =a
c t ion A
3 2 '29"

found from similar observations.


(figAzimuth, bearing, and direction Three terms need to be distinguished
measured
angle
clockwise
ure 20). -the azilnuthfrom point A to point B is the
containing
at A between the plane containing the North Pole and the plane
geodetic
and
azimuth
B. There are subtle differences between astronomical
to the
relates
latter
the
azimuth. The former relates to the geoid, while
adopted elliPsoid.
.;i.
from
t..rn A,aringis normally retained to indicate the clockwise angle
coordinates.
grid north when working in terms of rectangular
as a
Direction is used to denote the circle reading on an instrument, such
angle
the
gives
directions
theodolite, and the difference between two recorded
at that point.
to use
We must accept, however, that, while it is preferable for all'nations
nor
these
neither
that
life
fact
of
the same definitions and terminology, it is a
interpreted
be
should
so
and
some other survey terms are universally exclusive,
in the context of the publication in which they appear'

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

D efl ecti onof


the verti cal

P e rp e n idc ul a r
to e l l i p s o i d
P e rpend
i cul ar
to geoid

As tro n o m i cal
l a ti tu d e

Centerof earth
Cente
e r ro f e l l i p s o i d
2 1 . D e fl e c ti o no f V e rti c a a
l t P oi ntP

52

Traditional

True north, grid north, and


mention of grid north. Surveling
ences need to be known.
True north is the directon
of rotation of the earth. and is
or North Pole.
Ctrid,north is the north
may (though more likely will
quite arbitrary direction.
Magnetic north is the direction
constant, and if shown on map6
its relation to grid north and the
Latitude There are many
through astronomical obsenari
*re altitude of the Pole Star
It follows from this that if the
to the body) is measured to a
the bodv (because it has been
then we can determine the
require correction for refractionis needed for its sernidiamztet
scope, the sun has a finite di
of view, whereas a star can be
Among the alternative
A series of readings are taken
some 10 minutes before until
With accurate knowledge of the
applied to get the equivalent
techniques, a high degree of
Longitude For centuries
to crack. Early explorers and
longitude position because of
essentially a function of time-r
cientlv accuratelv until the
ancient Chinese had their later
these were not timepieces that
Positioning required kno*ing
this is the
position-nowadays
other positions have been usedIsles-and the point in questi
Before the introduction of
flrom A to B was to physicallr
clocks had reasonable accuracrer

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

True north, grid north, and magnetic north The previous section made
mention of grid north. Surveying uses several different "norths," so the differences need to be known.
True north is the direction fiom a point toward the north end of the axis
of rotation of the earth, and is nearly equal to the direction of the Pole Star
or North Pole.
Crrid,norih is the north direction of a set of rectangular coordinates and
may (though more likely will not) be coincident with true north. It can be a
quite arbitrary direction.
Magnetic north is the direction indicated by a magnetic compass. It is not
constant, and if shown on maps is usually accompanied by an indication of
its relation to grid north and the amount by which it is changing annually.
Latitude There are many ways the surveyor can determine his latitude
through astronomical observations aside from that already indicated, where
the altitude of the Pole Star closely approximates the required result.
It follows from this that if the altitude (the vertical angle from the horizon
to the body) is measured to a star or the sun and we know the position of
the body (because it has been catalogued) in relation to the celestial pole,
then we can determine the latitude. For the best results the observations
require correction for refraction. If it is the sun being observed, then allowance
is needed for its semid,iametn;that is, when viewed through a theodolite telescope, the sun has a finite diameter that fills a large percentage of the field
of view, whereas a star can be considered as a point.
Among the alternative methods is the use of ciratmmeridian obsewatsons.
A series of readings are taken to either the sun or a star over a period from
some 10 minutes before until 10 minutes after it has crossed the meridian.
With accurate knowledge of the time of each observation, corrections can be
applied to get the equivalent values at the meridian. With suitable obsewing
techniques, a high degree of precision is possible.
Longitude For centuries longitude proved to be a much more difficult nut
to crack. Early explorers and navigators made errors of many degrees in their
longitude position because of the methods they had to adopt. Longitude is
essentially a function of time-a quantity that could not be measured sufficiently accurately until the second half of the 18th century. Although the
ancient Chinese had their water clocks and other cultures their sand glasses,
these were not timepieces that could be transported from place to place.
Positioning required knowing the difference in time between a datum
this is the Greenwich meridian, but in the past many
position-nowadays
other positions have been used, including Paris and a point in the Canary
Isles-and the point in question.
Before the introduction of radio signals, the only way of getting the time
from A to B was to physically carry it in the form of a timepiece. While early
clocks had reasonable accuracies when stationary, theywere completely upset

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

Traditixra

when taken on board ship_


government for a solution to
q)

(a ) T ro p i c aal n d Si d e re ayl e ar D efi ned

+15 min

/\

+10

/
/

+5

\
\

0
-10
-15

Jan

Apr

July

Oct

( b) Dif f er e n c eb e tw e e nAp p a re n tSo ra rT i m e


and MeanS orarTi me

22. DifterentConcepts
of year

L
E

a timepiece that would kerp


solutions were suggested, bur
It was John Flarrison rr-ho
1765 and who, after a c
Nearly another 100 years r*ere
time signals by electric te
that wireless telegraphy n-as i
radio time signals throughout
When considering time and
of time is 15 seconds of arc. or
in longitude between two
those places at the same insurnrtime between a particular star bei
ian and the same star directh
By using star or sun obsend
be found, and the requiremenr i
station at the same instanl Thb
portable chronometer.
Azimuth can similarly be
stars appear to circle with the
positions of a particular star
other words, at elongation-hr
clearly halfway in between. \ern
ground point. Finaily, we find
noting the angle between that
Astronomical observations
all relate to some leveling deri
adjusted, the vertical axis of tlrc
gravity and is therefore perpendir
ical positions are referenced to
nonmathematical surface.
each other. If sufficient
then conversions are possible.

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

when taken on board ship. So much so that a reward was offered by the
effect for building
government for a solution to the longitude problem-in
long
sea
time
on
a
voyage. Other
accurate
keep
would
that
a timepiece
not
at
all
practicable.
but
were
suggested,
solutions were
It was John Harrison who produced the first acceptable chronometer in
1765 and who, after a considerable struggle, managed to claim the reward.
Nearly another 100 years were to elapse (1852) before it was possible to send
time signals by electric telegraph, and it wasn't until the turn of this century
that wireless telegraphy was introduced. Nowadays it is possible to receive
radio time signals throughout the world to a very high degree of accuracy.
When considering time and longitude it must be remembered that I second
of time is 15 seconds of arc, or around 0.5 km at the equator. The difference
in longitude between two places is then the difference between the times at
those places at the same instant. This is the same as saying the difference in
time between a particular star being directly overhead at the Greenwich meridian and the same star directly overhead at the point.
By using star or sun observations the local time at a particular point can
be found, and the requirement is then to find the local time at the reference
station at the same instant. This can be done using either time signals or a
portable chronometer.
Azimuth can similarly be found by several astronomical methods. Since the
stars appear to circle with the Pole Star as a hub (almost), then by noting the
positions of a particular star when it is farthest east and farthest west-in
can find the meridian direction, which is
other words, at elongation-we
clearly halfway in between. Next we record the angle between the star and a
ground point. Finally, we find the azimuth of the point of observation by
noting the angle between that point and the ground point.
Astronomical observations made with a theodolite or similar instrument
all relate to some leveling device on the instrument. Thus, when properly
adjusted, the vertical axis of the instrument. coincides with the direction of
gravity and is therefore perpendicular to the geoid (figure 2l ) . Thus astronomical positions are referenced to the geoid. Since the geoid is an irregular,
nonmathematical surface, astronomical positions are wholly independent of
each other. If sufficient knowledge of the geoid and ellipsoid is available,
then conversions are possible.

Tradttional
SurveyPositioning
Techniques

Time Modern requirements for time have far outstripped the


accuracy that
can be obtained from a pendulum clock. As the exprosion in technology
has
gathered pace, so better and better timepieces hive become
rrecessaryro
achieve finer and finer resolutions. Time is of course of particular
interest
becauseit is also a measure of longitude: since 360. : 24 hours, lo :
4 minutes.
Year since the sun returns to a different position after ayear,
there are
two different concepts of year. The tropicatyearis the time required
for the
sun to return to the same position as the previous year in relation
to the
equinoctialpoints (the points where the equator intersects the
ecliptic). And
the siderealyear is the time it takes the r.tn to return to the same
position as
before in relation to the stars. In terms of figure 22a, this means
that the sun
goes from point A to A for the tropical year from Ato Bfor the
sidereal year.
Thus,
sidereal year : 26b.242 199 mean solar days
tropical year : Z6b.2b6 360 mean solar days
a difference of about 20 minutes. \Arherea meansolar dayisthe interval
between
two successivetransits of the mean sun over a given meridian,
and the mean
s^unrs a fictitious body, describing a circuit of the equator in the
time required
for the actual sun to describe the ecliptic. The difference between
apparent
solar and mean solar time at any instant is given by the equation
of time,
which varies berween -14.2b to +16.2b minutes (figure 22bj.
This all begins to get confused with different q.pes of sun, day,
and year
but these stem from the nonuniform motion of the ictual sun in its
apparent
orbit. It is much easier to deal with a hypothetical sun moving at the -average
velocity of the actual sun-in other words, with the
,rrrr.
The big problem with time is that there is such a bewildering
-.u.,
range of forms
in-whi1h it can be expressed.when writing this text, I had no dim."lty
amassing
a list of 25 different forms of time that could warrant mention. To describe
them
all in detail here would have little effect other than to create confusion.
\Arhat
it does highlight is how careful we have to be to know which system
we are
working in and how to convert from one system to another if necessirry.
Dq
The time unit day is defined as the interval between successivetransits
of a celestial body acrossthe same part of a meridian. There are three
versions
depending whether the body is the sun (solar), a star (sidereal), or
the moon
(lunar). All are slightly variable. The last can be ignored here.
solar time This is the natural clock in terms of the daily motion
of the
sun. The solarday is the interval between successiveupper transits of the
sun,
but for various reasons this is not a constant. using the mean solar
time (a
function of the averageof all apparent solar daysthroughout a year)
overcomes
this irregularity. This gives rise to an imaginary mean sun moving at a uniform
rate round the equator.

Sidnealtime While the .ic:ofAries, it is also equal to the h -:

Greenwichtime As the prin,. ul


wich, England, so various n-re-r."u
may be sidereal, apparent sol.: :{
Greenwich time : local rir-.t {

Thi s l eadsto t he concept s1al:: . . : I


bands of longitude for evend.. I
standard time : Greenrrici: ::d

Greenwichmean time (GNIT ,. u


Although there is still an obst:-".;a
is now the mean value deriveC :: rr
A modification of this, to allc,:, : I
gives UT 2, where the differrr.:t
hundredths of a second of tinrr rl
Greenwich apparen: rr{
time (GAST

where i is the longitude of thr :*i


GAST can be converted to rrn:-.--r
Then

UT 1 : UT 0 + a small rec_,:

i
Il-t 2 : UT I + a small cc,.::{
It is UT 1 that the surveyor o: i:-[
cal observations.

Ephemnistime To accomnror,:c
cal astronomy, geodesistsrepl.,.: :
and atomic time (AT).
Ephemeristime (ET) is related : I
Astronomical Ephemeris, whert
ET=

The correcting term was zero i:r _{


not increase uniformly.

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

cy that
E-vhas
[I-

to
lterest
llutes.
ne are
rr the
b the
- And
bn as
E SUn
I year.

Heen
,ruan
F.d
lfent
lime,
tleal
Fenr
Fage

b.-t

F"s

pem
t-hat
I are

h-i"

b.*
lrcn

itrr.
trn,

ft.
tses
Fr"

Siderealtimc while the sidereal time is the hour angle of the first point
ofAries, it is also equal to the hour angle plus the right ascension of a given star.
Ctremwichtime As the prime meridian is taken to be that through Greenwich, England, so various measures of time are called Greenwich time. This
may be sidereal, apparent solar, or mean solar time. The basic relation is that
Greenwich time : local time t longitude of the place of observation.
This leads to the concept stand,ardtimc,which is the time adopted for different
bands of longitude for everyday purposes. Whence
standard time : Greenwich mean time -f an integral number of hours
ctreenwichmean time (GMT) is now often referred to as uniaersal ti.mc(ur).
Although there is still an observatory at Greenwich, its time, denoted ur l,
is now the mean value derived from some b4 observatories around the world.
A modification of this, to allow for annual variations in the earth,s rotation.
gives UT 2, where the difference between ur I and UT 2 varies by a few
hundredths of a second of time over a year.
Greenwich apparent sidereal
local apparent sid.ereal
:
time (GAST)
time (r ASf) - 1
where I is the longitude of the point of observation.
GAST can be converted to universal time, as UT 0, by using a set of tables.
Then
UT 1 : UT 0 + a small reduction to the conventional international
origin (CIO)
UT 2 : UT I + a small correction related to the polar motion
It is ur I that the surveyor or geodesist uses when reducing his astronomical observations.
Ephemnis time To accommodate the higher accuracies required by dynamical astronomy, geodesists replaced mean sidereal time with ephemeris time
and atomic time (AT).
Ephemnis ti.me(ET) is related to ur 1 via a small correction found in the
Astronomical Ephemeris, where
E T :U Tl + dT
The correcting term was zero in 1902 and *34 seconds in 1961, but it does
not increase uniformly.

TraditionalSurvey positioningTechniques

M e anposi ti onof pol e


*

= Precession
- N utati on

TraditionalSrr,

Atomic timz Modern atomic d


form of timepiece. Because of t!
the earth's rotation. Hence the
{
lime (Nf , now sometimes called d
mean of eight atomic standards- l
It was defined that year such
caesium-I33 atom under defined
to an ephemeris second.
a distinct relation to ephemeris
the latter.
Comdinateduniaersal time (L
periodic jump of I second to
Othrr forms of time As you
become obvious that there are
to refer to them all here, butyou
a specialistin geodesy.

( a ) P re c e s s i oann d N u ta ti o n

o.2
0.1
U

0.1

o.2

o.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2


Seconds
of arc
(b) PolarMotion(1900-1905)
23. Motions
of Earth's
Axis

Timc in conterctof global


eral atomic frequency standards
are required. These are atomic
The latter is the cheaper of the
they are still subject to a steadv
can be closely tracked at the
its value incorporated in the
is kept to within 0.001 second.
The ground receivers
but instead use quartz crystal
order-better than I part in l0rf"
300 years. Today this can be
beyond comprehension.
Remember also that since thc
second (: I microsec) is equir
of centimeters, resolutions to
it is not possible to sychronize
ways to reduce the effect ofsuch
Tenns
Thosesmall troubksome temts
space,and neither are the positi
result particularly from the fact
small correcting terms are requi
To complicate the issue still
with time. A brief description of
effect will often come built into

Techniques
TraditionalSurveyPositioning

Anmic timc Modern atomic clocks are far more stable than any previous
form of timepiece. Because of this, they are able to detect irregrrlarities in
the earth's rotation. Hence the introduction in 1967 of the concept atomic
ti.me(NI, now sometimes called the SI second), which began as the weighted
mean of eight atomic standards.
It was defined that year such that I second : 9 lS2 631 770 cycles of a
caesium-l33 atom under defined conditions. The atomic second is very close
to an ephemeris second. International atomic time (TAI) was arranged to have
a distinct relation to ephemeris time asJanuary 1, \977 , and has since replaced
the latter.
Coordinateduniaersal time (IJTC) is directly related to atomic time with a
periodic jump of I second to keep it within that amount of UT 2.
Other forms of time As you investigate other relevant publications it will
become obvious that there are yet more versions of time. It is not appropriate
to refer to them all here, but you must follow them if you're aiming to become
a specialist in geodesy.
Ti,mein contextof glnbal positioning system(GPS) Each satellite contains several atomic frequency standards since the highest-possible orders of accuracy
are required. These are atomic clocks based on both caesium and rubidium.
The latter is the cheaper of the two versions. Despite their high accuracy,
they are still subject to a steady drift awayfrom the GPS standard. This variation
can be closely tracked at the master control station in the United States and
its value incorporated in the broadcast signals. The magnitude of such drift
is kept to within 0.001 second'
The ground receivers normally do not have atomic fiequency standards
but instead use quartz crystal clocks. Nevertheless, the stability is of a high
than I part in 1010,which means better than 1 second in over
order-better
this can be bettered to even I in 1015,an accuracy almost
Today
300 years.
comprehension.
beyond
Remember also that since the velocity of light is 300 000 km,/second, 10-6
second (: 1 microsec) is equivalent to 300 m. Flence, to get down to accuracies
of centimeters, resolutions to better than 10-10seconds are essential. While
it is not possible to sychronize the various clocks to this accwracy, there are
ways to reduce the effect of such synchronization errors.
Terms
Thosesmall troublesometenns The earth's axis is, unfortunately, not fixed in
space,and neither are the positions of the apparently "fixed" stars.These effects
result particularly from the fact that the earth is not a true sphere. As a result,
small correcting terms are required, each amounting to a few seconds of arc.
To complicate the issue still further, the corrections are not constant but vary
with time. A brief description of each appropriate one follows, although their
effect will often come built into any software package the geodesist uses.

TraditionalSurvey positioningTechniques

Traditiond

Abenation JamesBradley
a particular star through a fixed
with time in such a way as [o
as20" of arc fiom its original
nutation

,\2
a

West
I

(a ) A p p a re n tC h a n g eM
: to M,

(b ) Ac tu a lC h a n g e s:
y toy,
24. Precession

(see below) to accorrnt

It was then, after furthcr


that the effect might result from
motion of the earth in its orbir
the movement of the light fiom
from star to star. Any one star t
point where it would be seen if
estimates have been put on the
fall in the vicinity of 20.4,,.\^,
cluded that the velocity of lighr
by a factor of 10 210 to I and
to travel from the sun to the
Since the velocity of the eanh
Bradley's values woulo suggesr a
miles per hour-not
a bad
Nutation In addition to the
tion of the separation of the
there is a small oscillation of
discovered by Bradlev fiom
1727-1747.He found an i
of 18.6 years and which became
an ellipse with axes of 18,, and I
gave the precessional movement
Precession Compared with
Hipparchus (c. lbO s.c.) found
longitude of stars but no changee
to be about 36" ayear (from ru
positions of the equinoctial poi
equator that was slowly moving.
In this situation, the sun r,rill
completion of each year, a posiri
(figures 23aand24\.
In fact, the attractive effecnr
bodies, particularly the sun and
precessionof the equinorzs, and lrti
50.2564 * a small rerm). Hence
years [(360' x 3800)/b0.2] rhe
around the pole of the eclipticwhile it rotates on a point, its
conical shape.

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

Aberration James Bradley spent a y ear starting in D ecember 1725 observing


a particular star through a fixed telescope. He found that it seemed to move
with time in such a way as to complete a cycle in a year and moved as much
as 20" of arc from its original position. He tried various hlpotheses including
nutation (see below) to account for this change, but to no avail until 1728.
It was then, after further observations of more stars, that he hit upon the idea
that the effect might result from the finite velocity of light combined with the
motion of the earth in its orbit. The apparent position of a star is determined by
the movement of the light from that star relative to the earth, which will vary
from star to star. Any one star traces out an approximate ellipse around the
point where it would be seen if there were no abenation.Over the years various
estimates have been put on the maximum value of aberration, all of which
fall in the vicinity of 20.4". Working backward from his results, Bradley concluded that the velocity of light exceeded the velocity of the earth in its orbit
by a factor of 10 210 to I and hence that light took approximately 500 seconds
to travel from the sun to the earth.
Since the velocity of the earth was then known to be about 18.3 miles/sec,
: 186 850
Bradley's values would suggesta velocity of light of 18.3 X 10 210
a bad estimate compared with today's knowledge.
miles per hour-not
Nutation In addition to the complications caused by the continual variation of the separation of the attractive bodies (precession, see next section),
there is a small oscillation of the earth's axis, called nutation. This also was
discovered by Bradley from observations made over the 20-year period of
1727-1747. He found an irregularity in motion of the pole that had a period
of 18.6 years and which became known as nutation. The pole was describing
an ellipse with axes of 18" and 16" (today taken as 18.42' and \3'75"), which
gave the precessional movement a superimposed wavy or periodic variation.
Precession Compared with observations made 150 years before his time'
Hipparchus (c. 150 e.c.) found there was a small general increase in the
longitude of stars but no changes in their latitude. He estimated this change
to be about 36" a year (from west to east). From this he deduced that the
positions of the equinoctial points were changing and that it must be the
equator that was slowlY moving.
In this situation, the sun will return to a slightly different point at the
completion of each year, a position a little before that of the previous year
(figures 23aand24).
in fact, the attractive effects between the earth and other heavenly
bodies, particularly the sun and moon, cause this slow movement, known as
precessioiof the equinoxes,arrd which amounts to about 50.2" a year (actually
50.2564 * a small term). llence over the not inconsiderable period of 25 800
years [(360" X 3600)/50.2] the celestial pole will describe a circular motion
around the pole of the ecliptic. The motion can be likened to a spinning top:
while it rotates on a point, its uppermost part also rotates to sweep out a
conical shape.

61

TraditionalSurveypositioningTechniques

While Hipparchus was the


it was left to Newton to come
seldom lies in the plane of
force is not directed toward
Polarrnotion Observations
in latitudes of about 0.5". Dr.
be explained if the earth's
in about 434 days.The di
yet been sensibly explained.
appear that the earth's axis
relation to the earth's crusl Fi
Aberration, nutation,
the sometimes mystifring
observations to stars or in
Measuredal l angl esi n
everytri angl e
LengthsAB and CD

2 5 . T ri a n g u l a ti on
N etw ork

Since the 1620s,when


7 and25), it has been used
the skeleton upon which mosl
links together a series of tri
of pertinent points over the
requirements of the obsenati
such as pillars on hilltops,
Essentially,as the name i
three angles in each triangle.
get scale,position, and orien
to scale, at least one
size there are often two, one
check on the accumulation of
rectly on the surface of the
longitude, and height, or
and the azimuth of at least
In a national survey sc
50 km (30 miles) long, but
other hand, any baseline ruoutrd
of the difficulty in finding sui
procedure. The baseline
able precaution.

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

While Hipparchus was the first to conclude that such a change occurred,
it was left to Newton to come up with the right explanation: because the sun
seldom lies in the plane of the earth's equator, most of the time its attractive
force is not directed toward the center of the earth.
Polar moti,on Observations in Berlin 1884-1885 indicated minute variations
in latitudes of about 0.5". Dr. S. C. Chandler showed in 1891 that they could
be explained if the earth's axis described a circuit around its mean position
in about 434 days.The displacement was never more than 10 m and has not
yet been sensibly explained, but it is known as the Chand,brpariod. It would
appear that the earth's axis of rotation is moving by a very small amount in
relation to the earth's crust. Figure 23b shows an example over a longer period.
Aberration, nutation, precession,and polar motion-these arejust a few of
the sometimes mysti$'ing corrections that must be made either in astronomical
observations to stars or in observations involving satellites.
Tri angul ati on
Since the 1620s, when Snellius developed the idea of triangulation (figures
7 and 25), it has been used extensively throughout the world. It has formed
the skeleton upon which most national surveyshave been based. Triangulation
links together a series of triangles and quadrilaterals formed between a number
of pertinent points over the area to be mapped. These points, because of
requirements of the observational methods, tend to be prominent positions
such as pillars on hilltops, church towers, and similar high points.
Essentially, as tJre name implies, triangtlation requires the measurement of
three angles in each triangle. A little more than that is needed, however, to
get scale,position, and orientation into a scheme. So that everything is correct
to scale, at least one accurately measured line is needed. In schemes of any
size there are often two, one towards each end of the chain of triangles as a
check on the accumulation of inaccuracies. Positioning the whole chain correctly on the surface of the earth requires finding the coordinates (latitude,
longitude, and height, or easting, northing, and height) of at least one point
and the azimuth of at least one line.
In a national survey scheme, the triangle sides are likely to be on average
50 km (30 miles) long, but they have been known to be over 100 km. On the
other hand, any baseline would be about 15 to 20 km (10 to 12 miles), because
of the difficulty in finding suitable sites and carrying out the actual measuring
procedure. The baseline would, however, be measured with every conceivable precaution.

,-qffii$.$*$s"
\?91\

63

_------

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

(a ) i 8 th a n d 1 9 th C e n tu ry-

( b) F i rs t H a l f 2 0 th C e n tu ry-

( c ) T o d a y-

by w oodenbars

b y i nvarw i re i n catenarv

b y e l e c tro m a g n e t di
i c stancemeasuri ng

26. Equipment
for Distance
Measurement

i
t

Baselines The baselines of


centuries were measured rri
26): wooden rods placed
bimetallic rods, and variations
wasaccounting for the e
Toward the end of the
invention of inaar.This is a
is some l0 times less than
form of long wires (up to
and under known tension
(l mm in I km, or I inch in
used to measure all inr
Angles The angles in
theodolites-often
reading ro
of every other side in the
From the initial orientation
orientations of every line
given initial coordinates, the
Various corrections and adiu
mathematically sound as
on this skeleton that it was ui
Major early triangulation
parts of Europe. The united
modern map would shoror the following alternatir-es

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

Baselines The baselines of triangulation nets observed in the 17th to 19th


(figure
centuries were measured with a wide range of different equipment
chain,
26): wooden rods placed end to end, glass rods, metal bars, steel
methods
bimetallic rods, and variations on these. One problem with all these
was accounting for the expansion of the materialswith changes in temperature'
Toward the end of the 19th century came a major breakthrough with the
invention of inuar.This is a nickel-steel alloy whose low coefficient of expansion
is some l0 times less than that of steel. This material could be used in the
form of long wires (up to 300 f0 suspended between tripods as a catenary
and under known tension conditions. Accuracies of the order of 1 in 1 million
(l mm in 1 km, or 1 inch in 15.8 miles) proved possible, so the me*rod was
used to measure all important baselines up to the 1960s'
Angles The angles in triangulation were measured with the best available
reading to 0.1". This allowed computation of the lengths
theodolites-often
of every other side in the scheme by simple trigonometry'
From the initial orientation (probably from astronomical observations) the
orientations of every line could be calculated. By combining these datawith the
given initial coordinates, the coordinates of every point could be computed.
Various corrections and adjustments were applied to make whole scheme as
mathematically sound as possible. After all, so much future work would depend
on this skeleton that it was wise to take all feasible care and effort.
Major early triangulation networks covered India, Great Britain, and large
"of
Europe. The United States and large parts of Africa followed. A
p-t,
*od..r, map would show most of the world covered either by triangulation
or the following alternatives of trilateration and traverse'

l*

TraditionalSurveypositioningTechniques

Measuredall sidesin
the network
27. A Trilateration
Network

66

As the name implies,


in each triangle. The idea is
of interconnecting, and
one another. With the
distance it became quicker
angles (figure 27).
The basic data required is
nates of one point and the
likely to involve a mixture of
referred to as tri
together with selected angler
through a network optimi
ent configurations.
T h e eIcctromagnetic di stan ct
eration feasible did not come
oped in the late 1940sas a
light. Such experimenrs requi
to test the observations. I.areraccuracy equivalent to thar
turned around. Particularlr'
the C,eod,imeter
was developed
1949. It was extremely hearr
around the world that tried it
By 1957 Dr. Trevor Wadler
ment-the
Telluromctn-that
observational and reduction
but as electronics developedAs with triangulation, so
coordinates and an orientation

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

Trilateration
three sides
As the name implies, trilateration requires the measurement of
a method
is
it
in
that
triangulation
for
as
same
is
the
idea
The
in each triangle.
relation to
in
of
points
number
a
positioning,
hence
and
of interconnicting,
measuring
one another. With the advent of electromagnetic methods for
than
distances
record
to
economic
more
and
quicker
it
became
distance
(figure
27).
angles
in. Uuri. data required is either the coordinates of A and B or the coordischeme is
nates of one point ind the azimuth to the other. In practice, a
(sometimes
likely to involve a mixture of both triangulation and trilateration
measured
referred to as tri,angulateration)where a majority of the sides are
determined
be
often
can
mix
appropriate
The
angles.
selectid
together with
differthiough a network optimiiation exercise-or computer simulation-of

'"t T::il;#:;;r

(EDM)equipmentthathasmadetrilatd,irtorrr*"osuri'ng

first develeration feasible did not come into wide use until the 1960s. It was
velocity of
oped in the late 1940s as a result of experiments to determine the
hgfrt. Sucfr experiments required accurately measured distances againstwhich
to an
,o",.r, the obiervations. Later, when the velocity became determinable
idea
was
accuracy equivalent to that of the measured distance, the whole
in Sweden,
turned around. Particularly under the initiative of Erik Bergstrand
in
appeared
model
first
production
the
and
developed,
the Geod,imeterwas
1g49. Itwas extremely healy and bulky, but those national survey departments
around the world that tried it out achieved very encouraging results.
By 195? Dr. Trevor wadley in south Africa had developed a similar instruTellurometer-that operated on microwaves' In the beginning' the
ment-the
observational and reduction procedures were tedious and time-consuming,
but as electronics developed, the equipment became more readily accePtable'
As with triangulation, so trilateration requires at least one set of known
coordinates'
coordinates and an orientation on which to found the computed

f--

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

Traditiord

The Geodimeter and the


parable results; however,
vious being fhe use of light
differences-differences
npi
gorres-are:
Light Waves
Geodimeter
Control unit at one end of
line, reflector at the other
Range limited by visibilin
50 km. Operator must be
see between the terminals

ClosedTraverse

Light waves affected onh-a


by atmospheric conditions.
Trained operator at the
unit, unskilled operator ar
reflector.
No integral communicatior
between the control unit
reflector position.

ClosedTraverse
In general, the accuracies
(4 ppm) of the length of
20 km. It is usual, however. ro
) mm) since part is attribu
the total length.
By the second half of the I
possible with the Mehoruta

* (0.2 mm * 0.2 mmrzkm)up

28. Traverses

Variations and improve


However, many of the tasks
in the GPS.

The whole of suweying is


points on the earth's surface.
bility over great distances, rhen
form a skeleton of known poi
jungle or bushland or unduh,

t
I

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

The Geodimeter and the Tellurometer were capable of producing comparable results; however, there were differences between them, the most ob'
vious being the use of light waves versus radio waves. Among their other
typical of other instruments in these two catedifferences-differences
gories-are:
Light Waves
Geodimeter

Radio Waves
Tellurometer

Control unit at one end of the


line, reflector at the other end'

Similar control units at each end


of line , one called the master and
the other the remote.

Range limited by visibility to 30 to


50 km. Operator must be able to
see between the terminals.

Possible range in excess of


100 km, even in poor visibility;
i.e., can measure through haze,
drizzle, etc.

Light waves affected onlY a little


by atmospheric conditions.

Microwaves more susceptible to


humidity changes.

Trained operator at the control


unit, unskilled operator at the
reflector.

Trained operator at each end.

No integral communication
between the control unit and the
reflector position.

Communication possible between


the master and remote
instruments on the measuring
signals.

In general, the accuracies achieved were of the order of I in 250 000


(4 ppm) of the length of line; for example, an error of only 80 mm over
*
20 km. It is usual, however, to quote accuracy levels in the form (*t ppm
configuration and part to
) mm) since part is attributable to the electronic
the total length.
By the second half of the 1980s, accuracies in the submillimeter range were
possible with the Mekompterat ranges of several kilometers, for example,
-r (0.2 mm * 0.2 mmlkm) up to 8 km.
Variations and improvements on these instruments continue to be made.
However, many of the tasks they could be used for are now done by satellites
in the GPS.
Traversing
The whole of suweying is involvedwith determining the relationships between
points on the earth's surface. For large areaswhere there is reasonable intervisiLility on r great distances, then triangulation and trilateration will be used to
form a skeleton of known points. Where the terrain is, for example, heavy
jungle or bushland or unduly flat, another technique may be preferable. This

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

Traditiond

method-called
the accuracy sought, the size,
In essence (figure 28)
at a series of points together
successivepoints. Angular
are available with resolutions
tape in catenary (figure 26).
variations on these.

M agnet ic
north

Gri d
n o rth

C e n tra l
m e ri d i a n

True
north
Ma g neti c
north

c = convergence
t-T = arc-to-chordcorrection
2 9 . D i ffe re n tN o rth Li nes

Gri d
north

Network order In each case.


ation, or traverse the results
third-order (or primary se
racy, area of coverage, and
A First-ord,n network is one
has been used, the utrnost
procedure applied. It is t}tus
rvork but also the most
networks. The average lengrh
Second,-orderworkis the initiC
points and to a less exacting
A third,-ordernetwork is r-er a
with coordinated points evenEvery national survev
on local needs and ci
Grids For ease of location of
with a network of lines in nro
called grid lines and usualh
south. However, this is not
into whatever orientation the
In terms of the geodesy of
of a country that is of interertcoordinates must relate to thc
conform to a north-south
trary local grid systemscan har
As noted elsewhere, coordi
their equivalents on any other
of points common to both
Convergence The relation
direction to true north (the
The difference between tfre
several degrees of arc (positirc
This difference is known as

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

method-called. traarrsing-can be arranged in different ways according to


the accuracy sought, the size, and the configuration of the area'
In essence (figure 28) traversing requires the measurement of the angles
at a series of points together with determination of the distances between
successivepoints. Angular measures invariably use the theodolite since these
are available with resolutions down to 0.1". The distances could be by invar
tape in catenary (figure 26), steel tape on the ground, EDM equipment' or
variations on these.
Networks

Network order In each case,whether the surveyor uses triangulation, trilateration, or traverse the results are graded into first-order, second-order, and
third-order (or primary, secondary, and tertiary) networks according to accufacy, afea of coverage, and usage.
A First-md,ernetwork is one for which the best available instrumentation
has been used, the utrnost care taken, and the most rigorous adjustment
procedure applied. It is thus the most time-consuming and expensive framework but also the most accurate. Invariably, national surveys use first-order
networks. The average length of line could well be 50 km'
is the initial filling-in of the first-order network with closer
Second,,ord,erwork
points and to a less exacting standard
network is yet a further breakdown of the secondary network,
A third,-ord,er
with coordinated points every 5 to 10 km.
Every national survey organization has its own criteria for each order based
on local needs and circumstances.
Grids For ease of location of points on a map the sheet is normally covered
with a network of lines in tlvo sets at right angles to one another' These are
called grid, lines and usually one set of lines is oriented more or less northsouth. Ho*au.r, this is not essential, and in essence the lines can be rotated
into whatever orientation the user requires.
In terms of the geodesy of this volume, it is usually the national grid system
of a country that is of interest. Often it is stipulated that a survey scheme's
coordinates must relate to the national system' which will almost certainly
conform to a north-south orientation. At lower levels of surveying, quite arbitrary local grid systemscan have any orientation the user thinks is appropriate'
As noted elsewhere, coordinates on any one grid Systemcan be converted to
their equivalents on any other system, as long as there is a minimum number
of points common to both systems.
ConaergenceThe relation between the "north" line on a grid and the
direction to true north (the geographic North Pole) at any point is a variable.
The difference between the two can be readily calculated and can amount to
several degrees of arc (positive or negative) depending on the circumstances'
(figure 29) '
This difference is known as conuergence

HF

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

Traditiond

Magnetic north Yet an


north. It is a slowly changing
function of the position of
month or year) when the
(t - T) Just to compli
required. This is known as rhe
between two points on the
This curve, or geod,esic,
di
a function of the position of
meridian of the projection.
positive or negative, and so on
(see figure 29).
Sphnical exuss Triangles
points are not the same as
In the latter, the angular sun
triangles, which are
three angles in such a tri
arc and varies as the ilrea
square miles (195 sq km)

equilateral triangle with I


(a ) Sp i ri t L e v e l i ng

Precise

(b ) T ri g o n o m e triLce v e l i ng(S i mpl i fi ed)

30. Leveling

Determination of the positi<n


datum, such as mean sea
by spi.rit leueling. The in
very accurately leveled up in
and that can be rotated
with a graduated staff to find
of points, as shown in figure
The height of the starting
end ofthe sequence of
same benchmark or to a
ready check to be made for
When the instrument is rril
is taken on the staff ,g at rhe
of the plane generated br
telescope is rotated. A
position 52. The instrumenr
for readings c and d and

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

Magnetic north Yet another "north" to become familiar with is magnetic


is a slowly changing quantity and has to be calculated both as a
northllt
of
the position of the point of interest and of the time (the nearest
function
when the obsewation was made (see figure 29) '
year)
month or
correcting term is
ft - D Just to complicate matters further, another
A straight line
corection.
(t
T)
or
arc'-to-chord
the
as
known
is
This
required.
on
a projection'
curve
as
a
plot
will
surface
earth's
on
the
points
two
betnteen
that vary as
by
amounts
line
straight
the
from
diverges
oi
geod,esic,
This curve,
the central
to
in
relation
interest
of
point
of
the
ihe
position
of
a function
of
seconds,
a
handful
be
can
divergence
This
projection.
the
of
meridian
consideration
into
be
taken
it
has
to
occasion
so
on
and
negative,
or
positive
(see figure 29).
Sphnical excessTriangles formed on the earth's surface by well-separated
points are not the same as those drawn for qpical mathematical problems.
in the latter, the angular sum always totals 180", but that is not so with large
triangles, which are essentially spherical triangles. The theoretical sum of the
threJangles in such a triangle is 180" * e, where ecan be afew seconds of
arc and varies as the area enclosed by the triangle. As a rule of thumb, 76
square miles (195 sq km) equates to 1 second for e. Very roughly, this is an
equilateral triangle with l0-mile (lGkm) sides'

V ER TIC A L
Precise

t<

P OS ITION IN G

or Geodetic

Spirit

Leveling

Determination of the position of a point in the vertical plane above a defined


datum, such as mean sea level, can take several forms. The most accurate is
by spiri.t leuel;ing.The instrument consists of a telescope set so that it can be
veryaccuratelyleveled up in relation to a plumb bob (and hence to the geoid)
and that can be rotated through 360o horizontally. It is used in conjunction
with a graduated staff to find the change in elevation between a succession
of points, as shown in figure 30a.
trr. n.igtrt of the starting point, or benchmark, must be known. At the
end of the sequence of observations a reading should be taken either to the
same benchmark or to a different one if it is more convenient. This allows a
ready check to be made for observational errors.
when the instrument is set up at 4 and leveled (figure 30a) a reading a
is taken on the staff Sr at the benchmark. This allows calculation of the height
of the plane generated by the line of sight (plane of collimation) when the
telescope is rotated. A forward reading D is then taken on a second staff
position 52. The instrument moves on to 12,and the same procedure is used
for readings cand d and successivepositions'

TraditionalSurveypositioningTechniques

QR ' ; P S ' = l evel


surfaces- l i nes
of constant
orthometri c
hei ght
QE; PS =
equ i potenti al
surfaces- l i nes
of constant
dynami c
hei ght

a
( a)

>dH>LH>>dH'
(b )

3 1 . O rth o me tri ca n d D ynami chei ghts

With this form of ler


kept as nearly equal as
This sequence is re
of the required points. At aI
geoid. Since the force of
the poles, on leveling in
(figure 3la).
Orthometric, ellipsoidalo
titioner, orthomeric hei
orthometric height are tlrc
instrument. These
point to give orthomctic htl
height values related to an
coincident with the geoid_
equivalent orthometric r
(also known as geoidal heiglt
If the ellipsoid and geoid
zero. On the other hand. il
before, there could be a noti
positive or negative. The
or below the ellipsoidal
not parallel, the separation
Often it is more impo
at given points than the
There is a third form of
needs to be appreciated.
Qq is greater thatr Rr,
Q. A line of constant dynani
of latitude, but the lines
orthometric height of Q
measured as the work reoui
is a line of constant
dynamic elevation.
Dynamic heights are thtrs
of the acceleration due to
fiom the center of the
converge towards the poles"
geopotentialnumbrrs, where pci
tial surface but will not har
The surface of a large lake i
it to be (almost) level, but
a slope.

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

vel

es

tl

es

rte nt ial
tes

with this form of leveling, the distances 51 to 11,11 to 52 and so on' are
kept as nearly equal as possible and limited to some 30 to 50 m each'
'Thi,
,.qrr.tr.. i. r.piut d as often as necessary to determine the heights
of the required points. At all positions the rotating telescope is parallel to the
geoid. Since the force of gravity increases as one goes from the equator to
t-he poles, on leveling in such a direction the equipotential surfaces converge
(figure 31a).
orthometrico ellipsoidal, geoidal, and dynamic heights For the survey practitioner, orttrometric heights are the bread-and-butter form. Differences in
orthometric height are the quantities obtained when using a normal level
instrument. Theie differences are applied to the known value of a starting
point to give orthomenicheights.They are heights above the geoid. GPS gives
ireight uu-i.r., related to an ellipsoid, which may be (but most likely is not)
coiicident with the geoid. Thus to turn GPS (ellipsoid) values into their
equivalent orthometric values requires a correction called tt'e geoidalseparation
(also known as geoidal heightot undulation of the geoi'd')'
If the ellipsoid and geoid happen to be coincident, then the separation is
zero. on the other hand, if a different ellipsoid is used at the same point as
before, there could be a noticeable separation (possibly many meters), either
positive or negative. The sign indicates whether the geoid surface lies above
tr below the elhpsoidal surface at that point. Since the surfaces certainly are
not parallel, the separation varies from place to place'
Often it is more important to know the difference between the separations
at given points than the absolute values at those points'
called dynamic height-that
ihersis a third form of height value-normally
note
that the linear distance
31,
figure
to
Referring
be
appreciated.
needs to
dynamic height as
same
have
the
to
is
said
Rr,
although
ihan
-R
eq is greater
q. a ri". of constant dlnamic height is parallel to mean sea level along a line
o] htitude, but the lines coverage when progressing toward the poles. The
is
orrhometric height of Q above q is the length Qq.'fhe dynamic height
q Thus QR'
6
from
q
mass
a
unit
raise
to
required
work
the
as
measured
is a line of constant orthometric elevation, while QR is a line of constant
dymamic elevation.
Dlnamic heights are thus defined in terms of potential, which is a function
of the acceleration due to gravity and the distance of the point in question
from the center of the earth. Equipotential lines (see figure 31) generally
of
converge towards the poles. Dgramic height values are given in terms
geopotitial nu*.b*r,where points of equal number lie on the same equipoteniiai rurfa.. but will not have the same orthometric values'
The surface of a large lake is an equipotential surface. Leveling would show
have
it to be (almost) level, but ellipsoid heights would generally show it to
a slope.

75

ff'=

sp

;s

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

Deviationof
the Vertical

N -i v e

N +i
.F/= orthometricheight
ft = h e i g h ta b o v ee l l i psoi d
1 N = h e i g h to f g e o i daboveel l i psoi d
h = H + N (a p p ro x i m atel y)
3 2 . E l l i p s o i d aal n d G eoi dalH ei ghts

Traditird

Orthometric heights are


lar to mean sea level. The
to the ellipsoid. Thus heights
the normal to the ellipsoid.
values have to relate to the
the two surfaces (figure 32).
In the leveling process rhe
lies on an equipotential
ric value. An appropriate
when the order of accuracrNote that while the
tion of gravity, the results fron
Geoidal separation
The
degrees of reliability. Where
maps of the values are often
the required location. The
on the part of the world
from which predicted values
Alternatively, an indication
soidal results to known
who does this, must take care
For scientific purposes it is
a particular line across a
lar ellipsoid, the deviation of
so time-consuming that it
survey operations,

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

Orthometric heights are distances measured along the vertical perpendicular to mean sea level. The ellipsoid heights are measured along the normal
to the ellipsoid. Thus heights found via GPS are ellipsoid values related to
the normal to the ellipsoid. For comparison with spirit-level values, ellipsoid
values have to relate to the normal to the sea level and the difference befiveen
the two surfaces (figure 32) '
In the leveling plocess the bubble against which the instrument is leveled
lies on an equipotential surface, butwhen the staffis read, it gives an orthometric value. An ippropriate formula allows conversion from one to the other
when the order of accuracy warrants it.
Note that while the traditional forms of heighting are related to the direction of gravity, the results from GPS are not so constrained'
Geoidal separation The geoidal separation can be determined with varying
degrees ofreliability. \A/here observational coverage has been good, contour
ma-psof the values are often available, and an interpolation can be made for
the required location. The accuracy may be of the order of 0.1 m depending
on the part of the world involved. Other authorities provide comPrrter models
from which predicted values may be obtained'
Alternatively, an indication can be obtained by relating a selection of ellipsoidal results to known orthometric values in the sar4e vicinity' A geodesist
who does this, must take care in selecting suitable points'
For scientific purposes it is possible to observe astronomical positions along
a particular line across a country and from the results determine, for a particular ellipsoid, the deviation of the vertical and geoidal separation. This is
so time-consuming that it is seldom attempted, certainly not for standard
survey operations.

77

t.

TraditionalSurveyPositioningTechniques

--*7r
i//
R e fra ctedl i ne of si ght

--=-...--(eror,.
_,{Qe

,'/
/dh

71

/r

-\

Trigonometric heighting is e
to determine the difference
or are difficult to level
highest order.
Instead ofa telescope
using a theodolite to
horizontal distances (figurc
earth is not a flat surface, the
curature, which can be
bending of the light rays (
tion as a function of the
with the changing
uncertainty into the result
The combined effect of
or 6.7 m at l0 km, or abour
For this technique sighr
height of Mount Everest
observations in the Indian
Variations on the tec
simultaneously. It allons fa
improves the accuracy.
Baro

fra = heightof A
fta = heightof B
r = effect of refraction
c = effect of curvature
(!._= apparentdifferenceof height,A-B
dH = aclualdifferenceof height,n-A
a = observedverticalangle

d,H = dh+ c-r

33. Effect of Curvatureand Refraction

Barometric heighting is a mtd


able. It uses the principle d
investigated and used bt,
an ideal atmosphere there
elevation, but in real life the
is possible to use a pr
of height. Using several zuch
improve the accuracy.
Originally a mercury
port and use satisfactorily. N
very straightforward. The
which air has been exhausted
The effect of changes in
the pointer. The units of
ters of mercury, or even dire<l
A variation on the mercun
or boiling-point [hermomelr_

Besides methods to determinc


are also depths below sealerel

Techniques
TraditionalSurveyPositioning

H ei ghti ng

T ri g o n o m e tri c

-/

Trigonometric heighting is a method that can be adopted when it is necessary


to determine the difference of height bebveen points that are far separated
or are difficult to level between, or where the required accuracy is not of the
highest order.
Instead of a telescope mounted horizontally, trigonometricheightinginvolves
using a theodolite to measure the vertical angles and combining them with
horizontal distances (figure 30b) to find the difference in height. Since the
earth is not a flat surface,the solution is complicated by the effect of the earth's
curaatltre,which can be combined with the effect of atmospheric refraction,ot
bending of the light rays (figure 33). While the curvature is a definite correction as a function of the length of the line of sight, the refraction varies
with the changing atmospheric conditions and so introduces an element of
uncertainty into the result.
The combined effect of curvature and refraction is about 67 mm at 1 km,
or 6.7 m at 10 km, or about 15" of arc for I km in angular terms.
For this technique sight lengths can be as long as intervisibility allows. The
height of Mount Everest was determined in this manner from numerous
observations in the Indian Plains some 150 km away.
Variations on the technique are possible when both ends can be occupied
simultaneously. It allows for better modeling of the refraction effect and
improves the accuracy.
B a ro m e tri c

(Level i ng)

H e i g hti ng

Barometric heighting is a method used when lower-order accuracy is acceptable. It uses the principle of the change in pressure with elevation, first
investigated and used by Bouguer while working on the Peru arc in 1738. In
an ideal atmosphere there would be a direct relation between pressure and
elevation, but in real life the situation is more complicated. Nevertheless, it
is possible to use a pressure-measuringdevice for determining the difference
of height. Using several such instruments in appropriate arrangements can
improve the accuracY.
Originally a mercury barometer was required, which was difficult to transport and use satisfactorily. Nowadays aneroid barometers make the operation
very straightforward. The aneroid consists essentially of a small box from
which air has been exhausted. To its top surface is fixed a pointer and scale.
The effect of changes in pressure on the box are magnified and indicated by
the pointer. The units of measurement may be millibars of pressure' millimeters of mercury, or even direct graduation in terms of height units'
A variation on the mercury barometer no longer used is the hypsometer
or boiling-point thermometer, which could be similarly related to height.

to determirlctl:il"
methods
Besides

on
"*rg6*5.rs.$$hn

arealsodepthsbelowsealevelto consider.In previous..^Y.Stm*FF'0".


-ints
79

TraditionalSurvey PositioningTechniques

was to drop a weighted line over the side of the ship and record the amount
of line paid out until the bottom was reached (see figure 44c). \Arhile this
method was prone to various errors, it generally gave an acceptable indication
of depth for the purposes of navigation. Nowadays far more information is
required about the seabed, so sophisticated methods have to be used.
In particular, tb.eechosounderisa device for bouncing pulsed signalsoff the
seabed and recsrding their return at the vessel. This can provide continuous
coverage along a line as opposed to the discrete measures of a lead line.
variations on the basic principle allow recording of not only vertical depths
but also a band to either side of the vessel's track. In this way complete
coverage of selected areas is feasible. The higher the frequency of the signal,
the shorter the wavelength and the narrower the beam width. This relation
would be pertinent when accurate measurements of depth to specific points
are of more interest than general indications of the seabed form and depth.
Even so, accuracies much better than I in 200 are difficult to achieve.
An average value for the velocity of sound in seawater is 1500 m/sec, but
this is a function of salinity, temperature, and density-all of which change
with time and conditions as well as with depth.

It

t
lii

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