CIPS 2010, March, 16 18, 2010, Nuremberg/Germany

Paper 6.2

Solar Power Inverters

Regine Mallwitz, Bernd Engel
SMA Solar Technology AG, Sonnenallee 1, 34266 Niestetal
email: regine.mallwitz@sma.de

Abstract
This paper reviews the history of solar power inverters and highlights aspects of power electronic packaging concerning
functional and packaging integration in solar inverter technology. The most important indicators to characterize the advances in inverter technology are efficiency and losses respectively, mean time between failure and inverter costs. A
high integration level is bounded up with high reliability and life time and less costs. The paper presents the state of the
art and trends in the inverter design towards higher functional and packaging integration. Several generations of medium
power inverter are analyzed concerning integration level which will be described by different indicators.

Introduction

1.1

Global Solar Market Development

The solar market has been booming over the last decade
and is forecasted to continue this trend in the coming
years. By the end of 2008 the global cumulative capacity
was approaching 15GW. Today Europe is the leading region with more than 9GW representing over 65% of the
global cumulative PV installed capacity. Japan (2,1GW)
and the US (1,2GW) are following behind, representing
15% and 8% respectively, of the global cumulative PV
power installed [1].

verters for all applications, all solar module types and in all
power ranges.

1.2

Grid Connected Solar Systems

The basic function of a solar inverter is the conversion of

the DC output voltage of the solar generator in grid compatible AC output voltage. Today most of solar inverters
are grid connected, i.e. they are configured for feeding AC
power to the grid. The number of solar inverters for island
installations is by far less. The efficiency is being the most
important criterion to compare solar inverter over the
years. Today requirements to solar inverters become more
and more complex.

1.3

Requirements to Solar Inverters

Beside conversion from DC to AC power modern inverters

include additional functions like controlling the solar generator, measurements of DC or AC parameters, monitoring
and protection of the complete solar system, communication to user or grid and others. In summary today a solar
inverter is a high-tech product in all its functions. For
instance the power of all internal micro processors is similar to ones of a modern laptop.

1.4

Figure 1 Global cumulative PV power installed per region

[1]

SMA Solar Technology AG is the global acting market

leader for solar inverters with more than 4 GW worldwide
installed power and has shown its innovations for more
than 25 years. SMA is developing and producing solar in-

System Configurations

The configuration of solar plants differs depending on the

produced power. Figure2 illustrates the three basic opportunities for arranging solar panels and inverters.
Figure 2(a) represents a typical plant oriented configuration. Solar modules are arranged in series and parallel. One
single central inverter is connected on the DC side to all
solar modules. Typically large solar plants with installed
power from about 250kWp up to several MWp use configurations with central inverters.

ISBN 978-3-8007-3212-8 VDE VERLAG GMBH Berlin Offenbach

CIPS 2010, March, 16 18, 2010, Nuremberg/Germany

Figure 2(b) shows a module oriented arrangement. Several

modules are connected in series to a so-called string.
Every string is connected to one string inverter. Multi
String inverters offer the optimum connection of several
strings to one inverter device. The DC output of one string
is conditioned by a DC/DC converter per string. Outputs of
several DC/DC converters are arranged in parallel to the
input of one DC/AC inverter. All these functions are integrated in one inverter device. Typically the nominal power
of string and multi string inverters is up to 5kW. These inverters and their following generations are used in residential and commercial applications up to 250kW (medium
power).
Figure 2(c) describes a module integrated concept. In this
case small module inverters are connected to only one solar module. The nominal power of such inverters is less
than 1kW.

Paper 6.2

generation of inverters has been launched in 2007 with

nominal powers up to 5kW. Further improved inverters of
this family have been presented in 2009. These new threephase string inverters differ considerably from previous
families in nominal power and complexity, which is a result of the changes in feed-in constraints.

Figure 3 Mile stones in medium power inverter technology

1.6

Advances in Inverter Technology

The most important indicators to characterize the advances

in inverter technology are:
(1) Inverter costs
(2) Efficiency and losses
(3) Reliability, Service (described by mean time between failure MTBF).
In figure 4 one can see the changes of these parameters
over the years and the expectations for the next future.

Figure 2 Solar systems with a) central inverters, b) String

inverters, c) module integrated inverter [2]

Today inverters for medium power application are produced in the highest quantity. That way experiences and
advances in packaging and integration have been achieved
a high level. To give an overview about packaging in solar
inverters this paper focuses to medium power inverters.

1.5

History of Medium Power Inverters

First inverters for serial production have been launched in

1991. These inverters with efficiency of around 90% had a
very small DC input voltage range. Due to this one inverter
could be connected to only one or few modules type.
Figure 3 illustrates milestones in the development of medium power inverters concerning packaging and power.
In 1995 the first string inverter Sunny Boy has been
launched. Inverters of the 2nd generation with an optimized cooling and higher integrated housings have been
developed in the early years of this millennium. The first
inverter of this generation has been launched in 2004. An
efficiency of 98% maximum has been reached in 2006 in
the next generation which is characterized by high values
for output power and a new inverter topology. The 3rd

Figure 4 General trends in inverter technology

(1) Inverter costs

The decision for consistent redesigns was the basis for a
strong reduction of the specific prices per Watt over the
last years. A price of 0,2 Euro per Watt can be expected in
2015. That corresponds to one fifth part of the price in
1990. Approaches to reach this aim can be found in consistent design-to-cost, increasing of power per device, flexible production and increasing of quantities of components,
sub-assemblies and inverters.
(2) Efficiency
SMA has reached a continuously increasing of the efficiency since 1990. Each five years the losses have been

ISBN 978-3-8007-3212-8 VDE VERLAG GMBH Berlin Offenbach

CIPS 2010, March, 16 18, 2010, Nuremberg/Germany

halved. By decreasing the losses heat production is reduced and so the cooling efforts too. Important approaches
for further improvement in efficiency are improved semiconductors and magnetics in combination with new topologies. Assemblies in laboratories/prototypes has been
demonstrated an efficiency of 99% in 2008. This is caused
by using SiC semiconductors [3]. Development for series
devices is ongoing. Problems to be solved are reliability,
switching behavior and costs of SiC components.
(3) Reliability, Service
Functional and packaging integration gives approaches for
higher reliability and less cost respectively.
Less elements lead to less costs for material and manufacturing. Additional a reduced number of elements results in
less electrical and mechanical connections between elements, which results in a smaller failure ratio and increased reliability.
Simplified processes in inverter production due to higher
integration leads to shorter production times, smaller failure rates during test procedures and finally to less labor
costs.
Next, opportunities of functional and packaging integration
in solar inverters are presented more in detail.

Power Electronic Packaging for

Medium Power Solar Inverters

Power Electronic Packaging (PEP) is the discipline of arranging and integrating electronic components and the
electromechanical design of power electronic appliances
like solar inverters. PEP covers many interdisciplinary
fields of expertise like design for manufacturability and
reliability, functional integration, thermal management,
interconnection technologies, EMC.
As known from other industries PEP is one of the dominating future areas of innovations and power electronics research. Power Electronic Packaging is the focus of R&D
activities when operational behavior of solar inverters like
efficiency especially in combination with extremely long
lifetimes > 20 years is pushed toward physical limits. Besides manufacturing processes and selection of high quality components PEP is the main factor for improvements of
solar inverter reliability [4].

2.1

Paper 6.2

protection unit, pulse pattern generator, controlling, monitoring and interfacing unit. Dissipating components like
semiconductors and magnetics are connected thermally to
a cooling unit which is connected or integrated to the housing (12).

Figure 5 Bloc diagram of a solar inverter

2.2

History of Packaging in Solar Inverter

Technology

Power Electronic Packaging is confronted with continuously increasing of complexity of inverters. Additional
components for more user and grid benefit have to be integrate to the packaging. However the manufacturing should
be simple and fast. Examples for successful solution in inverter packaging are presented in the following chapters.

2.2.1 1st Generation of Solar Inverters

Figure 6 shows the housing of an early solar inverter. The
concept uses a welded pot-type housing of stainless steel,
where the aluminum heat sink and wall bracket are attached with screws. Transformer, inductor as well as EMIfilter where realized as discrete components. Discrete semiconductor devices clipped to an aluminum heat transfer
block are used.

Basic Principle of Solar Inverters

Figure 5 illustrates functions of a solar inverter in a bloc

diagram. Power semiconductors (see bloc (4)) arranged in
the best suitable topology constitute the heart of an inverter. Between power semiconductor arrangement (4) and
solar generator (1) means for DC Protection and Switches
(2) are located followed by EMI (3a) and DC filter (3b). At
AC side EMI (5a) and Sinus filter (5b), AC Protection and
Switches (6) to the grid (7) are arranged. Equipment for
measuring electrical parameters on DC and AC side ((8)
and (10)) and drivers (9) interacts between hardware components and controller units. The controller (11) acts as

Figure 6 1st generation of inverters

ISBN 978-3-8007-3212-8 VDE VERLAG GMBH Berlin Offenbach

CIPS 2010, March, 16 18, 2010, Nuremberg/Germany

Paper 6.2

All components are installed from bottom to top. Electrical

connections between components are realized using spring
type connections in the rear part of the housing. This leads
to a high number of cable-terminal connections, which is
regarded as one of the main failure causes. No forced cooling is applied, in order to gain high efficiency and a high
protection class IP65 for protection of all electronic components.

2.2.2 2nd Generation of Solar Inverters

2.2.2.1 Improved Cooling System
With higher power density a new thermal concept was required. An improved thermal management was possible
due to the use of the advanced cooling concept OptiCool. Figure 7 illustrates a schematic of this innovative
cooling concept, which combines forced cooling and convection [5].
The cooling concept is based on the division into two separated compartments. The front compartment houses (Figure 7b) all sensible electronics sealed hermetically for installation in outdoor applications. Dissipative components
are placed in the vented rear compartment (Figure7a).

Figure 7 OptiCool cooling concept for solar inverters

2.2.2.2 Integrated Housing

Aluminum die-cast as housing material was the key to integration of several function into the housing. The housing
presented in figure 8 integrates the functions:
(1) housing
(2) separation wall between front and rear compartment
(3) electromagnetical shielding
(4) heat sink
(5) grips
(6) fan connection.
An integrated magnetic unit including transformer, inductors and AC filter capacitors is mounted in the rear
compartment (see figure 7a). This unit is one of the most
dissipative components. Components of this integrated
AC Filter/ Transformer are embedded in a plastic die-cast
structure. One part of the plastic die-cast housing is formed
as an air channel in for an optimum air flow for most efficient cooling.

Figure 8 Housing with integrated functions

2.2.2.3 Packaging of 2nd Generation

Figure 9 shows an exploded drawing which illustrates the
power electronic packaging concept of this generation of
Medium power inverters. In comparison to the 1st generation the housing is made of an aluminum die-cast structure,
where heat sink and grip and many other functions have
been integrated.
As described above the rear compartment with the integrated AC filter/transformer is completely separated
from the front compartment. The electrical connections
between rear compartment and front compartment are realized via sealed feed-throughs which are screwed directly
to the back of the main Printed Circuit Board (PCB). Instead of discrete power semiconductors an integrated power module is used. In order to reduce the number of cables
inside the inverter all EMI-Filter components are located
on the main PCB.

Figure 9 Exploded view of 2nd generation of inverters [4]

ISBN 978-3-8007-3212-8 VDE VERLAG GMBH Berlin Offenbach

CIPS 2010, March, 16 18, 2010, Nuremberg/Germany

2.2.2.4 Inverters of Increased Output Power

The demand on solar inverters of increased output power
has been required further improvements of the concept of
2nd generation inverters. One is a further improved thermal
management. Figure 10 illustrates a schematic of this improved cooling concept based on the OptiCool concept
with a front compartment house (Figure 10b)) and a vented
rear compartment (Figure 10a)). The rear compartment includes more components suitable located.
Two fans, which form two streams of air, lead to more
cooling power.

Paper 6.2

2.2.3 3rd Generation of Solar Inverters

2.2.3.1 Packaging of 3rd Generation
This generation has been launched in 2007. For simplifying the manufacturing all electronic components are
mounted from above into the front compartment. The front
compartment is divided into three parts, how figure 12
shows. Electronic components inclusive power semiconductor modules are located in the largest compartment
which can be sealed by a separate aluminium die-cast cover preventing humidity and dust with the high protection
class IP65.
The both smaller compartments reach lower protection
classes and can be covered with a combined outer plastic
cover. The division depending on protection classes gives
advantages in the case of installation, maintenance and
service. All this is possible without losing the protection of
the electronic components.
One of the smaller front boxes includes DC connectors and
the other communication components and AC connector.
The separation of DC and AC connection gives more advantages in safety during installation, maintenance and
service. Electronic components are assembled on one PCB.
Two magnetic units are released in cavities in the separation wall between front and rear compartment.

Figure 10 Improved cooling concept for solar inverters

Figure 12 Exploded view of 3rd generation of inverters

Figure 11 Exploded view of 2nd inverter generation of

increased output power
Figure 11 presents the power electronic packaging concept of improved 2nd generation in an exploded drawing.
Like 2nd generation inverters with lower output power the
housing is made of an aluminum die-cast structure with
integrated heat sinks, grips and other functions. The complete structure is larger than the structure of earlier solar
inverters. Inverters with nominal powers up to 11kW and
an effiency of 98% in maximum are based on this depicted packaging concept.

2.2.3.2 Inverters of Increased Output Power

In figure 13 an exploded drawing of power electronic
packaging concept of a three phase inverters for increased
output is presented which is an improvement of the 3rd
packaging generation.
Like in previous descriptions the housing is made of an
aluminium die-cast structure and integrates several functions. The rear compartment includes two heat sinks similar to the inverters of the 2rd generation with increased
power. Differences can be seen for example in the magnetic assembling and the back plane. So beside AC filter
components additional DC filter components are released
in the integrated structure.

ISBN 978-3-8007-3212-8 VDE VERLAG GMBH Berlin Offenbach

CIPS 2010, March, 16 18, 2010, Nuremberg/Germany

The wall bracket is integrated to the back plane.

The front compartment of the housing is divided in three
compartments too. There are a compartment for electronic
components, a DC connection box and a combined AC
connection and communication box. The compartment for
electronic components can be sealed by a separate aluminium die-cast cover to reach protection class IP65. Power
semiconductors as a part of the electronic compartment are
integrated in several power modules.

Paper 6.2

classes require more complexity which results in lower

integration levels. Typically SMA inverters are designed
for IP65.

Figure 14 Specific output power per weight PW of in the

market available inverters up to 20kW

rd

Figure 13 Exploded view of 3 inverter generation of increased output power

The DC connection box includes the DC connectors and

safety components like DC fuses or lightning protection.
AC connectors and display are components of the AC connection box. DC and AC boxes can be covered with a
combined outer plastic cover. The DC connection box can
be covered with an additional inner cover fulfilling increasing safety requirements in case of installation or
maintenance. In this way DC and AC boxes can be separated from the sealed electronic compartment.

Figure 15 depicts specific output power per weight PW for

SMA medium power inverters summarized in packaging
generations in more detail. How shown, the specific power
per weight PW between 1st, 2nd and 3rd inverter generation
is increased clearly.
This increasing is a result of the described improvements
in packaging and otherwise a result of a change in inverter
topology. The 1st generation uses widely a topology with
main transformer. Most of all inverters of the 2nd generation are based on a topology without a main transformer.
By trend the specific output power per weight PW of the
transformerless inverters of the 1st and 2nd generation is
increased in comparison to inverters of the same generation with transformers. A transformerless topology is used
for the inverters of the 3rd generation too, which results in
relatively high values PW.

2.2.4 Integration Level of Solar Inverters

To demonstrate the level of integration the indicators specific output power per weight PW and per volume PV are
introduced. High values of PW and PV symbolize a high
integration level.
In figure 14 specific output powers per weight in relation
to nominal output power of medium power inverters available in the market are presented. All available inverters of
the low protection class IP21 and the higher protection
classes IP54 and IP65 are analyzed separately (data from
[6]).
Due to the allowed maximum feed-in power for singlephase grids of 5kW, most of all inverters are established in
this power range. On the other hand typical power of roof
top applications is commonly in this power range. How
depicted in figure 14 the nominal power output of solar
inverters has been increased. By trend the integration level
is increasing with the nominal power.
Figure 14 shows a difference in output power per weight
depending on the protection class. Higher protection

Figure 15 Specific output power per weight PW of SMA

medium power inverters

By trend and also absolutely the specific output power per

weight PW of the 2nd generation is characterized by the

ISBN 978-3-8007-3212-8 VDE VERLAG GMBH Berlin Offenbach

CIPS 2010, March, 16 18, 2010, Nuremberg/Germany

highest values in comparison to all other generations inclusive 3rd High Power generation, how shown in figure 15.
The reason can be found in the number of inverter stages.
Inverters of 3rd generations are based on a two-stage inverter topology. Additional components like choke and semiconductors in inverters of the 3rd generation lead to more
weight and consecutively to less specific outputs per
weight. On the other hand, especially High Power inverters of the 3rd generation are more complex in comparison
to all earlier inverter generations. The 3rd generation with
increased output power is characterized by several additional functions. Examples are the safety components on
DC side.
Figure 16 shows the specific output power per volume PV
in relation to nominal output power of SMA medium power inverters. Due to the use of one housing for one inverter
familiy a nearly linear increasing of specific output power
per volume PV in relation to nominal output power can be
realized. Here the result of an intelligent and consequent
high integrated design can be demonstrated. Reasons for
reduced specific output powers per volume PV for the
High Power version of the 3rd generation are similar like
above.
Generally smaller values of PW and PV respectively for
smaller nominal power per inverter device are based in the
fact, that the housing is similar for the complete inverter
generation.

Paper 6.2

The integration level can be characterized by specific

power per weight PW and specific power per volume PV.
High level of complexity and protection class have a negatively effect on both - specific power per weight PW and
specific power per volume PV. In summary SMA solar inverter are characterized by a good ratio between complexity and integration level.
Further improvements in functional and packaging integration will come. Integration will be effected by
1. Further improvement in electronic and magnetic
components and their material
2. Further improvement of topologies and control
methods
3. Design of integrated housing with support of
thermal simulation and new housing materials.
The development of new power semiconductors based on
Si, SiC or GaN gives changes to reduce losses which results in a reduction of the cooling system. The change to
higher operation temperatures will influence the size of the
cooling system additional. Higher switching frequencies
require new solutions for magnetic components, magnetic
materials and topologies.
Topologies and control method have to consider under the
aspect of smaller components sizes. Thermal simulations
will establish better understanding of cooling processes
and push the development of high integrated housings of
solar inverters.

Figure 16 Specific output power per volume PV of SMA

Medium power inverters

Trends and Conclusion

This paper pointed out the aspect of power electronic

packaging concerning functional and packaging integration
for solar inverters. Power electronic packaging is the main
factor for improvements of solar inverter reliability and
costs. The role of functional and packaging integration will
be increasing over the next inverter generation. On the
other hand Power electronic packaging is confronted with
continuously increasing of complexity and power of solar
inverters.

Literature

[1] Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics until 2013,

EPIA, 2009.
[2] Cramer, G.; Ibrahim, M.; Kleinkauf, W.: PV System
Technologies State of the Art and Trends in Decentralised Electrification. reFOCUS, January/February
2004.
[3] Zacharias, P.: Perspectives of SiC Power Devices in
Highly Efficient Renewable Enegry Conversion Systems. ECSCRM, Barcelona, 2008.
[4] Meinhard, M.; Cramer, G., Engel, B.; Victor, M.: New
Generation of PV Inverters with Advanced Power
Electronics Packaging Concept for Highest Reliability
and Minimum Assembly Time in Mass Production.
22nd European PV Solar Energy Conference, Milan,
2007.
[5] Cramer. G., et. Al: String Technology - A Successful
Standard of the PV System Technology for 10 Years
now, 20th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 6 - 10 June 2005, Barcelona, Spain
[6] Photon: Marktbersicht Photovoltaik-Wechselrichter
2008. Ausgabe 04/2008.

ISBN 978-3-8007-3212-8 VDE VERLAG GMBH Berlin Offenbach