Grammar

:Present simple tense

: Uses
.To say how often we do things.
1- talk about things in general -2
.Something is true.
4-Something happens all the time or repeatedly-3
.When we talk about timetable ,programs,... E.T.C -5
:Construction
Verb+S
(He-She-It)
Verb
(I-We-You-They)
Words:
Usually-Often-Always-Sometimes-Every-Ever-Never
.We use Do/Does to make a Question and negative sentence

Understand-Hear-See-Smell-Taste-Like-Love-Know-Prefer-Need-Want
Hate-Mean-RelaiseSuppose-Believe-Remember-Belong-Contain-Consist-Depend-Seem
:Past simple tense
: Uses
Past habit
2-Past time
3-Suppose-1
The action is finish
5-One thing happen after another -4
: Construction

Words :
Last-Ago-Yesterday-Once-In the past
: Present continuous tense
: Uses
.The action is not finished ,the action is happening now-1
We used it when we talk about things happening in a period around now.
-2
.The action is not finished
: Construction
Verb + Ing + (Am-Is-Are)
Words :
Today -This week -This evening -Look - Listen - Now
. Use ... I am doing = Means you have already arranged to do *
: Past continuous tense
: Uses
.Somebody was in the middle of doing something at a certain time -1
. The action started before this time but the action had not finished-2
: Construction
Was +Ing + ( I - He - She - It )
Were + Ing + ( You - We - They )
Words :
As - While
AS / While
Past continuos
Past Simple
I start doing
Past
Now

I was doing

I finished doing
Past

: Future simple tense

.Construction :
Will + Inf
Words :
Tomorrow - Next - In the future
: Future perfect tense
.Uses :
To say that something will already be completed
Construction :
Will + Have + P.P
Words :
By the time - By then Tomorrow - when before
Will + Have (As soon as - After - Before - When - Till - Until - The moment )

Has
taken

 ) /
( Future perfect tense
Now

Event (1)
Will have left

Evevnt (2)
arrives

Future

Ex . they will have left before he arrives .

Future perfect progressive tense :

Construction :
will + have + been + verb + ing.
)
future perfect (
:Present Perfect tense
.Uses : 1-When we talk about a period of time ( from past to now )
.Give new information or to announce ancient happening-2
. The action in the past but has a result now-3
First time to do something .
I have done (period until now) -4
Past
Now

.Construction :
( He - She - It ) + Has + P. P
.Have + P. P+ ( I - We - You - They )
Words :
Just = Short time ago - Recently - Never - Since - For - Ever - In the last few days - Today
This morning - This evening - Already = action happening sooner than expect
.Yet = Until now ( use in question )
Since
Past present
present perfect

.
: Past perfect tense
.Uses : 1- Talk about something that happened in the past
Talk about something that happened before this time.
I have done Past
Now -2
.Construction :
( I - He - She - It -You - We - They ) + Had + P. P
Words :
After -Before - As soon as - Until - When - No sooner
Past simple
Past perfect
( Before - By the time )
Past perfect
Past simple
(After-As soon as -No sooner - Until)
:Past perfect continuous
.Uses:
Something had been happening for a period of time before something else happened
Construction :
Sub. + Had + Been + Verb + Ing
I Have Been Doing
I Had Been Doing
Now

Past

Now

: Present perfect continuous

.Uses:
1-Used for an activity just stopped
When we use (how long ,for , since) means the action is still happening or has just -2
.stopped
.The action started in the past and still happening or has just stopped-3
Construction:
( He - She - It ) + Has + Been +Verb +ing
Have +Been + Verb +Ing+ ( I - We - You - They )
I am doing
I have been doing

Now Now

Modals
1- Can = Be able to ( Can not = Be not able to ) Express Ability
Ex. Can Howard repair cars ? yes , he can fix cars as well as trucks .
2- Can , May ( Formal than can ) used to give an request permission .
Can I , May I (Formal than Can I ) both used to request permission .
3 Could , would , will used to make polite request
( Could .. has slight meaning of possibility )

. May , Might ( maybe , perhaps ) Both express possibility , May express more certainty than might -4
Should , Had better , Ought to : used to give advice , recommend OR remind someone of something -5
important . For ( -ve ) and ( ? ) we used should and had better
6- Should , Ought to : Used to express expectation .
7- Must = Have to = Has to : Used to express necessity ( Must stronger than have to , has to )
8- Must not : something is not allowed or against the law Or regulations . Or warning.
Not have to , Not has to : Something is not necessary Or required .
9- Must: Express probability Or conclusion about something based upon information we have.
10- Used to = would / Ought to = had to
Past Modals :
1- Could have : to say that we had the opportunity to do something , but we didnt do it .
2- Could have , May have , Might have : to say that something was possible in the past
( ve , could not have , may not have , might not have- )
Should have , ought to have : give advice after something has happened to say that someone did
-3
. the wrong thing
. Must have : to make conclusions or deductions about the past -4
Should / ought to / should have :
Should / ought to : ( used to express what we suppose is happening nor OR will probably
happen in the future ) Ex. 1-I mailed the package yesterday . you should get it tomorrow.

2- We order dinner 20 minutes ago . The waiter ought to be bringing our food soon .
Should have: ( used to express expectations about actions or conditions in the past )

Ex. The flight left Miami on schedule , it should have already landed in new York .
Question Techniques :
1- Yes / No question [ rising intonation ] ( Is there a pay phone in this building ? /
Do you need a passport to travel to Mexico ? )
2- Question word questions [ falling intonation ] ( where can I cash a check on base )
3- Tag Questions ( The lab is open , isnt it )
4-Special expressions
( Do you know ? / I was working / Can you tell me ? /
Could you tell me ? / Can I ask if ..? / Could I ask if ..? / I wonder if you could tell me /
This may be a stupid question , but? / This may be a dumb question , but ? )
5- Intonation [ rising intonation that makes a Yes / No question ] ( you are leaving at noon ? /
they are serving steak for dinner ? )
Tag Questions : (1 -2 )
( Is a short questions Question can have a rising intonation or falling intonation)

Ex.1-the speaker is not certain about the information ( Rising intonation )

the speaker is certain about the information and wants you to agree with him (Falling -2
intonation)
Embedded Question :
1- noun clause + Question word + sub. + verb. ( aux. + main ) + . Ex I dont know how he did it .
2- noun clause + if + sub. + verb. ( aux. + main ) + ? Ex. Do you know if he is going ?
3- Used a noun clause as a subject . Ex. How he got there is not important .
4- Use I dont know + I wonder to make an embedded question .
5- Examples : I dont know what I can do . / I wonder if hes coming today . / I dont understand what
he is saying . / can you tell me which bus goes to town ? / do you know whether or
not class is over ?
Changing Embedded Question to inf. :
Main clause I dont know I know I wonder can you tell me Do you know how can I .
1- Main clause + embedded clause ( noun clause ) /
Ex. Can you tell me Where I can wrap this package ? / I dont know Where I can find that book ?
2- Main clause + Question word + To-inf.
Ex. Can you tell me where to find this book ? / I dont know where to find this book ?
If clause :
1- If ( present simple )
present simple / future
Real condition
2- If (past simple )
sub. + would + inf.
Unreal condition

3- If ( had + P.P )
sub. + would + have + P.P.
Past Unreal Condition
4- I wish I had ( I wish = if )
sub + would + have + P.P. past unreal condition
Passive and active :
We use active verb to say what happens to the subject , We use a passive verb to say what happens to the
subject .
Active
Present simple
Past simple
Infinitive
Perfect infinitive

Example
Clean (s)
cleaned
To do / will clean
Have done / should
have done
Present perfect
Has / have done
Past perfect
Had done
Present continuous
Am / is / are doing
Past continuous
Was / were doing
I dont like people telling me what to do .

Passive
Example
Am / is / are + p.p.
Am / is / are cleaned
Was / were + p.p.
Was / were cleaned
To / will + be + p.p.
To / will be cleaned
Have / should have + been +
Have been done / should
p.p.
have been done
Has / have + been + p.p.
Has / have been done
Had + been + p.p.
Had been done
Am / is /are / + being + p.p.
Am / is / are being done
Was / were + being + p.p.
Was / were being done
I dont like being told what to do

Direct and indirect speech :

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

He said , I write a letter every day

He said , Im writing a letter
He said , I have written a letter
He said , I wrote a letter
He said , I will write a letter
He said , Im going to write a letter
He said , I can write a letter
He said , I may write a letter
He said , I must write a letter
He said , I have to write a letter
He asked , do you want to write letters

12

He asked , when do you usually write

letters?
He asked , where is the letter ?

13

He said (that) he wrote a letter every day .

He said (that) he was writing a letter .
He said (that) he had written a letter .
He said (that) he had written a letter .
He said (that) he would write a letter .
He said (that) he was going to write a letter .
He said (that) he could write a letter .
He said (that) he might write a letter .
He said (that) he had to write a letter .
He said (that) he had to write a letter .
He asked me if / whether I wanted to write a
letter.
He asked me when I usually wrote letters .
He asked where the letter was .

Comparisons :
1- Regular
Comparative : ( - er ) And Superlative : ( -est )
2
Ex.
Adjective . Old older than the oldest / young younger than the youngest
Adverb .. late later than the latest / early- earlier than the earliest
2- Irregular
Comparative : ( more / less ) And Superlative : ( the most / the least )
Ex. Comparative Adjective careful - more careful than less careful than
Beautiful more beautiful than less beautiful than
Adverb
. Beautifully more beautifully than less beautifully than
Superlative
Adjective Careful the most careful the least careful
Adverb .. beautifully the most beautifully the least beautifully
Some irregular adjective and adverb .. ( bad worse the worst / badly worse the worst /
Far farther further the farther further / good well better the best )
Adjectives :
1- ( -ing ) , tells us about job / Ex .My job is tiring .
2- ( -ed ) tells us how somebody feels / Ex. Im always tired when I finished work .
3- Fact adjectives : give us factual information about work , size , color ,
4- Opinion adjectives : tells us what somebody thinks of something Or somebody ( Ex. interesting )
5- Adverb : tell us about adverb , how somebody does something Or how something happen
( Ex. Quickly seriously quietly badly heavily well )
6- Adjectives : tell us about nouns , we use adjectives before nouns and after some verbs .
7- we use adverbs before adjectives and other adverb . ( terribly sorry reasonably cheap )

 8- ( Fast Hard Late ) can use adjectives Or adverb .

9- Can / could hardly do something = its almost impossible for me to do .
Progressives :
1- present :a express an action or event taking place ( happened ) , the time of speaking
Ex . we are reviewing progressives.
B- Express an action Or event happening at present and lasting an extended period of time
Ex. His family is living in California .
C- Express a future action . Ex. Theyre leaving Florida tomorrow .
2- Past : express an action Or event in progress Or taking place at some past time .
Ex. I was studying when you called.
3- Future : express an action Or event that will be in progress Or will continue in progress in a future
time period.
Ex. Hell be working on this assignment for the next week .
4- present perfect : a- express an action Or event that began in the past and has just recently stopped .
Ex. Ive been watching TV .
B express an action Or event that began in the past and still happening ( period of time Or
repeated over a period of time )
Ex.Toms been talking on the phone for over two hours.
5- Past perfect : Express an action Or event that was in progress at the past time and continued
until something else happened to interrupt the first action .
Ex. He had been smoking for 25 years when he finally quit .
H , Th , Ou : Pronoun + possessive
Ex . Will you go to his home ? / youll see them later .
No , not , never , barely , hardly , scarcely , seldom , rarely : these words are negative adverbs
and are not used with negative verbs . they must be used with affirmative verbs.
Ex. They never clean up the kitchen .
Adverbial connective ( Express contrast Ex. However / although / though / even though /
even if / but / despite / in spite of / no matter / regardless / nevertheless )
Ex. 1- Ali is looking for a new job ; [ even so / however / nevertheless / nonetheless / on the other
hand / regardless of that ] , he has not resigned from his old one yet .
2- Ali is looking for a new job . [ Even so / However / Nevertheless / Nonetheless / On the other
hand / Regardless of that ] , he has not resigned from his old one yet
3- She will never accept [ despite / in spite of / no matter / regardless ] How much it costs .
4 [ despite / in spite of / regardless ] The fact ( that ) its been raining all week , the graduation
ceremony will still be held out doors .
5- [ despite / in spite of / no matter / regardless ] What hes done in the past , the jury should consider
only the fact of this case .
Note the use of adverbs : ( never seldom rarely hardly scarcely )
Ex.
1- She will seldom eat dessert.
2- He never brings his own cigarettes.
Passive and perfect forms of ( inf. And gerund ) :

Passive inf. ( To Be + Verb.Ed ) Ex . I didnt expect to be invited to his party.

Passive gerund ( Being + Verb.Ed ) Ex. I appreciated being invited to your home.

Perfect infinitive ( To have + Verb.Ed ) Ex. The rain seems/seemed to have

stopped.

Perfect gerund ( Having + Verb.Ed )

Ex. I appreciate / appreciated having had the opportunity to meet the king.

Perfect passive inf. (To have been +Verb.Ed) Ex. Jane is fortunate to have been
given a scholarship.

Perfect passive gerund .( Having been + Verb.Ed ) Ex. I appreciate having been
told the news.
Adjective Quantifiers :
Used with 1- Count nouns : many several A few few.
2- noncount nouns : much a little little .
3 Both count and noncount nouns : some any more most enough all a lot of

- lots of plenty of .

Possessive Nouns:

( s ) add to singular / plural noun or irregular plural noun to show that people own.

When the final sound is voiced ( end letter M,N,B,V,Y,L,R,G,A) we pronounce (s) as /Z/ .

When the final sound is voiceless ( end letter T,P,F,K ) we pronounce (s) as /S/ .

When the final sound in letters (S,SH,CH,GE,X,Z) we pronounce (s) as /AZ/ .

When we have a plural noun , we add only the apostrophe () after the final (s) .

Ex.
Mens Womens Lieutenants less Student Employees
Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns Possessive adjectives
Possessive pronouns
My
Mine
Its
Its
Your
Yours
Our
Ours
His
His
Their
Theirs
Her
Hers
Pronunciation of (ED) :
If the word ended (T,D)
(ED) is pronounced with extra syllable ( EX. Wanted ended )
If a word doesnt end with ( T-D)
(ED) is pronounced either like the sound (T) .
the word not pronounced with an extra syllable . ( Ex . asked loved used showed closed )
Could not have + P.P :
Used to express logical impossibility about past action.
Ex. 1- Mark couldnt have quit the job. I saw him at work just this morning.
2- George couldnt have been in school the 25 Th. . It was a Sunday.
Could have + P.P :
Used to express past unfulfilled ability
Ex. Molly could have been a supervisor , but she turned down the offer.
Conditional sentence :
If + Sub. + Had + P.P.
Sub. + would / could + Have + P.P.
Ex.
If we had left earlier , we could have been on time .
Sub. + could / might + have + P.P.
If + sub. + had + P.P. ..
Ex.
Edward could have passed if he had studied harder.
If + Sub. + had + P.P.
Q.M. ( what ) + could + sub. + have + P.P. .
Ex.
If you had had more , what would you have done ?
Could + Sub. + have / has + P.P
If + sub. + had + P.P ..
Ex.
Could you have gone if you had finished your work ?
In case , In the event , If :
In case = in the event ( %70 )
Ex .
Bring your keys in case / in the event the door is looked .
If = in the event 40 %
Ex.
If / in the event it rains , the party will be held in doors .
If = in case = in the event
( In case of / in the event of ) + noun / Gerund OR ( in case / in the event ) + Clause .

Ex . Their work is done ? / Where did you see him ?
Drop in voice level .
/
Ex . Do you like coffee ?
Rise in voice level .

Tenses indicating future :

1- will .( when we certain about future actions )

2- Be going to .( when we certain about future actions )


3- Present simple tense ..( often accompany these last tense to clarify time )

4- Present progressive tense .( often accompany these last tense to clarify time )
Ex . the train ( will depart is going to depart departs is departing ) at 2:30 P.M.
Past perfect and past perfect progressive in indirect speech :
Tense doesnt change , That may be added (Optional ) , Personal pronouns and possessive
adjectives change ( your .. my / you .. me ) , In questions the word order change from
question to statement ( verb / subject order ) , For yes / no question add if or weather .
Ex. Direct : 1- Id worked in a bank I came to this job.
2- Id been swimming before Sam
called .

3- where had Kim studied English before she came here ?

4- had you met Mr. Wong before ?
Indirect : 1- Ed said ( that ) hed worked in a bank before he came to this job .
2- Ann said shed been swimming before Sam called .
3- Ron asked where Kim had studied English before she came here .
4- Pam asked me if / weather I had met Mr. Wong before .

Anticipatory it + Gerund : It + Be + noun / adjective + Gerund phrase .

Its + adjectives + subjective noun clause ( that I be on time )
Ex. 1- It was a good choice going to the game instead of the movie .
2- its better that you do the work.
3- its mandatory that we report to the chief.
It + (amaze-annoy-bother-hurt-shock-disturb-surprise) + someone + (That) +
Noun clause ( s+v+o).
It is + ( essential-necessary-mandatory-compulsory) + That + s.
Direct object + P.P. / Passive inf. :
When we have someone else perform a job for us .Use ( want like need - - expect ) followed
by a direct object + P.P. / Passive inf.
Ex .
1- I would like the oil changed this morning.
2- The librarian wants the books to be returned in good condition .
Note : Expect is usually followed by a passive inf.
Ex. The boss expects this job to be done today.
Adjective clause reduction ( to-inf.)
( To + Inf. ) OR ( For + noun / Pronoun )
Ex. 1- Roger has a lot (that) he must learn.
Roger has a lot to learn
2- I bought some snacks (that) we can eat later.
I bought some snacks for us to eat later .
3- Do you know a place (where) I can buy batteries?
Do you know a place to buy batteries?
4-I know of a good place (where) you can meet me.
I know of a good place for you
to meet me.
Present progressive / Present simple :
1- Present progressive: used to talk a bout something that is happening now.
Ex Look ! its snowing.
2- Present simple : used to talk a bout something that is happens all at time .
Ex. It usually snows here in the winter.
Adverb Clause of time :
1- while I was swimming in the lake , I saw a large fish jump .
While swimming in the lake , I saw a large fish jump .
2- Robert always reads the newspaper While he eats breakfast .
Robert always reads the newspaper While eating breakfast .
3- The driver , while he was racing to the hospital , ran several stop signs .
The driver , While racing to the hospital , ran several stop signs .
Restrictive adjective clause :
Ex. The boy who waved to us is my brother .
Non Restrictive adjective clause :

Ex. Mr. Smith , who lives next door , is moving to Ohio .

Causative ( Have Make Get ) :
Have someone do something / Have something done ( passive ) .
Make someone do something / Make something done ( passive ) .
Get someone To do something / Get something done ( passive ) .
Time Expression :
All the time expression answer the question [ when ? / how often .. ? / how long ? ]
1- Time adverbial expression A definite time , the answer of the question [ where ? ]
Ex.( Now again just recently yesterday tomorrow last week next year Monday evening
in the morning on Saturday then at night three weeks ago the day after tomorrow )
2- Time adverbial expression Duration of time , they answer the question [ how long ? ]
EX. ( for since )
3- Time adverbial expression Frequency , they answer the question [ how often ? ]
Ex. ( daily weekly every day every week end once a year twice a week always
sometimes often never usually frequently )
Showing Effect OR Result :
Mr. Green lost his job (as a result, / thus, / therefore, / consequently,) he cant buy a new car.
Mr. Green lost his job (As a result, /Thus, / Therefore,/ Consequently,)he cant buy a new car.
Nouns clause after certain verbs.
Noun clause can be used after certain verbs that express necessity and requesting (advise
ask command recommend request suggest insist order urge )
Ex. His mother insisted ( that ) he be home at eight .
I suggested to john ( that ) he study for the test .
Gerund and to-inf. After Be :
Ex. 1- his favorite sport is swimming.
2- her biggest problem is doing her homework .

3- his advice was not to fly in this weather.

4- Jims goal is to learn Russian.
Fixed prepositional phrase :
( Go to / Come to ) bed = to sleep . ( Be in / Stay in ) bed = for rest
Get out of bed = After resting / sleeping .
( Go to / Come to ) school = to study .
Be at breakfast / at dinner / at the table = Having a meal .
Be in class = attending or teaching a class.
Go to / be at church = for worship .
Be at / go home = in ones own house.
Go to / be at the university = for study .
Go into / be in the hospital = for medical treatment.
Pronouns :
Someone ,something ,somebody ,anything ,anyone ,anybody (used in question indefinite pronouns )
Someone , something , somebody , anything , anyone , anybody , nothing , nobody , no one ( used in
affirmative sentence indefinite pronouns)
anything , anyone , anybody ( used in negative sentence indefinite pronouns )
Someplace ,somewhere , anywhere , anyplace ( used in question indefinite adverb )
Someplace ,somewhere ,anywhere ,anyplace ,no place ,nowhere (used in question indefinite adverb )
Anyplace , anywhere ( used in negative sentence infinite adverb )
Prepositions :
1- At Used for the time of day ( at 5 oclock 11.45 midnight the same time the moment
home work school university college sea a party a conference the station the airport )
2- On Used for days and dates ( On Friday 12 March 1992 my birthday chrisms day
a bus a train a ship a bicycle a horse TV a motorcycle the radio a trip business )
3- In Used for longer periods ( In October 1984 the past the 1990 the middle agesA few minutes six months - a time in the future bed hospital prison the sea a car a taxi )
4-Dont use ( At On In ) before Last next this every
5- At the end = at the time when something ends . //
In the end = finally .
6- Use ( In At ) for Buildings and Towns .
7- Go / come / travel To a place or event .
//
Get / arrive To a place .

 8- Shout at = when you are angry .

//
Shout to = so that they can hear you .
Relative clause :

Tells us which person Or thing the speaker mean . Ex. The woman who lives next
door is a doctor.

We use Who / That / Which / Whose / Whom / Where .

We use (,) in the clause when the relative clause give us extra information about
the person Or thing .

We dont use (,) when the relative clause tells we which person Or thing the
speaker mean.

Pronoun agreement :

Sub
Object
Possess adjective
Possess pronoun
reflexive
I
Me
My
Mine
Myself
You
you
your
yours
yourself
she
her
her
hers
herself
he
him
his
his
himself
it
it
its
itself
we
us
our
ours
ourselves
you
you
your
yours
yourselves
they
them
their
theirs
themselves
Coordinating conjunctions : ( parallel structure )
And used to indicate addition EX. 1- Bob and mike are studding math . 2- they like to eat and
coffee.
Or used to indicate a choice of two items . Ex. Ahmed or Ali will take you to airport
But show contrast between two items . Ex. The team tried to score a goal but failed.
Not show an acceptance of one and rejection of another . Ex. The dog not the cat eats the most.
Correlative conjunction :
Bothand: show addition of two or more (stronger than and) Ex. Both Ali and khalid can play the
piano.
Not only but also: similar to (bothand) .Ex. her husband not only cooks but also cleans.
Eitheror: indicate choice between two items or persons.
Ex. Either Ali or Wilson will take to us today.
Neithernor: negative of (either. or),never used with negative verb.
Ex. Betty is neither kind nor helpful.
Rather Than ( = instead of ) : Indicates preference Or alternative . Ex. Martha likes working in the
garden Rather than in the kitchen. / We will walk rather than take a taxi .
As well As ( = Beside ) : indicates addition Ex. Sally swims as well as skis .
But Not : indicates contrast Ex. The curtains fit the windows in length , but not width .
Adverb of time :
Yet : expect some action to take in the future , the action is not completed and has not happened
before the present time , used in yes/no question and (-ve) statements ,At the end of sentence.
Ex.
Have you finished yet?
No, I have received the letter yet.
Already : expected activity has happened (finished action the action is completed ) ,
used in questions and affirmative statements, in the middle of sentence.
Ex. Have you already mailed the package ? Dinner has already been served.
Still : the situation continues form past to present, used in questions, in the middle of sentences,
carry (-ve) meaning. Ex. Does he still live in Los Anglos ? yes, he still lives in Los Anglos.

 Anymore : past situation is over and doesnt continue exist, used in yes/no questions and (-ve )
sentence, at the end of sentence . Ex. I dont go to the gym anymore , but I still exercise every day.
Adverbial connectives of addition :

; ( also-besides-furthermore-in addition-moreover) ,
.

. ( Also-Besides-Furthermore-In addition-Moreover) ,
.
Reduction an adverb clause of time a modifying phrase :
( Adverb such as : after before since until when whenever while )
Ex. 1- I feel sleepy whenever I study after dinner .
I feel sleepy wherever studying after dinner .
2- Before we opened the door ,we heard a loud noise . Before opening the door ,we heard
a loud noise .
3- Could you walk after you fell off the horse ?
Could you walk after falling off the horse?
Coordinating conjunctions :
So : Used to express result . Ex . I had a bad toothache , so I went to the dentist .
Yet : Used to express contrast similar to (But) . Ex. She didnt study for the test , yet she passed it .
Nor : Used to indicate the addition of (-ve) idea . Ex. John cant swim , nor can his brother ( swim ) .
So + adjective + clause :
Ex . I didnt read the story , it was so dull .
Such + adjective + noun + clause :
Ex. I didnt read the story , it was such a dull story .
( In spite / Despite ) + noun
BUT
( Although / Even though ) + sub. + verb. + object
As well As : Ex . Ali as well as his friends is
.
In addition to : Ex. Ali in addition to his friends are
.
Perfect gerund and perfect inf.
1- perfect gerund : ( active voice = having + p.p. / passive voice = having been + p.p. )
Ex. Having studied all night ,Ahmed was ready for the exam . / having been accused of robbery ,
Sam had to hire a lawyer .
2- perfect inf. : ( active voice = to have + p.p. / passive voice = to have been + p.p. )
Ex. The all night study session proved to have been a mistake for Ahmed . / today the accusations
against Sam appear to have been dropped .
That-noun clause sentence :
That noun clause + verb + complement / It + verb + complement + that-noun clause /
Noun phrase + verb + optional that + noun clause .
Ex.
1-That you were not killed is a wonder .
2- It is a wonder that you were not killed .
3- the fact is that you were late !
Adjective and preposition combinations :

Absent from accustomed to afraid of angry at / with appropriate for

Aware of bad for bored with capable of clear to conscious of critical of crowded with
dedicated todifferent from difficult for disappointed in / with doubtful about enthusiastic
about equal to excited about exhausted from faithful to familiar with famous for fond of
friendly to / with frightened of full of glad about hungry for incapable of innocent of
interested in involved in kind to know for loyal to mad at married to nice to patient
with
polite to proud of prepared for qualified for ready for related to
responsible for
satisfied with scared of similar to successful in sure about
terrified of thirsty for
tired from / of tolerant of upset about worried about .
Collective nouns :
The committee has a tremendous job before it .
( Correct )
The committee have a tremendous job before them .
( Correct )
The committee has a tremendous job before them .
( Incorrect )

Sequence adverbs in final position :

Sub + Verb + complement + Adverb ( place + manner + time )
Ex. The children are at home alone tonight . / Alec plans to travel to Alex by train next week .
Gerund and inf. As subjects :
1- sub. + complement + verb + complement / Ex. Driving across the city takes about an hour .
2- Sub. + complement + verb + sub. + complement / Ex. To leave now would be rude .

3- An-it + verb + complement+sub.+complement / Ex. It takes about an hour to leave across

the city .
4- An-it + verb + complement + sub + complement / Ex. It was wonderful to see Maria again .
Modifier + noun :
1- compound noun ( Ex. Drinking water - )
2- Verb + noun ( drinking Water - )

Wherever = Anywhere : ( Whoever = anyone / whomever = anyone / whatever

= anything / wherever = anywhere / whenever = anytime / whichever = any
car )
In the front of / In front of : In the front / bake of .. inside something object comes after it .
In front / bake it outside something no object comes after it .
Emphatic DO :
When we want to stress or emphasize an action we can use do , does or did before the verb.

Ex.
Did you met my niece last night ? no, but I did meet your nephew.
Preposition indicate place or location :
At above among behind below beneath beside between in -in back of in front of
inside near next to on on top of opposite over through out under underneath .
Preposition indicate direction of movement :
Around as far as - away from down in into from off on onto out of past
up to through toward (s) .
Would :
Would = used when we imagine a situation or action or when we talk about things that happened
regular in the past.
Would have done = Imagine situation or action in the past .
I wish would = use when we want something to happen or want somebody to do
something , For action and changes not for situation.
I wish would not = To complain about things people do repeatedly .
Had better :

Had Better = Is advisable to do it ,If I dont there will be a problem or danger .

Had better = Use only for a particular situation .

I had better = should = ought to .

Should:
Should = Used to give advice or to give an opinion or to expect something to happen .
Should do = A good thing to do OR the right thing to do .
Should not do = Is not good thing to do .
Should have done = Did not do it but it would have been the right thing to do .
Should = Not strong as must . Used with ( suggest propose demand recommend insist
o think I dont know Do you think )
Need:
Need not do = Is not necessary.
Need not have done = Do the action but it was not necessary .
Did not need to do = Was not necessary for me to
Need not have done = Did something but now I know that it was not necessary .
Must = Have to =Has to :
( Necessary to do something )

Must = personal , we use when we give our personal feeling. ( used with ..present, future )

Has to / Have to = Impersonal , use for facts ( used with present , past , future )

Must not do = Necessary that you dont do it .

Dont have to do = Dont need to do it .

May / Might :
Used to say something is possible or happening in the future .
May / Might
Be + Verb. + ing.
( For possible planes )
May / Might + not have + ( Been + Verb. OR P . P . )

 Must / Can :
Must = To say we feel sure something is true.
Cant = To say we feel sure something is not true.
Must / cant
( Inf. OR Be. + Verb. + Ing. )
Must / cant + Have
( P. P. OR Been + Verb. + Ing. )
Can / could / would you ? = Used for ( Request , Offers , Permission , Invitations )
Can = Used to say something is possible or someone has the ability to do .
Can = Be able to But Can is more usual .
Could = Used for general ability or possibility , Less sure than Can .
Could = Used with ( see , hear , smell , taste , feel , remember , understand )
Be able to = When we talking about what happen in particular situation .
Could have done = For things which were possible but did not happen .
Could have done = Would have been able to do .
Will:
Will = Used to say ( offering to do something , Agreeing to do something ,promising to do
something ,Asking someone to do something )
I will = Used when we decide to do something at the time of speaking , Dont use will to talk
about What you have already decided to do .
Will not = Refuse to do something ( will not = wont )
Will = Used often with ( probably , Im sure , I expect , I think , I wonder , I dont think )
Will be doing (future continuos ) = talk about complete action in the future and we are in the
middle of doing something .
Will have done ( future perfect ) = something will already be completed .
Shall = Mostly used in question to ask somebody opinion ( Especially in offers or suggestions )
Few / little + A few / A little :
Few / little used as adjectives and as pronouns , with count nouns, used in negative way
( the absence of nearly all quantity , - ve )
A few / a little used with noncount nouns. Used in a positive way ( the presence of nearly all
quantity , + ve ).
Bring / Take :
Bring = used for movement toward the speaker . ( Ex. Bring me that paper )
Take = used for movement a way from the speaker.(Ex. Take this message to col. Khalid office)
Mind / Object :
Mind + Verb. + Ing.
BUT Object + to + Inf.
Borrow / Lend :
Borrow from
But
Lend to
Good / Well :
Good at
But
Well
( adjective Or adverb )
Raise / Rise :
Raise + object
But
Rise = go up = ascend ( dont take object )
Wish : ( past unreal situation)
Wish + (that) noun clause ( containing past perfect verb ) to express regret about a past situation
Ex.
I wish (that) I had become a doctor instead of a lawyer
Too / Very: ( Placed before adjective or adverb )
Very = a lot = much = to great degree
Too = more than enough ,used to express excessiveness , used too implies a negative result.
Too to ( somebody / something ) // too to
do something .
Beside / Besides :
Beside = Next to = By the side of ( Ex. Khalid sits beside major Kent in the classroom.)
Besides = in addition = further more = in addition to = other than
Ex. Besides English , I also study science at the university.
Need :
Usually followed by ( To + Inf.) Ex. I need to borrow some money.

Sometimes we use Gerund ( Verb. + Ing. ) Ex. The house needs painting OR to be painted.
Who / Whom :
Whom is normally used in formal English ,the proposition usually comes before whom when
a question is asked. Ex. To whom are you giving your book ? My teacher.
Who is often used instead of whom in informal speech . the preposition placed at the end of sentence.
Ex. Who are you speaking to ? - Who are you reading about ?
Elder eldest / older oldest :
Elder Eldest can only be used to imply seniority with in a family or social group , cant use
THAN after it .
EX. Frank is my elder brother / His eldest son came to visit him.
Older Oldest to compare , used THAN after it EX. Frank is older than Im .
So . That / Such . That :
So that :used with Adjectives adverbs noun phrases (the phrases may have much , many )
Such that : used only with noun phrases ( the phrases never have much , many )
Ex.
Jim is so tall ( such a tall man ) that he has to bend to enter .
Else :
used as
1- Question word
Ex. Who else will be at the party ?
2 Pronouns
Ex. Do you know whom else she spoke to?
3- Adverbs
Ex. Can you tell me how else I can do it ?
A / An :
A used before singular count noun that begins with constant sound ( a book a guard ).
An used before singular count noun that begins with a vowel sound ( a o e I h )
Ex. an example an actress an inch an onion an hour .
A / An Not used before plural count nouns . ( Actors horses jackets keys )
Too + adverb + to + inf. :
Ex .
this city grows too rapidly for me to keep up with it .
There + be + gerund :
Ex. There is no smoking in this building . / there will be celebrating after the graduation .
As if / As though :
Preferred in formal speech to introduce an adverb clause of manner ( Express how someone or
something looks , sound , smells ,.) . we use like.
Ex. It smells ( As if / as though / like ) something is burning. Ex. Bob always act as if hes mad.
Use ( as if / as though ) to show how someone does something.
Eitheror / Neither.nor :
Ex.
1- Either my sister or my brother is going to visit him.

2- Either my brother or my sister are going to visit him.

3- Neither john nor his friends were there.

4- Neither you nor your friend was helpful.

Lay / lie :
Lay : = to place = to put ( use when something is happening to a person or a thing )
Ex. Stan laid his hand on his sons shoulder.
Lie : = to rest = to remain in a certain position ( use when there is no person or thing
receiving the action of the verb.) Ex. The patient lay in his hospital bed for two weeks.
Borrow / Lend :
Borrow something From someone . / Lend something To someone
While : while + subject + verb .
In case : to say why somebody does something ( in case of = if there is )
Have : used with breakfast dinner a cup of tea a cigarette a bath a shower a swim
a rest a party a holiday a nice time an accident an experience a dream difficult fun
trouble .
Army News United sates + Is
/ Police + are
Let / permit / allow : let + verb BUT allow / permit + to + infinitive .
Sub. + verb + ( mandatory / advisable / best / better ) + that + sub + infinitive + complement .
Ex. Its mandatory that every pilot wear his helmet .

Go ( Go + to
place / Go + Gerund )
Sub. + Be permitted to / Allowed to + Verb. :
Ex.
They will be permitted to / allowed to bring 2 suitcases .
Lots of and a lot : ( the same meaning and use )
used with ..
( much many countable nouns uncountable nouns affirmative negative
Questions )
Same , Similar , Alike , and Different : Used to express difference or similarity .
Ex. ( Be different from , Be alike , Be similar to , Be similar .. , Be the same as )
Adverbial connectives used to shorten statements .( All in all consequently in all in
conclusion to conclude in summary in other words to summarize in short to put it briefly )
Talk about difference : Used .. ( Different from not at all alike / the same
not the same as many difference between considerable difference in )
Quite a few :
Used with countable nouns , affirmative and questions ( -ve. Question )
A greet deal of : used with uncountable nouns , affirmative , negative statements and questions .
Be to :
used to express necessity or obligation or future time .
Say :
( when you are repeating what you or someone has said / say + direct object /
say + to + indirect object )
Tell :
( when you give facts or information to someone or when you give relating
a conversation to someone / tell + indirect object + direct object )
By : Used to show A means of transportation Or communication ( By + [ noun / verb + ing. ] )
With / Without :
Used to express how something is done when an instrument
Or part of the body is used ( with hammer with his shovel with her knee )
Advice / Advise :
Advice (n) = recommendation = opinion BUT Advise (v) = give a device
Be about to :
Used for very immediate future . Ex. I think Im about to faint .
Used with time clause beginning with (when) Ex. I was about to start dinner when the phone rang .
Verb. + Object +preposition + (Verb. + Ing. ) .
Congratulate on accuse of suspect of prevent from stop from thank for
forgive for Warn against.

Verb. + preposition + (Verb + Ing) .

Talk about apologies for succeed in insist on think of feel like decide against
Approve of dream of look forward to.
Verb. + (To + Inf.)
Decide offer hope deserve attempt promise threaten mange afford aim plan
Appear Ask Beg Care - Consent Demand Expect Need Hesitate Mean wait
Prepare Pretend regret remember swear struggle volunteer want wish - claim.
Agree refuse arrange learn forget fail seem tend pretend begin bother
choose continue determine happen hate hope intend like love need neglect
offer prefer proceed start try threaten Verb. (Verb. + Ing.) Or Verb. (Noun. + Verb. + Ing ).
Enjoy mind suggest stop delay fancy consider admit miss involve
finish postpone
Imagine avoid deny risk practice allow give up put off carry on go on keep on
Advise Anticipate Appreciate Complete Discuss Cant help mention Quit Recall
Recommend - Regret Remember represent resist Tolerate Understand Continue
Escape like - Permit Report Start .
Verb. + Question word + (To + Inf. )
. Ask - decide - Know - remember - forget - explain - learn - understand - wonder
Verb. + object / pronoun + ( to + inf. )
Tell remind force enable teach order warn invite persuade get Advise allow
- ask beg cause challenge convince dare encourage expect forbid hire instruct-

need permit require urge want warn .

Verb. + object + ( To + Inf. ) OR Verb. + ( To + Inf. )
Want ask help would like would prefer expect beg mean would love would hate.
Verb. + object + ( To + Inf. ) OR Verb. + ( Verb. + Ing. )
Advise recommend encourage allow permit forbid.
Verb. + ( verb. + ing. ) OR Verb. + ( to + inf. )
Begin start intend continue bother love hate cant bear Attempt forget like mean
need neglect plan prefer remember regret try.
Verb + (that) Noun clause:
Verbs followed by noun clause
( Agree believe decide discover doubt feel hope figure out find out forget
guess hear imagine indicate know learn notice observe predict read realize
regret remember say tell think understand.)
Verb + Object + ( present simple / present participle ) :
Some verbs followed by object + ( present simple emphasize completion of the action /present
participle . Emphasize the duration of the action ) { feel hear listen to look at notice
observe see smell watch. }
Ex. I didnt hear bill knock / knocking at the door .

Expression + verb + ing. : ( have fun / have a good time / have trouble / have
difficulty / have
a hard time / have a difficult time ) + verb + ing.
Spend / Waste + Expression of time + verb + ing.
Ex. Spend a year studding .
Sit / Stand / Lie + Expression of place + verb + ing.
Ex. Sit at the computer working.

Kind of suffix :
1- noun suffix . 2- verb suffix .
3- adjectives suffix .
Suffix ( -able / -ible )
Add to certain nouns and verbs to make adjectives ( Ex. Accept / acceptable love / lovable
- wash / washable permit / permissible )
Suffix ( -ent / -ant ) :
Add to some verbs to make adjectives these express that has, shows, does .(Absorb/absorbent
converge/convergent depend / dependent excel / excellent differ / different neglect / negligent
insist / insistent observe observant please / pleasant rely / reliant tolerate / tolerant.)
Suffix ( -ive / -tive / -ative )
Add to verb. Or noun to make adjective (create/ creative - defense / defensive produce / productive
talk / talkative )
Suffix ( -y / -ty / -ity / -ility )
Add to adjectives to form abstract nouns . ( honest / honesty certain / certainty real / reality
- creative / creativity visible / visibility )

Suffix ( -ness )
Add to adjective to make nouns which express ( the quality or state of being )
Ex. Dark / Darkness dizzy / dizziness eager / eagerness sick / sickness.
Suffix ( Un- ) :
Give the opposite meaning of the word ( Ex. Reliable / unreliable )
Suffix ( -like ) :
Add to nouns to make adjectives . express the idea of resembling or having the characteristic of
something . ( Ex. Child / childlike lady / ladylike )
Suffix ( -er / -or ) :
Add to some verbs to make nouns ( Ex. Teach / teacher collect / collector )
Suffix ( -ion / -ation / -tion / -sion )
Add to verbs to make nouns ( Ex. Instruct / instruction observe / observation intend / intention
decide / decision )
Suffix ( -al / -ance / -ment / -y )

Add to verbs to make nouns ( Ex. Approve / approval refer /reference allow / allowance employ /
employment recover / recovery )
Suffix ( -al / -ial )
Add to nouns to form adjectives .
( addition / additional commerce / commercial

accident / accidental manager / managerial )

Suffix ( -ize ) :
Add to various adjectives to make verbs , means to cause Or to be .
Ex. Equal / equalize modern / modernize .
Suffix ( -ful / -less )
Add to some nouns to make adjectives . they have opposite meanings ( -ful means full of OR Having
/ -less means without OR not enough )
Ex. ( Powerful - careful powerless careless - .. )
Suffix ( -ward ) : used to form adjectives and adverbs which indicate a direction in time or space.
Ex. ( Northward southward eastward westward upwards downwards backwards )
Suffix ( -ern ) : Add to nouns to form adjectives , indicate something occurs in or is situated
in certain direction .
Ex. ( northern southern eastern - western )
Suffix ( -fy / -ify )
Add to some nouns and adjectives to make verbs. ( Beauty / Beautify false /falsify just / justify
person / personify simple / simplify terror / terrify class / classify electric / electrify glory /
glorify liquid / liquefy pure / purify solid / solidify )
Suffix ( -ic / -ical ) :
Add to nouns to make adjectives . Ex.(atom / atomic method / methodical economy / economic
comic / comical )
Suffix ( -en ) :
Add to nouns and adjectives to form Verbs ( wide / widen deep / deepen length / lengthen )
Suffix ( -ly ) :
Add to adjectives to form adverbs , describe the action of the adverb
and answer the question how ? , Ex.. Slow / Slowly .
Prefix ( Re- ):

Meaning is again / make it again. Ex. Remarried rewrite reconsider.

Prefix ( mal / mis ) :
means bad Or wrong
Add to words to indicate that action , condition Or thing is not good Or not right ( maladjusted /
miscounted / misdirected )
Prefix (Co- ) :
Has the meaning of joint and together with , sometimes ( Co- appears as [Com- , Con- , Col-] )
Ex. Compress contain collect
.
Making request :
formal

I hope you dont mind my asking , but could you Do ( inf. ) me a favor ?
Could you possibly
Do you think you could
Would you be willing to
Would you
Could you
informal
Will you
Do (inf. ) me a favor ?
Can you
formal
Would you mind
Doing ( verb + ing ) me a favor ?
Informal How about
Doing ( verb + ing. ) me a favor
If no one is listening request : formal
excuse me. / informal
hey!
Agree to request :

Formal

Informal

Very informal

Agree
Of course.
Certainly.
By all means.
Id be glad to .
Yes , I will / can .
Sure.
All right .
Okay .
By happy to .
No problem .
You bet .
No sweat .

Refuse
Im terribly sorry , but .
Im sorry , but ..
Id like to , but ..
I wish I could , but
No , I wont / cant .
Sorry , but
Im possible .
Wish I could .
No way .
Forget it .
Not a chance .

Obligation ( Duty , Responsibility , Requirement )

Used ( Be to , must , should , need to , have to , promise , have got to , be required to ,
be supposed to )
Express an obligation :
I told him Id / he has a commitment to
/ they are responsible for / she said that shed / we are committed to
/ it is my responsibility to / he has an obligation to / Im under an obligation to
Express no obligation :
you dont need to / No one expects you to
/ they have not made any promises . / that is not your responsibility . / Im under no obligation to
/ I never told him that Id / that is really not her job . / I did not want to commit myself .
How to make Reservation :
I ( want / need / would like / d like ) to reserve ( a room / a car / a seat / a table )
I ( want / need would like / d like ) to make ( a reservation / Reservations ) for ( the concert /
five people / six 0clock / December 31 )
Asking for and giving sequence instructions :
1- How to do something
( would you explain how ? / how should I ? / how do you ?
/ what should I do first ? / what is the best way to ? )
2-How to confirm that person understand what we say
( did you understand what I said ? /
have you got all that ? / are you following me ? / any question ? / got it ? / okay ? / remember to /
be sure to )
3- We not understand Or confused of something
( would you repeat that ? /
I didnt catch that last part / Im not sure I understand / what was that ? / hold it / wait a minute /
you just lost me / I missed that last part / run that by again , please )
4- We understand something and we need more information about it
( what should I do now ? / now what ? /Is this right ? / Is this okay ? / How is this ? / like this ? /
then what ? / any thing else ? / what is next ? )
5- We understand something and can follow then
( that does not sound too hard / that does not sound too difficult / that seems simple enough /
that seems easy enough / I think Ive got it / I understand / So far , so good )
Asking for instructions : ( what should I do first ? / what do I do after that ?/I think I understand /
what do you mean /then what ? /what next ? /now what ? /would you explain ..?/you just lost me )
Giving instructions :
( To begin with .. / first / first of all / next / then / after that
/ be sure to / okay / have you got all that ? )
Expression used to delay answering : ( Let me see /well , now / let me think for a minute /
Im not sure , but I think .)
Expression used to a void answering : ( I really dont know . / I have no idea . / sorry , I cant
answer that one . / thats something I dont care to discuss . /I really dont want to talk about that . /
Id rather not answer that . )
Expression show our appreciation by thanking them :

Thanks a lot / thanks very much / thanks so much / thank you very much / thanks a million /
thanks a bunch / many thanks / I owe you one / I appreciate it / I appreciate your help /
you shouldnt have / Im very grateful / thanks for the complement / Im in your debt /
I can not ever enough / how can I ever thank you ?
When someone expresses gratitude for something :
You are welcome /you are very welcome /you are more than welcome /you dont have to thank me /
think nothing of it / do not mention it / dont worry about it / never mind / it was no trouble /
any time / it was nothing / forget it / it was no problem / it was my pleasure .
Expressions:
Suggest ( when we sure what should be done ) : I think that you should / I would suggest that /
my suggestion would be to / the best thing to do would be to / your best option would be to /
the best course of action would be to / I believe you ought to .
suggest ( we uncertain about something / used in formal settings ) : it seems to me that perhaps /
you might want to / have you considered /we have considered /has ever been considered
/ I think it might be a good idea /one idea would be to / may be you ought to / I would appear
that your best course of action would be to .
Suggestion (with close friends / less formal ) : I think youd better / lets / why dont you
/you might want to / you should / it maybe a good idea to / you probably should / you
ought to / may be youd better / if I were you , Id / what you need to do is / take my
advice and /do yourself a favor and /if you want my opinion /you might want to think about
/ maybe you should think about .
Expression of sorry : Im sorry about / I was sorry to hear about / Im sorry that / Im so
sorry to hear about /Im mny76so sorry that /I was should to shocking to hear about /I want
you to know how sorry Im about /Im really sorry to hear /I cant tell you how sorry Im that
When we understand someone experiencing: I know your feelings / I understand how you feel /
I understand what you are going through /I know how you feel/
I understand how angry you must feel
Offer assistance : Is there anything I can do for you ? / please let me know if there is anything I can
do /Ill be more than glad to help you /please call if you need me /Ill be hero if you need me /please
dont hesitate to call on me if there is something I can do / If I can help you in any way , let me know .
Agreeing : certainly / sure / I agree with you / I couldnt agree more.
Disagreeing :
I dont think so , / I agree with you , but / the way I see it is different /
what are you suggesting is not true . / as fast as I know , this is / what your saying is quite
the opposite of my opinion .
Asking permission :
Can ? / may ? / are we permitted ? / would you mind if ? /I wonder if I could ?
/ Could ? /are we allowed ? / is it okay if ? / do you mind if ?
Giving permission :
Sure , go ahead / Sure , no problem / yes , of course / yes , you can /yes , you may / sure ,
its okay / no, I dont mind at all / of course / Certainly .
Denying permission :
Sorry / sorry , I cant / please dont / Im afraid not / Im sorry but / I wish you wouldnt /
sorry , it is not allowed ( permitted ) .
Word connective :
used to indicate a time sequence
( first second third at first
then later before that eventually next following this after this afterward in the
beginning first of all last of all at the start mean while in the mean time to start with
after that initial following final last )

Notes

Used to +Inf. = something happen regularly in the past but no longer happens.( Past ended action )
Used to = something that was true in the past but is not true anymore .
I am doing = we say that we have already decided and arranged to do these things.
I am going to = when we have already decided to do something or when we intend to do it

( But perhaps not arranged to do it )

Be going to = I intend or planned to do it but did not do it .
Go + verb + ing. ( to form certain expression . Ex. Go swimming Go fishing Go shopping )
I am used to (doing) something = Something is not strange or new for me . ( Still doing the action )
I am used to do something = I did something regularly in the past but not longer do it .
Use (A / An ) with singular countable nouns.
Do not use singular countable nouns alone (without a , an ,the , ...)
Do not use ( A / An ) with uncountable nouns .
Use ( many / few ) or ( some / any ) with plural countable nouns .
Use ( much / little ) or ( some / any ) with uncountable nouns .
Coffee , tea , beer , juice , etc. are normally uncountable .
( News , Athletics , gymnastics , Mathematics , maths , Physics , Electronics , Politics )
Uncountable , not plural .
( The )
used for specially , (A / An )
used for general.
( The + adjective ) to talk about group of people.
(The + nationality ) to mean The people of the country
Do not use the with names of people .
( S ) We normally use for people or animals can also with time expressions.
Afraid to do something = I do not want to do something because it is dangerous
or the result could be bad.
Afraid of something happening = it is possible that something bad will happen .
Interested in doing something = I am thinking of doing it , I would like to do it .
See somebody do something .
See somebody doing something .

Sorry to + inf.
But
Sorry for + Verb. + Ing.
( its no use its no good theres no point in a waste of money its not worth have difficultya waste of time ) + Verb + Ing.
Need to do something = It is necessary for me to do it .
Something needs doing = something needs to be done .
It is the time you did something = You should have done it already or started it .
I would like = Is a polite way of saying what we want.
Wont +verb used to express refusal in the present or future.
Would not + verb used to express past refusal.
Will + verb(inf.) / Be + willing + to + inf. .. used to express present or future willingness .
I hope = generally use the present simple tense.
Every , All , Whole
Used with time words.
Every = used for people OR things , But Every one = used only for people .
Each = Used when we think of things as a group, usual used for a small number , used for two
things.
Every = Used when we think of things as a group, usual used for a large number , used to say how
often something happen .
Everybody , Everyone , everything , Are singular not plural.
( Much + Little ) = used with singular nouns , BUT ( Many + Few ) = used with plural nouns.
( Only a little + Only a few ) = Have a negative meaning.
( A lot of / Lots of / Plenty of = more than enough ) = Used with singular and plural nouns.
Transitive verb.( v.t) : Requires an object to complete the meaning.
Object : Who received the action OR who affected by the action .
Intransitive verb. ( v.i ) : Doesnt need an object .
Dont use ( TO ) with home downtown Ex. He left home when he was a child.
Clause : Is a group of words that has sub. + verb. And used as apart of a sentence.

 Accept / Except: (Accept =to take =to receive/ Except =to leave out =but =excluding =not including
)
Gerund : Can be used as the subject of sentence , it can be made negative be placing Not before
gerund, May be used as the object of a preposition .
Ex. 1-Thank you for being my friend.
2- We were happy about not having homework.

( Feel look listen hear )
Unless = If not
For .. show duration of time .
In . Show how long it takes to do something.
Give a ring . Call on the telephone .
Clause : Is a complete sentence ( verb + sub + complement )
Phrase : is a complement ( dont contain Verb + sub )