Lecture 8

Ballistic and dynamic ceilings of an airplane. The summary diagram of range of

possible speeds and airplane flight altitudes. Climb and descent of an airplane.
At the ballistic ceiling altitude the airplane has only potential energy.
In order to find graphically a ballistic ceiling value it is necessary to construct the
boundary of possible speeds and altitudes range for horizontal steady-state flight (Fig. 8.1),
and then plot a set of curves H p .al . const on the obtained diagram (Fig. 8.1), calculated
on expression (7.10) or (7.11). That curve, which is tangent to curve M max ( H ) will

Fig. 8.1
determine H p .al .max .
In the point of contact the airplane will have optimal values of Vmax and H , which

determine the greatest reserve of full energy, i.e. provide obtaining maximum power amount.
The curve H p .al .max is the boundary of inaccessibility area, i.e. the airplane will be not
capable to get in this area located to the right of curve H p .al .max , without using additional
means.
In a cross point of curve H p .al .max with an ordinate axis we obtain altitude of a
ballistic ceiling at absence of power losses.
In practice it is impossible to realize a lost-free dynamic maneuver, and that is why
above mentioned altitude is called as a conditional ballistic ceiling H ball .cond . . In actual
conditions while dynamic maneuvering H ball .cond . drops with the change of geometric
altitude H due to resistance forces action. If we calculate H p .al .max with taking into
account losses at climb and plot an obtained curve EC 1 on Fig. 8.1, then we shall receive
the value of real ballistic ceiling in a cross point of curve with the ordinate axis H ball . .
Frequently for simplification of ballistic and dynamic ceilings calculation an amount of
power losses is set H p .al . on a site B1 E or BE . For example, let's assume that
H p .al . 0.1 H p .al .

max .

Then, for H p .al . 0.9 H p .al .max the curve M ( H ) is calculated

by formula (8.11) and built. Its cross point with an ordinate axis will define the ballistic
ceiling altitude. Of course, such method of H ball . definition is approximate.
Obviously reaching the ballistic ceiling altitude, that requires a drop of speed up to
zero, is not desirable for airplanes, because the airplane loses the controllability. For keeping
the airplane controllability its speed should be not less than minimum control speed Vc .s . or
c .s . . While flying with minimum control speed, aerodynamic forces arose on airplane
controls are sufficient for flight mode change. Minimum control speed increases with
altitude (refer to Fig. 8.1), at that it is remaining less than minimum theoretical speed.
Maximum altitude, which the airplane can reach during unsteady controlled flight, is

called the dynamic ceiling H zoom . At the dynamic ceiling altitude the flight speed is equal to
minimal control speed. In other words, an altitude the airplane can reach using a kinetic
energy up to a moment, when the flight speed becomes equal to minimum control speed is
called an airplane dynamic ceiling.
If one neglects losses, then the conditional dynamic ceiling H zoom cond . will be
determined by a cross point B of curve H p .a .max with the curve c .s .( H ) . The real
dynamic ceiling H zoom will be determined by the point C which is located below the point
B on the amount of power losses (refer to Fig. 8.1).

Thus, flight altitude increasing over the static ceiling is reached by transformation of a
portion of the kinetic or all energy inherent to the airplane, into potential.
The maneuver, which provides reaching the ballistic and dynamic ceilings, is called
"zoom".
The summary diagram of range of possible speeds and altitudes of an airplane
flight
If one generalizes all previous reasoning, then it is possible to construct the diagram
of possible altitudes and flight speeds of the airplane, which is shown in Fig. 8.2.
It is possible to allocate the following areas on the diagram:
Area located between curveVmin .theor ( H ) , curve of ceilings, limitations of maximum
speed on limit dynamic pressure qm arg . and M m arg with an abscissas axis is the area of
steady-state flight modes and modes of flight with acceleration and deceleration.

Fig. 8.2
The following factors are taken into account while selecting M m arg :
a) Aerodynamic heating;
b) Stability and controllability;
c) Vibration;
d) Flutter critical speed;
e) Reliability of engine operation etc.
The most exactly value of M m arg is determined by airplanes flight tests. At absence
of flight tests data it is possible to accept M m arg 2.2 2.4 for supersonic airplanes.
The following recommendations can be used for selection of maximum dynamic
pressure:
- For maneuverable airplanes qm arg ( 70000 9000 ) H 2 ;

- For heavy airplanes qm arg ( 40000 6000 ) H 2 .

The shaded zones correspond to the second modes, on which the long duration flight
is not recommended.
2. The area 1 D1 D - an area of forbidden flights, since the given area is limited at
the left by the curves limiting possible flight modes on maximum dynamic pressure qm arg .
and M m arg .
3. There is an area of inaccessibility on the right and above the line H p .al . max . In this
area the airplane can not get because of the limited capability of the power plant (engine)
and presence of limitations put on maximum speed of steady-state horizontal flightVmax .
4. Unsteady controlled flight with n ya 1 and n ya 1 is possible in the area
between curve Vmin .theor . ( H ) , curve of ceilings and curve H p .al . max , and in the area
between curve Vmin .theor . ( H ) and V ( ) - unsteady controlled flight with n y 1 is
a
probable.
5. Area between curvesVm arg ( ) , H p .al . max , ordinate axis and axis of abscissas is
the area of uncontrolled ballistic flights.
The airplane has optimal values of speed and altitude corresponded to maximum
power altitude in point of contact of a line of equal energy and curve V max ( H ) . For
reaching maximum ballistic and dynamic altitudes it would be necessary to begin executing
"zoom" (climb) with speed V max E , being on altitude H E . But as the point E , in this case,
is in the field of forbidden flights, climb will begin with parameters corresponded to point
E 1 ( H E 1 ,Vmax E 1 ) .

At absence of power losses n xa 0 the ballistic ceiling will be defined by point B1 ,

dynamic ceiling - by point B . However, flight with n x a 0 can not be realized, because
there will always be power losses due to action of external forces on a flight path. That is

why the curve H p .al . max is created with taking into account power losses and both the
ballistic and dynamic ceilings will be determined correspondingly by points C 1 and C .
So:
Point B1 corresponds to the conditional ballistic ceiling;
Point B corresponds to the conditional dynamic ceiling;
Point C 1 corresponds to the ballistic ceiling;
Point C corresponds to the dynamic ceiling.
In one word, having constructed the given diagram, it is possible to define the range
of speeds and altitudes, where uniform steady-state horizontal flight, flight with acceleration
or deceleration, unsteady flight with n y a 1 and n ya 1 , area of undesirable and
prohibited flights, area of uncontrolled ballistic flights and area of inaccessibility are
probable.
The flight and power airplanes characteristics obtained as the results of calculations
are compared to the qualifying characteristics for the given class of airplanes. The
conclusions about suitability of the given configuration are made and the ways of the
airplane refinement are planned on the grounds of this comparison.
Climb and descent of an airplane. Equations of motion on sloped path.
Required speeds and thrusts for flight on sloped path.
Airplane center of mass movement can be performed on straight-line paths having
various flight path angles. The flight path angle is considered positive, if speed vertical
component is directed upwards and corresponds to altitude increasing during flight. The
flight mode with positive flight path angle is called climb.
Climb is performed for the different purposes:
a) Climb up to optimal altitude for flying over distance. In this case climb has to
satisfy the requirement of minimum fuel consumption per kilometer. It is characteristic for
heavy airplanes - passenger, transport and bombers;

b) Climb up to fighting altitude for the shortest time, it is characteristic, on the whole,
for interceptors;
c) Climb up to static ceiling, it is characteristic, in general, for maneuverable
airplanes;
d) Climb up to dynamic ceiling for expansion of fighting capabilities for maneuverable
airplanes.
The mode of the airplane descent is characterized by a negative flight path angle. The
descent at a thrust close to zero or at a zero thrust of engines is called as planning, and on
very steep path - dive.
Let's record equations of motion in a vertical plane (4.1, 4.2):
dV
P cos( ) X a G sin ,
dt
d
mV
P sin( ) Ya G cos .
dt
If we take into account, that the angle is usually very small ( 0 ), we shall
m

receive:
dV
P cos X a G sin ,
dt
d
(8.1)
mV
P sin Ya G cos .
dt
Having divided the right and the left-hand parts of equations of a system (8.1) by G ,
m

we shall receive equations of motion of an airplane in a vertical plane in g-loads:

.

dV
P cos X a

g
sin g( n xa sin ) ,
dt
G

.
d g P sin Ya
g

(8.2)

cos ( n ya cos ) .
dt V
G
V

The diagram of forces which are acting aboard the plane in sloped flight is shown on
V

fig. 8.3.

Fig. 8.3
A linearity condition of flight on sloped path is the equality
d
0.
dt
Having supposed, that in sloped straight flight the angles of attack @ are small, we
shall accept equations (8.1) and (.2) in the following form:
dV
P X a G sin ,
dt
Ya G cos .
m

(8.3)

V g( n xa sin ) ,
n ya cos .

(8.4)

From the equation being a condition of a flight path linearity (the second equation of
system 8.3 or 8.4) while climbing, it follows, that the lift should be less than airplane, i.e.
n ya

Y
cos 1 .
G
It follows from the first equation of system (8.3) that:
P X a G sin 0 - climb with acceleration;
P X a G sin - steady-state climb;

P X a G sin 0 - climb with deceleration.

The decelerating, accelerating or steady-state climb can be realized by the pilot by a
engine thrust variation or change of the angle of attack of the airplane by deflection of an
elevator.
For the airplane steady-state climb with the speed constant on size and direction the
equation of motion will have the following form:
P X a G sin ,
(8.5)
Ya G cos .
It is possible to define speed, required for airplane flight on sloped path from the

second equation of system (8.5)

V 2
S 0.7 C ya PH M 2 S G cos :
2
2G
V
SC ya
C ya

(8.6)

or
M

G
0.7 C ya PH S

(8.7)

If we compare this speed with speed, required for horizontal flight at identical values
of nominal load G S , air density and lift coefficient C ya , then it is easy to mention, that
(8.8)
V 0 V 0 cos .
Thus, the speed, required for sloped path flight with other identical parameters is less
than horizontal required speed.
At 30 , what, in the main, takes place at sloped flights, it is possible to accept
the amount of cos , close to 1 and to assume, that the speed, required while sloping path
flight, differs a little from required speed at horizontal flight, if other conditions remain
identical, and to consider the following ratio as acceptable:
V 0 V 0 .
Let's express an airplane drag force X a through its liftYa :

X a Ya

C xa
C ya

Taking into account, that Ya G cos , we shall receive X a

G cos
.
K

At small values of the angle it is possible to consider, that the airplane drag force in
straight sloped flight differs a little from the drag force at horizontal flight, and to assume
G
.
K
The adopted assumptions allow to identify the drag force relation to the speed in
Xa

horizontal and sloped flights.

The amount of the required thrust for steady-state flight on sloped path is determined
from the first equation of a system (8.5):
(8.9)
P X a G sin .
It follows from a ratio (8.9), that at flight with climb the engines thrust should be more
than drag (thrust in horizontal flight) on size of weight force component G sin . At decent,
the required thrust becomes less than drag force, as in this case 0 . At 0 , the
required thrust will be equal to the required thrust of horizontal flight, i.e. to the drag force.