Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

Principles of Rhythm Integration in African Drumming
Author(s): Willie Anku

Source: Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 211-238
Published by: Center for Black Music Research - Columbia College Chicago and University of Illinois
Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/779369 .

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PRINCIPLESOF RHYTHMINTEGRATION
IN AFRICANDRUMMING
WILLIE ANKU
Rhythm in African music has been a subject of much interest to ethnomusicologists (see Kauffman 1980). While it would be generally agreed
that much has been accomplished in the common effort to explain "exactly what is the African treatment of rhythm" (ones 1959), there is at present no consensus on how this should be done. Each individual has tried
to interpret African rhythm from his or her background knowledge of
Western music and theory as either a performer or an ethnographer
(Kauffman 1980).
Of all these studies, the works of David Locke (1982), John Chemoff
(1979), A. M. Jones (1954), and James Koetting (1970) are directly relevant
to this discussion. Locke and Jones have focused primarily on Ewe dance
drumming, Cheroff observed the Dagomba and Ewe,l while Koetting
worked on Akan drumming, mainly to devise a notation system aimed at
interpreting its holistic perception. Locke's background as a performer is
reflected in his somewhat precise musical references and an approach
that emphasizes descriptive as well as analytical methods. As a social scientist, Cheroff combines his learning experience with the aesthetics of
his acculturative experience in Ghana. His approach is descriptive rather
than analytical. Jones' transcriptions and theories have generated much
discussion over the years. His experience with Tey, a native Ewe master
drummer, was limited. He worked in a "foreign" environment where the
drum ensemble was not readily available to him. Moreover, the use of his
transcription machine with his informant limited his observations to one
1. [For more information on Ewe rhythmic practices, readers are referred to Agawu
(1995), which was published after the completion of this article.-Ed.]
WILLIEANKU is chair of the music department at the University of Ghana, Legon. His
research interest is in theory and structural analysis of African traditional music. He was a
visiting professor at California State University, San Marcos. He is the author of Structural
Set Analysis of African Music, vols. 1 and 2 (1992; 1993).
211

BMR Journal
212
isolated part of the ensemble at a time. As a result, the vertical organization of his material is not adequately dealt with as he could not properly
perceive the interrelationship of the whole ensemble. Nevertheless, the
expositions of all these scholars show growing awareness of the intricacies of African drumming, partly because of the systematic approach
adopted and partly because of their practical experience in African drumming.
The problem apparent in most of these studies stems from a general
lack of a holistic approach. As Koetting points out:
[T]o analyze the patternsof a drum ensemble piece individually is to miss
the main characteristicof the music, which is the totalityof sound produced
by the interrelationof the various parts.This is particularlytrue in viewing
the relationbetween the masterdrum and the rest of the ensemble.... What
is needed is a comprehensiveanalysis that can encompass similaritiesand
differencesas componentsof the whole .... A deeper probe of the musicinvolving such detail as the precise beginnings of master drum patterns,
possible verbal meanings in subgroup or individual supporting patterns,
and dance associations-would have to be made before any trustworthy
conclusionscould be reached.(1970,139)
I endorse the formulation of the problem by Koetting, since it confirms
my own experience as a native scholar (Anku 1986; 1988; 1992; 1993;
1995a; 1995b). This study seeks to probe deeper into the internal structures of drumming by taking into account ethnographic evidence of "perception norms," which are often missed in analytical observations and in
the formulation of theories on rhythm in African drumming.
Musical examples for this study are based on extracts from an Akan
adowa drumming transcription provided as an appendix to this paper.
The adowa ensemble (Akan funeral music) is made up of the following
instrumentation: two boat-shaped bells (dawuro), two hourglass drums
(donno), one hand drum (apentemma),one stick drum (petia), and a pair of
talking drums (atumpan).
The most significant aspect of "multirhythm" perception in drumming
is that the various composite patterns are heard in integration and not as
isolated units. While in most other forms of music we have become accustomed to the tune concept (melody, voice leading) as distinct from harmonic and other accompanying elements (Seeger 1966), there appears to
be no such clearly defined or comparable tune concept in drumming. It
should be noted that even though some instruments tend to stand out
loud and distinct (for instance, the adowa bell-dawuro-is
the highest
the most resonant), they
pitched, while the master drum-atumpan-is
do not in any way represent a melodic concept of the drum ensemble. In
many multidrum cultures, however, drumming may simulate melody as

Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming
213
the drummers verbalize a random selection of successive sound patterns,

using nonsense syllables to represent what emerges from the sound
palette, typical of the entire ensemble. What is usually verbalized is not
played by any one particular instrument but is a result of the integration.
Evidence of this integration in the perception of the various instrumental patterns is demonstrated by Okyrema Asante, celebrated Akan
master drummer, who is able to perform alone an entire popular band
drumming type such as asiko or adowa, which is intended for a full drum
ensemble (in a manner similar to the jazz drum technique). Even though
this manner of performance is not typical in Akan drumming, the drummer is able to do so not by playing a succession of predetermined isolated patterns as traditionally prescribed but by performing what he perceives as the expectancies of the integration. One of the plates published
in African Rhythmand African Sensibilityfeatures Gideon Folie Alorwoyie,
an Anlo master drummer, performing in a similar manner (Chemoff
1979, 172). Such examples demonstrate the ultimate presence and recognition of emergent and resultant rhythms as legitimate conceptual and
perceptual phenomenon in African drumming.
The emergentrhythm may be defined as a random and aesthetic selection of a continuum of "peaks of prominence" of sound patterns, from a
palette of integrated rhythms. The resultant rhythm, however, is a more
definite outcome of an integration, conceived monolithically (such as
resulting between two bell rhythms in Akan adowa or between two aburukwasupport drums in Akan ketedrumming). The intrinsic perception of
time synchronization of the various composite parts of the ensemble is to
a great extent embedded in the performers' awareness and expectancies
of the emergent and resultant rhythms.
The subjective approach adopted in the present study is crucial to
understanding the problem in focus. It is a legitimate consideration in
part because it is acknowledged by the various African traditions and
because their musical references are ultimately expressed from individual or group perception. The norms of rhythm perception of a people,
therefore, should provide a premise for such analytical discussion of procedures of rhythm, especially when examining music communicated
entirely by oral tradition.
The intensity factor in drumming, for instance, should not be overlooked in the discussion of drumming procedures. In a particular performance, for example, one may observe the peculiar use of certain popular
rhythms, or the enactment of certain popular movements in dance, or the
significant use of certain rhythmic phrases in vogue, as for example in
Akan or in Ewe drumming (see Exs. 1 and 2). Such utterances, which are
either chanted, sounded on drum, or sounded by any other means avail-

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214
Example1. Exampleof a popularrhythmused in Akan drumming
2 'd .
bor
a I
a- ye
bor
bor-su- e
bor-bor-bor
Example2. Exampleof a popularrhythmused in Ewe drumming
Fain
fain be - bi
yu
no
go
fain pass
yor
mo-
da
able (e.g., the use of the bugle in Ewe borborbordrumming) may generate
a renewed energy in the performance participation. This behavior is often
initiated by a single participant. If it is timely, it draws the focus of the
other participants. The response, of course, is instantaneous and spontaneous and in turn heightens the excitement level. The success of a performance may be measured in part by the degree of intensity (as may be
expressed in terms of the depth of emotion or the extent of gaiety) of the
performance. In the drum ensemble itself, articulations of certain rhythmic patterns may tend to highlight well-known rhythmic passages,
which may also give rise to heightened intensity.
Given this allowance of individual expression, the author's personal
experience and perspective as a drummer may provide crucial information for this analysis.
Structural Aspects of the Integration
In drumming, rhythms are articulated into groups of various structural units. These rhythmic groups may be perceived on various levels as
either (a) a span of two patterns (on a third synthesis level); (b) the pattern span itself (on a second synthesis level); (c) in groups of half patterns
(on a first synthesis level); and (d) in four equidistant divisions of the pattern as beat units. This structural stratification bears some resemblance to
the principle of grading (Nketia 1974, 133) and maybe represented graphically as shown in Figure 1.
These structures are manipulated in various ways, both linearly, in
terms of each individual part, and vertically, within the rhythmic units of
composite parts of the ensemble. Vertically, they are perceived in integration to achieve the same structural proportions that equate fundamentally to the pattern span. These are then compounded, in the main, in dou-

215
Figure 1. Levels of rhythmicgroups

Level a
Level b
Level c
Level d
I
I
I
F
2 patternspan
1 patternspan
2 half patternspans
4 beat areas
referent
I
I
F_
~.
~~~~~~~........
~density
ble pattern (antecedent/consequent) relationships on the third synthesis

level.
In all these, the span of the "time-line" pattern (also referred to as the
time span) is the main structural referent. In Example 3, each composite
part is articulated within a framework of twelve equidistant time points
(twelve eighth notes) constituting the pattern span. Spans of twelve and
sixteen time point (sixteen sixteenth notes) patterns are typical in African
drumming. Each composite span establishes an orientation or relationship with the regulative beat (marked with an arrow in Ex. 3).
Example3. Exampleof a compositepattern establishing orientation with a regulative beat

a
aI
-^
Nf
tf-ht-f
VV
.
\I
I I
r I: j JSi .n I I
I I'I
1-pI
1
.
'1I
I .
'
'
Vertical consideration of composite patterns establishes three possible

integral relationships with one another by the following procedures: (a)
overlapping;(b) interlocking;and (c) adjacencyand alternation. The resultant
rhythm from such combinations constitutes a monolithic rhythmic concept.
Overlapping refers to composite patterns that are heard in juxtaposition, thus in somewhat staggered relationship. Overlapping occurs

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216
between two patterns of different relationships to the regulative beat (see

Fig. 2a). An interlocking relationship occurs when two composite
rhythms are superimposed and thus share the same orientation with the
regulative beat (see Fig. 2b). Adjacency and alternation is perhaps the
most frequently observed of the three relationships. It refers, as the name
implies, to rhythms that are in adjacent (antecedent/consequent or calland-response) relationship to one another (see Fig. 2c). These appear on
all levels of structure.
Figure 2. Compositepatterns in juxaposition

a. Overlapping relationship
a
b
b. Interlocking relationship
a
b
c. Adjacency/alternation relationship
a
Call-and-responseand hockettechniques are common in African music.

They are not limited to vocal music but permeate all forms of performance practices. As with emergent and resultant rhythms, the performers' ability to maintain the overall timing organization of the piece rests
in part on their perception of the various relationships of call-andresponse and hocket patterns. These techniques find their highest expres-

217
sion in drumming. Call-and-response structures are easily recognizable

between rhythmic phrases of wider structural spans, while shorter units
interact in hocket fashion.
Call-and-response techniques are essentially a learned behavior deeply
rooted in oral traditions of African peoples. Chorus responses of all kinds
may be observed-between a teacher and his students, between a priest
and the congregation of worshipers, chorus responses to ordinary greetings, and at sociopolitical gatherings-all of which form an integral part
of day-to-day behavior. It is, ultimately, a compositional device found to
facilitate communal music participation.
Specific Analytical Considerations
There are two important analytical perspectives under focus: (a) the
drummer's "internal" holistic perspective and (b) the "external" holistic
perspective.
The "Internal"Holistic Perspective
The main considerations in understanding the internal holistic perspective are the descriptions of how the performers find their cues and
maintain their relationship with other composite parts of the ensemble: in
other words, how the performer perceives his entries. One may distinguish between primary and secondary relationships.
Primary relationships are those that depend directly on the time line
(for instance, donno and bell, apentemmaand bell, atumpan and bell). Each
performer perceives the time line in integration with his assigned pattern
as a way to facilitate the cue entry process. Since there are no external
concepts of timing gestures, such as those of the conductor in the Western
orchestra, this built-in device is a crucial one.
Secondary relationships, on the other hand, refer to instances when the
performer establishes multiple integration with patterns other than the
time line. At certain intensity levels, the relationship between petia support drum and atumpan, or petia and apentemma, becomes so strong that
one or both performers will momentarily disassociate from the time line
(without losing the flow of the basic timing relationship of the piece) to
indulge in some sort of dialogue, with one usually serving as a pacemaker for the other.
These kinds of momentary shifts in focus occur frequently throughout
the piece. They may also arise because certain rhythms integrate more
easily than others, or because they help to facilitate timing perception
more easily. That is, there is a constant search for a pacemaker, thus, an
easily integrated rhythm. As the relationships during the piece unfold in

BMR Journal
218
intensity and complexity, there is often a need to make frequent reference

to the time line for confirmation of entries. This is especially important at
changes in pattern orientation and with the introduction of complex staggered rhythms such as those referred to by the Akan as akita (literally, "to
hold back").
Traditionally, an Akan drummer may make ironic reference to his pacemaker as his dawuro (bell): Wo na woye me dawuro, literally, "you are my
bell." This is because the pacemaker provides the same referential role as
the time line even though he may be playing on a composite instrument
other than the bell.
At the height of intensity, the perception of the holistic composition
becomes inseparable into composite rhythms. The performer no longer
feels his rhythms as composites but as part of the monolith. It is the desire
of every performer to sustain this perceptual unity, arising from the integration, for as long as possible.
One may also observe how each instrument relates within the holistic
configuration of the ensemble from the internal perspective. In adowa
drumming one may easily observe a dual distribution of instruments on
the basis of assigned rhythmic patterns. There are two bells and two
donno parts, the apentemmaand petia rhythms related closely, while, at the
same time, petia provides interesting rhythmic interchanges with the
atumpan. The same is true between the low and high pitch relationships
of the atumpan drum pair.
The two bell patterns have an interlocking relationship. Traditionally,
one of the two bells is referred to as the interlocking bell, ntwamu. This
interlocking effect confirms the close association between the rhythms of
these two parts. Together they produce the resultant shown in Example
4. The second bell pattern easily integrates in the following relationship,
as the two patterns share the same rhythmic motive at a certain point (see
Ex. 5). To maintain the timing relationships correctly between the two
instruments, the perception of the resultant along with the individual bell
pattern is a helpful guide (see Ex. 6).
Similarly, the two donno rhythms are perceived in integration with the
regulative beat of the time line serving as their main point of reference.
The "male" donno externalizes the beat for the ensemble, which also
defines the dancer's basic walking steps. Together, they produce the
resultant shown in Example 7. Both patterns interlock and are best perceived as a monolithic rhythm.
The donno resultant is heard in adjacent relationship to that produced
by the bells (see Ex. 8). This adjacent relationship between the bells and
the donno drums in turn produces another resultant rhythm, which Akans
verbalize as shown in Example 9. Kyankyenakyankyenaare nonsense syl-


Example4. Resultant of bell patterns in adowa drumming
IJ
J}J
Belli
so
Bell2
mJ
m
m
p
Fp/
-P7m
m
-
Resultant
| --
Ii
--
I
m=mute
Example5. Sharedrhythmicmotive in adowa bell patterns

Bell
Bell2
Example6. Individual bell pattern with perceivedresultant bell pattern
Resu
tant
'
' ' J'I

p
;)
' pI
4r
Example7. Resultant of donno rhythmsin adowa drumming

Donno 1
Donno 2
Resultant
Jr
J'
1I
f |t-

219
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220
Example8. Donno and bell resultant rhythms
Bell Res
J 1)J m7
Donno Res
Example9. Verbalizedresultantfrom the adjacentdonno and bell resultants
r ho J p J I
h.ro
Kyan-kye-na Kyan- kye- na, o- pe-nin
o-yi'a-yi- wa
di-di
Example10. Bells, donno, and resultant verbalizedrhythms

I I
Be.lll
J|
|
Donno
I + II
Resultant
J hv J
J | IJ
|ITJLJ
jIW- V I
p p v+
J
Kyan-kye-na Kyan- kye- na,
o - pe- nin
I.
di-di
r Tfp
Olt I
I J
5
o-yi'a-yi- wa
p
v
Kyan-
lables; opanin didi oyi ayiwa means "if the elder eats all the food, he must
as well wash his own dish." The bells, donno, and resultant, verbalized
rhythm combine as shown in Example 10.
The apentemma and petia play various patterns that correspond to
theme changes played by the master drummer. These themes in turn
define structural relationships with the time span (see Example 11). In
themes and variations A, B, and C (Tome ku me, Adampom,and Otwe bedi
nprem), the overlapping gives rise to the perception illustrated in
Example 12. Once this relationship is established, one can enter a number
of possible secondary relationships, such as with the male donno, which
provides a steady referent (see Ex. 13).

221
Example 11. Themesused by the master drummerin adowa drumming in relation to the time line
Timeline
,h
. IPI' I) a
Theme A
Ia')h aI,1 , hIi h

..
) '7
To-me ku me
_)- ,
me
nie
,i
Theme B
1, .=I
A - dam- pom
-,0 In,lIl
Theme C
0 - twe
be -
di
A - gye- man
-J.
1I
m- prem
Theme D
nom
yen
hu no
nso
Theme E
p
ya
MenMengyae
nsu pa
nsu
pa
nko num
Inm
nko
po
Example 12. Perceptionof the overlappingbell and petia rhythms with the To
me ku me, Adampom, and Otwe bedi nprem themes
4
Bell
J4#
j2 J
7/1"
I|
Apentemma
iJ
hY
Example13. Relationshipbetweenthe male donno and apentemma

.
Donno
Apentemma
I * '
'
|
d
I'

BMR Journal
222
It is extremely difficult to sustain the off-beat character of the handdrum rhythms without a pacemaker. Together with petia, they produce
different resultants in each of the theme changes mentioned above. For
instance, the resultant that emerges in Tome ku me from the integration is
shown in Example 14. In the Adampom and Nsupa themes, a different
resultant is heard (see Ex. 15).
Example 14. Resultant of the apentemma and petia rhythms with the To me
ku me master drum theme
1o-
Apentemma
Is
,~sl,
UI 7 .7PT7
717
Petia
HL~o~jrt,LILJ
Resultant
Example 15. Resultant of the apentemma and petia rhythms with the
Adampom and Nsupa master drum themes
Apentemma
Petia
r-r
nr
P
--___ _
.
Resultant
'-1
T \YI
n'6r r r
r rr^
rrrrr n
n
K -L-K L..
.00PW1
I
SJUiJ9;IY
,r<U^^L.\|
L.
6.
vn
r-
n K.4.r
Y L_LJ
.IY ;EJ
K
Like apentemma,petia patterns change in response to the various theme

changes of the master drum. In Adampom,the pattern is in adjacent relationship to the time-line pattern while in Otwe be di nprem,it overlaps (see
Ex. 16). In its secondary relationships, petia combines especially well with
the donno group, apentemma,and with atumpan. The donna I provides the
strong beats with the petia "off-beat" patterns in Adampom.Together with
the apentemma they produce definite resultants in each theme relationship, while providing response rhythms that interchange with the master
drum (see Ex. 17).

223
Example16. Relationshipof petia rhythmicpatterns with the time-line pattern

a. Adampon master drum theme
4P r
Bell
Petia
b. Otwe be di nprem master drum theme
-LJJ J J
,1 Jh,
,Bell
Petia
Example17. Responserhythmsof the petia with the atumpan

a. To me ku me master drum theme
I4
r -Bell
I
A-Unp
Ip
_J
J
^
^;
p--i
I____
b. Adamponmaster drum theme

- _---
l__
____J
:77
Bell
Atumpan
- I.
.....

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224
The master drummer's themes and variations are presented as a succession of patterns that establish various orientations with the regulative
beat. The other performers look to him as a driving force behind their
changing perceptions, while they in turn provide the main ingredients of
the background ostinato along which many possible integrations are
established with each theme orientation.
In its primary relationships, the atumpan's Tome ku me theme is heard
in interlocking relationship with the time line. Both patterns are in the
same orientation to the regulative beat (see Ex. 18).
Example18. Orientationof the To me ku me masterdrum themewith the time

line
,.,J,
JI,J
BellH
J iJ
p 1T P
Atumpuan
The Adampomtheme overlaps with the time-line pattern (see Ex. 19). In
identifying its entry cue, the bell pattern is heard in integration with the
Adampom theme as shown in Example 20. The pattern for the Otwe bedi
nprem theme would be perceived as a complement to the time-line pattern (see Exs. 21 and 22).
Example19. Orientationof the Adampon masterdrum themewith the time line
4,Ir
4,, A
1
Bell
9 11
J J J Jj,JN hLL.JL
1prP
11
pp7 r
7
9
j

225
Example20. Entry cue of the bell pattern with Adampon theme

1
llJ
Bell
W-J
Atumpan
Example21. Orientationof the Otwe bedi nprem themewith the time line
Atumpan
fa
J.
Example22. Perceptionof the Otwe bedi nprem/bell pattern relationship

1
Atumpan
It
* 2 1
I;
8.
The Yenhuno nso theme is an overlapping relationship (see Ex. 23) and
would be perceived as indicated in Example 24.
Example 25 shows how Nsupa overlaps with the time line. It would be
perceived as indicated in Example 26.
Example23. Orientationof the Yenhu no nso themewith the time line

I
J|
,.BeJ
Atumpan
vY--
p
1
v.
10
11
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/

226
BMR Journal
Example24. Perceptionof the Yenhu no nso/bell pattern relationship

1
Bell
- -
-L
Atumpan
'1
5
_
2
_
4
_
5
_
_-
I
_-
_ -
Example25. Orientationof the Nsupa themewith the time line
Bell
j,iSi
1
_
Atumpan
1
6-
1
%.
6
j
Example26. Perceptionof the Nsupa/bell pattern relationship
Bell
J J
IJ
I___
Atumpan
1
- - -
- - -
6
-
The complex network of the entire background provides a cumulative

resultant that in turn becomes a steady referent for the atumpan themes
and variations.
The atumpan has an imposing timbre and resonance that allows several secondary relationships to be established. The various associating timbres of the background appear to be fragmented in between the "windows" of the atumpan rhythms. The petia and donno I rhythms, however,
may be observed to be the closest associates or pacemakers of the
atumpan variable rhythms.
This monolithic perception of the ostinato background of the rest of the
ensemble places the atumpan drummer in a responsible and challenging
position from which to steer the rhythmic floor of the performance.

227
The "External"Holistic Perspective

The external perspective represents a holistic consideration of the
ensemble's rhythmic configuration. From this perspective, patterns do
not just coexist or integrate on a unilateral level with one another; they
are also subjected to different transformations due to a number of factors.
While rhythmic patterns are often isolated and discussed in their own
terms, they are not normally heard with such clarity in actual performance context. That is to say, they are not easily recognizable with such
clarity and independence as they are often assumed in theory. They are
affected by various playing techniques such as open and muted tones of
the bells and petia; low and high tones of the donno and atumpan; and
open smack and palm techniques of the apentemmahand drum. These
playing modes vary considerably in intensity.
It may be observed that references to tonal and timbral contrasts also
imply a concept of dynamic (loud and soft) contrasts. These are complicated by overlapping, interlocking, and adjacent alternations of the patterns mentioned earlier. The staggered dynamic distribution, coupled
with the complicated network of pattern integration (superimposition of
soft and loud sections onto integrated patterns), naturally obscures the
audibility of certain portions of individual patterns. This phenomenon is
further complicated by the listener's proximity or location in the performance arena. It is often said that certain soft rhythmic nuances that are
played but that otherwise are not heard in performance are meant for the
drummers' personal edification, enjoyment, or as timing devises and
may not be intended for the listener.
The procedure whereby resonant events tend to eclipse less resonant
ones is termed masking (osephs 1967, 45-47). For instance, Example 27
shows a petia rhythm in which the mutes (indicated by the smaller notes
in Ex. 27a) are eclipsed and the pattern is transformed (see Ex. 27b). The
same principle applies in the donno patterns, in which the high pitches
tend to be more prominently heard than the low pitches.
There are three types of masking. Type a occurs where the pattern is
weakest, as in Example 27. Type b occurs physically between acoustically more resonant and less resonant instruments. Type c occurs by the
choice of the listener's focus of perception. As Nazir Jairazbhoy has stated:
There is good reason to believe that selectivity is also practiced within the
musical sound range....
Most musicologists have probably experienced
instances of unconscious selection, as for instance, when "hearing" (actually
becoming aware of) something new in an often-heard piece of music. Even
an identically repeated musical pattern need not necessarily sound monotonous if the listener's awareness shifts from one musical feature to another.
(1977, 267)

228
BMR Journal
For instance, the combination shown in Example 28a may be masked as

shown, resulting in the "heard" pattern in Example 28b.
Example27. Exampleof petia masking

a. Petia patternwith mutes
, ,
Jr
JS
iJ
b. Petia patternperceivedas eclipsedthroughmasking

J v
Example28. Exampleof maskingin a combination

of tworhythms
a. Possiblecombination
of maskedpatterns
I
BellJ
'
4l
I
1
Jj
~)
.p
I
_~
L-JL
I
JI e
b. Patternperceivedthroughmasking
4.
Beull
Atumpan-_- -
-JJ
- --
--- -
iL-------
IJ ------
+t
-
This is where emergent rhythms, defined above as an aesthetic selection of peaks of prominence, from a palette of integrated rhythms, actually come into play. For instance, from the combination shown in
Example 29a, the listener may actually hear the resultant indicated in
Example 29b. In perceiving this resultant, the unmarked portions of
Example 29a become subordinated. Of course, the subordinated rhythms
are not altogether inaudible. They create an added dimension that may

229
Example29. Exampleof masking in a combinationof threerhythms

a. Combinationof rhythmicpatterns with masking
A
b. Possible perceivedresultant
6 II_> _
8 ip
I>
Ir
ir
11> _
P Lr r 1L
surface between more audible sound structures and also with the focus,
proximity, depth, and intensity of the listener's perception.
In this final example an attempt is made to delineate further illustrations of pattern integration as they may be heard from the listener's external perspective. The illustration isolates four different possible emergent
patterns that may give rise to a diversity of perceptions (see Ex. 30).
Example30. Possibleperceptionsresultingfromfour differentemergentpattern
a.
Apentemma

230
BMR Journal
Example30, continued
b.
Belll
Bell2
IJ Q
r - 'r -
|J
* -r-r
Apentemma
.h
r -r - ---j
Petia
A.-m
J'i
J.
mT
Atumpanpj j
I
.
J.
JT
m'
67
C.
Bell.l
J JJ
Be2Ir
,r r I
I r
Donnao
Apentemma
| fn
.r 'r
t
J J JJ J
7r
'
J
7
17 ni,
m
<
Atumpan

231
Example30, continued
d.
I...*-^J, ,.I^
_I
Il
Deu 1
IJ
II,[
1'
~.i_1
*
1-J
- 'i
.I *..'
,',J!
1',
_i
W_
lt
Bell 2
Donno 1
i
'^.1' r. ^
",r,
1F^
P.
1f
:
,--i-
i I| a
Donno 2
lr
'
DP hi
,
1i7r
'i
^
i
~f
Apentemma
4 p
Petia
$ z
''~'' L _ '
A ".--~
rF,
I-
I$
$.
_T 2J > {j
i v ..I'~..'
I_ _
- >
__
.,
I
_, l-
The "typical treatment of African rhythm" involves much more than

mere coexistence of absolute rhythmic patterns. Jairazbhoy observes that
"students of ethnomusicology are delving so deeply into the music of
other cultures that many are now bi-musical.... They are beginning to
approach one of the goals of ethnomusicology-the ability to identify not
only those structures 'familiar to us in the notation of the accidental art'
(which is in itself a legitimate aspect of the field), but to identify and be
able to isolate structures recognized by the native musicians themselves"
(1977,270). In this same light, the role of bi-musical native contributors in
meeting the challenges of explaining and expressing their own native arts
adequately in "global" terms would continue to be a welcome contribution to the field.
REFERENCES
Agawu, V. Kofi. 1995. African rhythm: A northern Ewe perspective. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Anku, Willie. 1986. Rhythmic procedures in Akan Adowa drumming. M.A. thesis,
University of Pittsburgh.
1988. Procedures in African drumming: A case of Akan/Ewe traditions and African
drumming in Pittsburgh. Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh.

232
232
BMR Journal
BMR
Journal
Anku, Willie. 1992. Structuralset analysisof Africanmusic.Vol. 1. Legon, Ghana:Adowa

SoundstageProduction.
. 1993.Structuralset analysisofAfricanmusic.Vol.2. Legon,Ghana:BawaSoundstage
Production.
. 1995a. Towards a cross-culturaltheory of rhythm in African drumming. In
Intercultural
Music,edited by CynthiaTse Kimberlinand Akin Euba, 167-202. Vol. 1.
Bayreuth,Germany:E. Breitinger.
drummingin Pittsburghand its rela 1995b.Creativeprocessesin African-American
JazzArchivesJournal1, no. 3: 4-27.
tionship to jazz. International
Chemoff,John.1979.AfricanrhythmandAfricansensibility.Chicago:Universityof Chicago
Press.
Jairazbhoy,Nazir A. 1977. The "objective"and subjectiveview in music transcription.
21, no. 2:263-273.
Ethnomusicology
Jones,A. M. 1954.Africanrhythm.Africa24:26-47.
Josephs,Jess.J. 1967.Thephysicsof musicalsound.Princeton,N.J.:D. VanNostrand.
Kauffman,Robert.1980.Africanrhythm:A reassessment.Ethnomusicology
24, no. 3:393-415.
Koetting,James.1970.Analysisand notationof WestAfricandrumensemblemusic.Selected
Reports1, no. 3:115-146.
Locke,David. 1982.Principlesof offbeattiming and cross-rhythmin southernEwe dance
26, no. 2:217-246.
drumming.Ethnomusicology
Nketia,J. H. Kwabena.1974.ThemusicofAfrica.New York:W.W.Norton.
Allen."SelectedReports
Seeger,Charles.1966.Versionsand variantsof the tunes of "Barbara
1, no. 1:120-167.

233
APPENDIX
Adwoa Drum Transcriptionby Willie Anku

Performanceby SolomonAmonquandoh
Legon,Africa, 1982
4
1
Bell 1
uo
Bell 2
prr
pr
pr
rr
pr
Donno 1
Donno 2
Apentemma
Petia
GE
-'
rfS
r-$ p-
Atumpan

r p
234
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p--r
Pr
'r
B2
D1
j.
D2
-f
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^f
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13
jrz
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-9
16
- -
Y.-1
Y 7r
IYj
III M

_*
I

17
iJ
235
20
Jr
/
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21
24
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28
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36
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[
,wl
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Anku Principlesof RhythmicIntegrationin AfricanDrumming

78
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Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

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Principles of Rhythm Integration in African Drumming

Author(s): Willie Anku

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/779369 .

This content downloaded from 195.220.216.80 on Mon, 17 Feb 2014 16:55:47 PM

This content downloaded from 195.220.216.80 on Mon, 17 Feb 2014 16:55:47 PM

This content downloaded from 195.220.216.80 on Mon, 17 Feb 2014 16:55:47 PM

Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

the drummers verbalize a random selection of successive sound patterns,

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Example1. Exampleof a popularrhythmused in Akan drumming

Example2. Exampleof a popularrhythmused in Ewe drumming

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Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

Figure 1. Levels of rhythmicgroups

ble pattern (antecedent/consequent) relationships on the third synthesis

Example3. Exampleof a compositepattern establishing orientation with a regulative beat

Vertical consideration of composite patterns establishes three possible

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between two patterns of different relationships to the regulative beat (see

Figure 2. Compositepatterns in juxaposition

Call-and-responseand hockettechniques are common in African music.

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Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

sion in drumming. Call-and-response structures are easily recognizable

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intensity and complexity, there is often a need to make frequent reference

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Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

Example5. Sharedrhythmicmotive in adowa bell patterns

Example6. Individual bell pattern with perceivedresultant bell pattern

' ' J'I

Example7. Resultant of donno rhythmsin adowa drumming

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Example9. Verbalizedresultantfrom the adjacentdonno and bell resultants

Kyan-kye-na Kyan- kye- na, o- pe-nin

Example10. Bells, donno, and resultant verbalizedrhythms

Kyan-kye-na Kyan- kye- na,

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Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

Ia')h aI,1 , hIi h

Example13. Relationshipbetweenthe male donno and apentemma

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Like apentemma,petia patterns change in response to the various theme

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Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

Example16. Relationshipof petia rhythmicpatterns with the time-line pattern

b. Otwe be di nprem master drum theme

Example17. Responserhythmsof the petia with the atumpan

b. Adamponmaster drum theme

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Example18. Orientationof the To me ku me masterdrum themewith the time

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Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming

Example20. Entry cue of the bell pattern with Adampon theme

Example22. Perceptionof the Otwe bedi nprem/bell pattern relationship

Example23. Orientationof the Yenhu no nso themewith the time line

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Example24. Perceptionof the Yenhu no nso/bell pattern relationship

Example25. Orientationof the Nsupa themewith the time line

Example26. Perceptionof the Nsupa/bell pattern relationship

The complex network of the entire background provides a cumulative

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Anku * Principles of Rhythmic Integration in African Drumming