CHAPTER 3.

STABILITY OF SLOPES
A slope can be defined as the inclined surface of the ground.
Slopes of different nature are represented in the fig. 3.1
a. natural slopes, when the inclined surface is the result of geological
processes
b. slopes formed by excavation
c. slopes of embankments and earth dams

Fig. 3.1
A main problem in the design and construction is to ensure the stability of
slopes. The principal factors which can cause instability of slopes are:
- reduction of the shear strengths of cohesive soils as a result of an
increase of the water content,
- seepage forces,
- surcharge on the upper part of the slope
- removal of the soil at the base of the slope
- seismic or other dynamic actions.
There is a great variety of types of slope failure. The most important ones are
illustrated in fig. 3.2
a. rotational slip, with failure surface as a circular arc, characteristic for
homogenous soil conditions;
b. rotational slip, with failure surface as a non-circular arc,
characteristic for non-homogenous soil conditions;
c. translational slip, where the form of the failure surface is influenced
by the presence of an adjacent stratum of significantly different
strength at a relatively shallow depth below the surface; the failure
surface could to be plane and roughly parallel to the slope or could
be assimilated with as a polygonal one;
d. compound slip, where the adjacent stratum of different strength is at
greater depth, the failure surface consisting of curved and plane
sections.
Defining the forces which provide stability and of those who trigger the
instability and of the factors which modify the ratio between these forces
63

represents a compulsory requirement for understanding of natural

phenomena, quite often transformed in real disasters, called in Engineering
Geology landslides and for adopting appropriate measures to prevent and to
control them.

Fig. 3.2
3.1 Stability of slopes in non-cohesive homogenous soil mass
3.1.1 Non-cohesive soil in dry or saturated state
By expressing the limiting equilibrium conditions for a soil particle at the
surface of a slope in a non-cohesive soil in dry or saturated state, the
following relation is obtained:
tan tan

(3.1)

where is the angle of stable slope and is the angle of internal friction of
the soil.
The stability condition to be used in the design is:
tan

tan
FS

(3.2)

where FS is the factor of safety.

The very important conclusion to be drawn from the relation (10.1) is that for
non-cohesive soils in dry or saturated state the angle of stable slope is
independent of the height of the slope.
64

3.1.2 The influence of a seepage on the stability of slope in a noncohesive soil

A slope in a non-cohesive soil is considered, with a flow line tangential to the
slope (fig. 10.3). A unit volume of soil at the surface of the slope is subjected
to the following forces:
- own weight , of two components:
- tangential T = sin
- normal N = cos
h
w sin
l

seepage force: j = w i w

friction force: F = N tan ' cos tan

The stability condition is:

T+j

' sin w sin ' cos tan

'

tan '

(3.3)

For usual values of s and n,

'

is about 10 kN/m3. If w is taken also 10

1
2

kN/m3; the relation (3.3) becomes tan tan .

Fig. 3.3
By comparing (3.1) with (3.3) one can realize that the seepage force reduces
to half the magnitude of the stable slope.

3.2 Stability of slopes in cohesive homogenous soil mass

3.2.1 Case of the plane failure surface
65

A cohesive homogenous soil mass is considered, limited by a slope of height

H and angle to the horizontal. It is required to check the stability of the
slope.
In order to outline the forces involved, one can assume as a working
hypothesis the loss of stability along a plane failure surface with an angle
to the horizontal (fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4
The weight G of the wedge ABC which tends to slip has two components:
N = G cos
T = G sin
The failure condition is fulfilled in each point of the surface BC.
f tan c

By summing up the stresses and along the area BC 1 L 1 (plane

strain), the total resistance S opposed by the soil to the tendency of the
prison ABC to slip is:
S = G cos tan cL F C
The stability condition is:
T

G sin

G cos tan cL

(3.4)

From the sinus rule in the triangle ABC:

AC
L
L

o
sin ( ) sin (180 ) sin

66

sin ( )
sin

AC

=L

G=

1
1
sin ( )
H AC HL
2
2
sin

(3.5)

By replacing (10.5) in (10.4):

1
sin ( ) sin 1
sin ( ) cos sin
HL
HL
cL
2
sin
2
sin cos

sin ( ) sin
1
sin ( ) cos sin
H

c
2
sin
sin cos

sin ( ) sin cos sin cos

1
H
c
2
sin cos

sin ( ) sin ( )
1
H
c
2
sin cos

(3.6)

For a given height H, the slope of angle to the horizontal is stable of the
condition (10.6) is met for any values of between and .
The most unfavorable situation corresponds to the value of for which the
first member of the relation (10.6) becomes maximum.
If the following notation is introduced:
sin

( ) sin ( ) A

dA
0
d
cos( ) sin ( ) sin ( ) cos ( ) 0

The condition of maximum requires:

-

sin ( ) 0
o

(3.7)

Considering (3.7), the relation (3.6) becomes:

67


sin 2
1
2
H
c
2
sin cos

(3.8)

The stability condition (3.8) shows that, unlike the non-cohesive soils, in the
case of cohesive soils the angle of stable slope depends on the height of
the slope.
At limit, by making equal the two terms of the relation (3.8), one can obtain
the maximum height for which a slope with an angle to the horizontal can
be stable, named critical height Hcr:
Hcr =

2c sin cos

sin 2
2

(3.9)

Fig. 3.5
If the angle

decreases, Hcr increases (fig. 3.5).

From the relation (10.9) it results that in the stability condition of a slope of
cohesive soil there are involved 5 parameters:
shear strength parameters , c
unit weight
geometrical characteristics of the slope H,

The expression (10.9) can be rewritten as:

H 2 sin cos

Ns

c
sin 2
2

(3.10)

Ns is a non-dimensional factor named stability number.

For given and and for a certain shape of the failure surface, N s has a
defined value.
For instance, for the particular case of vertical slope = 90o:
Ns = 4 tan (45o +

)
2

(3.11)

68

Hcr =
If

4c

tan ( 45 o )

(3.12)

Ns = 4
Hcr =

(3.13)

4c

(3.14)

Relations (3.12) and (3.14) have been obtained by applying Rankines theory
in the case of limiting equilibrium in the soil mass limited by horizontal ground
surface. It was established that in the case of cohesive soil, the depth at
which the active earth pressure becomes zero is:
z0 =

2c

tan ( 45o )

and the critical height Hcr, the height on which a vertical cut in a cohesive soil
can remain unsupported, is:
Hcr = 2z0 =

4c

tan ( 45 o )

3.2.2 Case of circular failure surface. Method of friction circle

The potential failure surface is assumed to be a circular arc (fig. 3.6).

Fig. 3.6
Forces which should be in equilibrium are:
-

the weight G of the soil mass which slips ABC;

the resultant C of the cohesion mobilized along the failure surface:
, acting parallel to the chord

BC

at a distance
69

from the centre 0;

the total reaction Q on the failure surface tangential at the
radius

-circle

of

r = R sin .
There are three ways in which the factor of safety can be expressed:
with respect to the cohesion
For a given , the -circle is drawn and from the intersection of lines of
action of forces G and C a tangential to the circle defines the direction of Q.
The triangle of forces is drawn by decomposing G to the directions of C and
Q.
By this way is obtained the total cohesion force required for the limiting
equilibrium Creq which, divided by the area BC1 , gives the required cohesion
creq.
The factor of safety is:

FS c

c
C req

with respect to the internal friction angle

(3.15)

For a given c, the forces polygon is built, with known values of G and C,
resulting the value and the direction of the force Q. From the point of
intersection of the forces G and C a parallel is drawn to the direction of Q.
The normal drawn from the centre of the circle to the direction of Q defines
the radius of the -circle. By knowing Rsin , tan req can be established.
The factor of safety:

FS

tan
tan req

(3.16)

with respect to both cohesion and internal friction

For a given , the limiting equilibrium requires creq; for a given c, the limiting
equilibrium requires tan req. There is an infinite number of pairs of values
(tan req, creq) which in the system of coordinates (c 0 tan ) defines a curve
(fig. 10.7)
70

Fig. 3.7
A point M corresponds to the parameters and c of the shear strength. By
linking this point to the origin, the line OM intersects the curve in point P.
The factor of safety in respect to both internal friction and cohesion is:
FS =

OM
OP

(3.17)

The same curve allows to obtain the two other factors of safety:
FS c

ML
c

P' L
c req

FS

MK
tan

P' K
tan req

Analysis for the case

( FS 1)

( FS c 1)

=0

In the case of a fully saturated clay under undrained conditions, an analysis in

terms of total stress is appropriate. Only moment equilibrium is considered in
the analysis. The potential failure surface is a circular arc (centre 0, radius R,
length La (fig. 3.8). Potential instability is due to the total weight of the soil
mass (G) above the failure surface. For the equilibrium, the shear strength
required to be mobilized along the failure surface is expressed as:
req

c
f
u
Fc
Fc

(3.18)

where Fc is the factor of safety with respect to shear strength.

Moment about 0 is taken:
71

u
G d F La R
c

c L R
Fc u a
G d

(3.19)

To determine the minimum factor of safety F c, it is necessary to analyse the

slope for a number of trial failure surfaces.
Taylors stability coefficients
Using the method of -circle for soil having both internal friction and
cohesion and the analysis for the case =0, Taylor established stability
coefficients NS for the analysis of homogenous slopes in terms of total stress
(fig.10.9), in the hypothesis of a circular failure surface.

Fig. 3.8

Fig. 3.9

As one can see, for the particular case =90o and for =0, NS=3.85 (as
compared to NS=4 for the hypothesis of plane failure surface).
For the use of Taylors graphs, there are two problems encountered in
practice.
Design of a stable slope
,

c, , NS are given. The height H for a given factor of safety F S is sought

for.
The height required for the limiting equilibrium is H req. Then, in order to
comply with the factor of safety FS, Hreq = FS H
72

NS =

H req
c

FS H
c

(3.20)

From the value of NS on the ordinates axis, a horizontal is drawn until

intersects the curve corresponding to the given . The vertical drawn from the
point of intersection meets the needed abscissa .
Checking the stability of a slope
,c, , H,

are given. FS is required

From the abscissa , a vertical is drawn until intersects the curve of the given
. A horizontal is drawn and the ordinate N S is found.
NS =

FS H
c

FS =

c NS
H

(3.21)

3.2.3 The influence of the groundwater on the stability of slopes in

cohesive soils
The presence of the groundwater can significantly modify the conditions of
stability of slopes in cohesive soils. Depending on the water level inside and
in front of the slope, three distinct situations are occurring.
a. Slope completely immersed, the soil in submersed state
There are two ways in which the presence of water can be considered (fig.
3.10).
1. When computing the weight G of the sliding soil mass the unit weight of
the soil is taken sat .
The weight G is composed with the resultant Pw1 of the water pressure
on the side AB and with the resultant Pw 2 of the water pressure on the
failure surface BC. The resultant G ' is obtained, which then is
decomposed, as shown at p. 3.2.2, on the directions of C and R.
2. The weight of the sliding mass G ' is obtained directly by considering
the unit weight in submersed state ' . Then, the procedure outlined in
the variant 1 is used.

73

Fig. 3.10
b. Rapid drawdown of the water level in front of the slope
This situation can take place in the case of dikes or earth dams facing an
accidental discharge of the water reservoir (fig.3.11). Since the drawdown is
rapid and sudden as a result of the low permeability of the soil, it is not
followed immediately by the draw down of the water inside the soil mass. The
total weight G of the soil in saturated state is the same as in the previous
case, but there is no longer water pressure on the slope and the resultant G 1'
of the water pressure on the failure surface BC is smaller due to the lowering
of the water level in front of the slope.

Fig. 3.11

74

G and G 1' are composed and their resultant B is decomposed on the

direction of C and R.
The stability conditions in this case are much more severe than in the
previous case.
c. Stability of slope under conditions of steady seepage
After a sufficient time elapsed to allow the consolidation (dissipation of excess
pose water pressure will have taken place) a steady seepage is generated
through the soil mass directed toward the base of the slope, accompanied by
the lowering of the ground water level.
If stability conditions are checked with the Swedish method, the factor of
safety can be expressed in terms of effective stress with the following
relation:
FS

(G i cos i u i li ) tan ' c' li G i sin i l

Gi

sin i r

(3.22)

The pore water pressure ui at the centre of the base of each slice is taken to
be w z w , where zw is the vertical distance of the centre point below the water
table. This procedure slightly overestimates the pore water pressure, which
strictly should be w z c , where zc is the vertical distance below the point of
intersection of the water table and the equipotential through the centre of the
slice base (fig. 10.12). The error involved is on the safe side.

Fig. 3.12
A series of trial failure surfaces must be chosen in order to obtain the
minimum factor of safety.
75

3.3 Stability of slopes in non-homogenous soil mass

3.3.1 The method of slices
The potential failure surface, in section, is assumed to be a circular arc with
centre 0 and radius R. The soil mass (ABCD) above a trial failure surface
(BD) is divided by vertical planes into a series of slices of width b (fig. 10.13).
The base of each slice is assumed to be a straight line. The inclination of the
base to the horizontal is and the height, measured on the centre-line, h.
The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of the available shear strength ( f )
to the shear strength ( req ) which is required to be mobilized to maintain a
condition of limiting equilibrium:
f

FS =
req

(3.23)

The factor of safety is taken to be the same for each slide, implying that there
must be mutual support between slices, meaning that forces must act
between the slices.

Fig. 3.13
The forces (per unit dimension normal to the section) acting on a slice are:
the total weight of the slice, G = bh ( sat if the case);
the total normal force on the base, N, equal to l . In general, this force
has two components: the effective normal force N ' , equal to ' l , and
the boundary water force U, equal to ul, where u is the pore water
pressure at the centre of the base and l is the length of the base;
the shear force on the base T = req l
the total normal forces on the slides, E1 and E2;
76

 the shear forces on the sides, X1 and X2.

Any external forces, such as a surcharge pressure on the ground surface,
must be also included in the analysis.
The problem is statically indeterminate and, in order to obtain a solution,
assumptions must be made regarding the interslice forces E and X and the
resulting solution for factor of safety is not exact.
The Fellenius solution
Known also as the Swedish method, this solution implies that for each slice
the resultant of the interslice forces is zero.
The following example refers to a stratified soil mass (fig. 3.14).
When the sliding mass ABCD is divided in slices, it is required that the base
of each slice belongs to only one layer.
The forces acting on the slice i are considered.
The total weight of the slice i, G i, is decomposed in a normal component N i
and a tangential one Ti.
Ni = Gi cos i
Ti = Gi sin i
The force Ti tends to produce the sliding of the slice i along the failure
surface.
The force opposing to the sliding is the shear force due to the shear strength
f i mobilized on the base of the slice i.

77

Fig. 3.14
Si = f i li (i tan i ci ) li G i cos i tan i ci li
ci, i represent the shear strength parameters corresponding to the soil layer
in which is located the base of the slice i.
The equilibrium of the slice i can be expressed considering the moment of
the forces Ti and Si about 0.
The factor of safety FS can be defined as the ratio between the stability
moment MS of forces opposing to the sliding and the overturning moment M 0
of forces producing the sliding.
FS

MS

M0

cos i tan i ci l i ) (G i cos i tan i ci li )

R G i sin i
G i sin i

R (G i

(3.24)

A particular case occurs when the vertical passing through 0 divides the
sliding mass (ABCD) in two parts.
As one can see, for the slices located at the left of the vertical line, the
tangential component of the weight W is directed against the sliding, therefore
it must be included among the stability forces. The expression of the factor of
safety becomes:
FS

M S (G i cos i tan i G i sin i l ci li )

G i sin i
M0
r

(3.25)

Where sin i l corresponds to the slices located at the left of the vertical and
sin i r to the slices located at the right of the vertical.
In relations (3.24) and (3.25) the factor of safety is expressed in terms of the
total stresses.
The Swedish method underestimates the factor of safety; the error, compared
with more accurate methods of analysis, is usually within the range 5-20%.
An approximative method to obtain the minimum factor of safety FS min is the
following one:
It is assumed that the centres of circular failure surfaces susceptible to induce
low factors of safety are located on a line O 1M (fig. 3.15). The point O 1 is
found at the intersection of lines making angles 1 and 2 with the slope,
78

respectively the horizontal passing through point E. Values of 1 and 2 in

function of the slope are given in the table 3.1.

Fig. 3.15

tan

1
2

1.75.1
60o
29o
40o

1:1
45o
28o
37o

1:1.5
33o45o
26o
35o

1:2
26o34o
25o
35o

1:3
18o25o
25o
35o

Table 3.1
1:5
11o19o
25o
37o

The point M has the coordinates (4.5H) and (H), in respect with the point B.
On the line O1M are chosen several points as centres of circular failure
surfaces. Using the slices method, the factor of safety is computed for each
surface and is drawn at a convenient scale normal to the line O 1M, taken as a
reference. A curve of variation of FS is obtained. The tangential to the curve
parallel to the reference line defines FS min .
If FS min is larger than a preestablished allowable value FS all , the stability
condition of the slope is fulfilled.
If FS min < FS all , appropriate measures have to be considered in order to
improve stability conditions, such as diminishing the slope (angle ),
removing soil from the upper part of the slope or creating an embankment at
the base of the slope (fig.3.16).

79

Fig. 3.16
3.3.2 Translational slip in the case of a plane failure surface parallel to
the surface of the slope
It is assumed that the potential failure surface is parallel to the surface of the
slope and is at a depth that is small compared with the length of the slope.
The slope can be considered as being of infinite length, therefore end effects
can be ignored. The slope is inclined at angle to the horizontal and the
depth of the failure plane, which usually is the thickness of the soil layer
covering a rock layer, is z (fig. 3.17). The water table is taken to be parallel to
the slope at a height of m Z (0 < m < 1) above the failure plane. Steady
seepage is assumed to be taking place in a direction parallel to the slope.
The forces on the side of any vertical slice are equal and opposite and the
stress conditions are the same at every point in the failure plane.

Fig. 3.17

80

In terms of effective stress, the shear strength of the soil along the failure
plane is:
f ( u ) tan ' c'

(3.26)

and the factor of safety is:

f

FS =
req

(3.27)

For a slice of width 1 and height z, the weight G is:

G = 1 m m sat z
The vertical pressure on the base is:
p = 1 m m sat z cos
The expressions for , and u are:
1 m m sat z cos 2

1 m m sat z sin cos

u = m z w cos 2
By replacing and u in the relation (3.26) and then in the relation (3.27),
the factor of safety FS is found.
Special cases
If c ' = 0 and m = 0, when the soil between the surface and the failure plane is
not fully saturated, then:
FS =

tan '
tan

(3.28)

The relation (3.28) is identical to the one previously established.

If c ' = 0 and m = 1, when the water table coincides with the surface of the
slope, then:
F=

' tan '

sat tan

(3.29)
81

As already shown in the p. 10.1, when c ' = 0, in the case of non-cohesive

soils, the factor of safety is independent of the depth Z.
For a total stress analysis the shear strength parameters c u and u are used
and u is taken zero.
3.3.3 Translational slip on a predetermined failure surface taken as a
polygonal surface
As in the previous case, the failure surface is predetermined and is
represented by the surface of a rock layer covered by a mass of soil. Quite
often this is a diluvium made primarily of cohesive soils deposited over a rock.
To check the stability, the contact surface between the deluvial mass and the
rock is assumed to be a polygonal surface (fig. 10.18.a). Vertical planes are
drawn in the points of change in slope of the contact surface, dividing the
sliding soil mass in a number of blocks. Horizontal interblock forces are
assumed.
The analysis starts with the block at the top of the sliding mass, on which the
following forces are acting and must be in equilibrium (fig. 10.18.b):

Fig. 3.18
the weight G1, of known magnitude and direction;
the reaction Q1 on the base of the slice, with an angle to the normal,
where is the angle of internal friction of the soil;
the cohesion force C1 on the base, known in magnitude and direction;
C1 = cl1, where c is the cohesion of the soil;
the normal force E2-1 on the side, representing the interblock force,
known only as direction.
Forces G1 and C1 are composed and their resultant is decomposed on the
directions of Q1 and E2-1.
82

Moving to the second block, besides the forces G 2, Q2, C2 and E3-2, the
normal force transmitted by the slice 1, E1-2 = E2-1 should be considered.
The known forces E1-2, G2 and C2 are decomposed and their resultant is
decomposed on the known directions of Q2 and E3-2.
In the same manner, the thrust E transmitted by each block to the next block
is found.
At the block at the bottom, there are G n, Cn and En-1-n known in magnitude and
direction and Qn known in direction. The polygon of the forces is constructed.
There are three possibilities (fig. 10.19):

Fig. 3.19
a. the polygon closes; this situation corresponds to the limiting equilibrium;
b. in order to close the polygon, is needed a force E directed in the
direction of the slide; the slope is stable, has a reserve of stability
proved by the force E; to define the factor of safety F S, the analysis is
repeated by gradually increasing the weight of the slices until the
situation a of limiting equilibrium is met; the factor of safety is then
equal to the factor to which the weight of the slices was increased;
c. in order to close the polygon, is needed a force E opposed to the
direction of the slide; the slope is not stable and the force E, multiplied
by a factor of safety FS could be used for the dimensioning of a wall
placed at the bottom of the slope (fig. 3.20).

83

Fig. 3.20
3.4 Choice of the shear strength parameters to be used in the stability of
slopes analysis
The use of the appropriate shear strength parameters, in correlation with the
construction conditions, is essential for the analysis of the stability of slopes.
In what follows, two examples will be considered.
3.4.1 Stability of an embankment on a saturated clay
Even if the slopes of the embankment are stable, the loss of stability can
occur along a failure surface originating in the foundation soil (fig. 3.21).

Fig. 3.21
A point M is taken in the possible failure surface. Diagrams of variation in time
of the load exerted on the foundation soil by placing successive layers of soil
within the embankment, of the shear stress on a plane passing through the
point M, of the shear strength f of the clay and the factor of safety FS.
The initial water pressure is:
uo = w h o

(3.30)

where ho is the depth of the considered point below the ground water table.
84

Due to the very low permeability of the clay and to the relatively short
construction period of the embankment, it can be assumed that there is no
drainage of the pore water and that no significant dissipation is likely during
construction. The clay will be loaded in the undrained conditions, responding
with the shear strength in undrained conditions.
After the end of construction, total stresses in the point under consideration
remain unchanged, while the excess pore water pressure dissipates gradually
until becoming zero after a time t2. The reduction in the pore water pressure is
joined by a decrease of the soil porosity and an increase of the effective
stresses and of the shear strength of the foundation soil.
Checks of the stability should be made for two characteristic moments of the
construction:
a.

end-of-construction (time t1)

A total stress analysis is performed using the parameter c u obtained from U U

shear tests (unconsolidated-undrained tests) on saturated samples.
b.

long-term stability (time t2)

An effective stress analysis is performed, using the shear strength

parameters , c ' obtained in drained conditions.
If one examines the diagram of variation in time of the factor of safety F S =

, (fig. 3.22) realizes that in this example the most dangerous condition
corresponds to the end-of-construction time t 1. In the long term, following t1,
the stability conditions are improving.

85

Fig. 3.22
3.4.2 Stability of an excavated slope
An excavated slope is considered (fig.3.23) in a cohesive soil mass. The
excavation is joined by a lowering of the water table.
A point P is taken on a potential failure surface.
As in the previous example, it is assumed that the excavation takes place
over a short period of time; therefore undrained conditions are valid for the
clay. As the excavation proceeds the shear stress in the point P increases.
The reduction of the geological pressure on the point P leads to a decrease of
the pore water pressure (the pore water pressure change is negative).
It was shown that for an increment of isotropic stress associated with a major
principal stress increment, the excess pore water pressure is:
n B 3 AB ( 1 3 )

(3.31)
86

Fig. 3.23
For a saturated clay in undrained conditions B = 1
n 3 A ( 1 3 )

(3.32)

In the case of an excavated slope, the minimum principal stress 3

decreases more than the maximum principal stress 1 , therefore 3 is
negative, ( 1 3 ) is positive and n is negative, with a value depending
on A.
In time, the excess pore water pressure dissipates producing a heave of the
clay and a reduction of the shear strength.
Checks of the stability for the two characteristic moments of the construction:
a. end-of-construction (time t1)
As in the previous example, a total stress analysis is performed, using the
parameter cu.
b. long-term stability (time t2)
An effective stress analysis is performed (by knowing the pore water pressure
corresponding to the final position of the ground water) using the parameters
' and c ' .
One can realize that, unlike the previous example, the most dangerous
conditions appears after a long time t 2 because the shear strength decreases
until the excess negative pore water pressure become zero (fig. 10.24).

87

Fig. 10.24
In conclusion, when choosing the shear strength parameters the following
recommendations have to be followed:
for the end-of-construction, condition when the construction means both
the loading or the unloading of the saturated clay susceptible to loose
its stability, and the construction period is short in comparison to the
time required for the dissipation of the excess pore water pressure, a
total stress analysis is performed using the parameter c u;
similarly, but on partly saturated clay, analysis can be done either in
total stresses with parameter u obtained from U U tests or in effective
stresses (which implies establishing the parameter pressure) with
parameters ' , c ' ;
for the long term stability analysis, the effective stress are used, after
establishing the pore water pressure corresponding to the final level of
the ground water with the parameter ' and c ' .

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