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EXPERIMENT OUTCOMES
1) Analyse critically the experimental data in relation to the theoretical aspects. (C4)
2) Organize appropriately experiments in groups according to the standard of
procedures. (P4)
3) Write critically the appropriate report in group based on the experiment results. (A2)
THEORY
i.

Bernoullis Law

Bernoullis law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross
section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the
pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many people find this
situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure). This is
expressed with the following equation:

v
2g

+ z = h* = constant

Where,
P = Fluid static pressure at the cross section

= Density of the flowing fluid

= Acceleration due to gravity

= Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section

= Elevation head of the centre at the cross section with respect to a datum

h* = Total (stagnation) head

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The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h),
h

velocity head ), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as

the total head (h*). According to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the
total head h* at any cross section is constant. In a real flow due to friction and other
imperfections, as well as measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the
theoretical ones.

In our experimental setup, the centreline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the
same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the z values
are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:

v2
2g

+ z = h* = constant

This represents the total head at a cross section.


For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as

hi

and the total head as

hi
,

where I represents the cross sections at different tapping points.


At constant flow rate, the starting value for calculating the theoretical velocity is found as:

v=

Q
A1

The results for the calculated velocity, Vcalc can be found in the table.

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EQUIPMENTS/ APPARATUS
In order to achieve the objectives of the experiment and to complete the demonstration of
Bernoullis Theorem, there are several apparatus and also the equipments that are needed.
They are as follows:
EQUIPMENTS

FUNCTIONS
The hydraulic bench which allows water
flow by time volume collection to be
measured.

The stopwatch that used for the timing to


the flow measurement of the water.

The Bernoullis apparatus that consist of


venturi meter that function as manipulated
variables

The Bernoullis apparatus test equipment


that consists of 8 vertical tubes.
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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
i.

It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus

ii.

should be stored properly to prevent damage.


Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that
tapping or connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle,

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iv.

disconnect the flexible connection tube and blow through.


The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.
Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the

v.

laboratory session.
Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.

PROCEDURES
i.
ii.

Perform the General Start-up Procedures.


Check that all manometer tubings are properly connected to the corresponding

iii.
iv.
v.

pressure taps and are air-bubble free.


Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method.
Gently slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to manometer #G,
so that its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube at #A. Wait some time and
note down the readings from manometer #G and #A. The reading shown by
manometer #G is the sum of the static head and velocity heads, i.e. the total (or
stagnation) head (h*), because the hypodermic tube is held against the flow of fluid
forcing it to a stop (zero velocity). The reading in monometer #A measures just the
pressure head (hi ) because it is connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which

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vii.

does not obstruct the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure.
Repeat step 5 for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E and #F).
Repeat step 3 to 6 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.

viii.

Calculate the velocity,

V iB

using the Bernoullis equation where;

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V iB
ix.

h8hi
= 2 g ()

Calculate the velocity,


V iC = Qav

x.

V iC

using the continuity equation where

Ai

Determined the difference between two calculated velocities.

RESULT/DATA
Data Analysis:
Volume (L)
Average Time (min)
3
Flow Rate ( m /s )

37
3
4
2.056 10

Cross Using Bernoulli equation


Sectio (experiment)
n
i

h*= h

(mm)

hi
(mm)

2 g (h hi )
[ ]
V iB =

Using
Continuity
equation
(calculation)
Ai =

Differenc
e

V iC

Di / 4

V iBV iC

(m/s)

Qav

m2 )

Ai
(m/s)

46 m
54 m
=0.046
=0.054
1000
1000

0.396

39 m
23 m
=0.039
=0.023
1000
1000

0.56

35 m
=0.035
1000

31m
4m
=0.031
=
1000
1000

5.30 104 0.38

0.009

0.829

3.66 10

0.56

2.01 104 1.02

-0.194

0.65
5

0.072

0.727

3.14 10

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0.004
E

30 m
10 m
=0.030
=0.010
1000
1000

0.626

29 m
75 m
=0.029
=0.075
1000
1000

-0.95

3.80 104 0.54

0.085

5.31 10

0.38
7

= 0.563

CALCULATION :
V iB= [2 g (h hi )]

A i= D2i / 4

V iC =Qav / A i

(m/s)

(m/s)

(m )

A = 2(9.81)(0.046
0.054)
= - 0.157
= 0.157

A i= (0.026)2 / 4

= 0.56
C = 2(9.81)(0.035-0)
= 0.687
= 0.687

2.056 104
5.309 104

5.309 10

0.387

= 0.396
B = 2(9.81)(0.0390.023)
= 0.314
= 0.314

V iC =

A i=

V iC =

(0.0216)2 /4
3.66 104
A i= (0.016)2 / 4

V iC =

A i= (0.020)2 /4
3.14 104

0.387
0.009

2.056 104
3.66 104

0.56 0.56

2.056 104
4
2.01 10

0.829

1.023

D = 2(9.81)(0.0310.004)
= 0.529
= 0.529

0.396

0.56

2.01 10

= 0.829

V iBV iC

V iC =

2.056 104
3.14 104

0.655

1.023

- 0.194
0.727
0.655
0.072

= 0.727

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A i= ( 0.022)2 /4

E = 2(9.81)(0.0300.010)
= 0.392
= 0.392

2.056 104
V iC =
4
3.80 10

3.80 10

2.056 104
V iC =
5.31 104

A i= (0.026) / 4
5.31 104

0.95
0.387
0.563

0.387

= 0.95

0.541

0.085

0.541

= 0.626
F = 2(9.81)(0.0290.075)
= -0.903
= 0.903

0.626

DISCUSSION
i.

Determine the flow rate using formula, Q = AV in m /s

3
Q = AV in m /s

CROSS SECTION

5.309 10

)( 0.387)

A
Q

2.05 104
B

4
Q ( 3.66 10 ) ( 0.56 )

2.04 10
C

4
Q ( 2.01 10 ) ( 1.023 )

2.056 10

4
Q (3.14 10 ) ( 0.655 )

2.057 104
4
Q ( 3.80 10
)( 0.541 )

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F

4
Q ( 5.31 10 )( 0.387)

2.056 104

ii.
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1

3
ViB

iii.

ViC

There must be some parallax and zero error occurs when taking the
measurement of each data. The observer must have not read the level of static head
properly. Moreover, the eyes are not perpendicular to the water level on the
manometer. Therefore, there are some minor effects on the calculations due to the
errors and this can be seen from the result obtained which there is few value
calculated get negative values for ViB-Vic.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the Bernoullis equation is valid when
applied to steady flow of water in tapered duct and absolute velocity values increase
along the same channel. Although the experiment proof that the Bernoullis equation
is valid for both flow but the values obtain might be slightly differ from the actual
value. This is because there is some error maybe happen during the experiment is
done. While taking the reading of the manometer, there might be possibility that the
eye position of the readers is not parallel to the scale.

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Thus, this error will contribute to the different in the values obtained. Other
than that, the readers must take the accurate reading from the manometers. In order to
get the accurate value, the water level must be let to be really stable. Thus, a patient is
needed in order to run this experiment successfully because sometimes the way the
experiment is conduct may influence the result of the experiment.

iv.

List 5 example of Bernoullis Theorem application in daily use/ industry complete:

Air flight
One of the most common everyday applications of Bernoulli's principle is in air flight. The
main way that Bernoulli's principle works in air flight has to do with the architecture of the
wings of the plane. In an airplane wing, the top of the wing is somewhat curved, while the
bottom of the wing is totally flat. While in the sky, air travels across both the top and the
bottom concurrently. Because both the top part and the bottom part of the plane are designed
differently, this allows for the air on the bottom to move slower, which creates more pressure
on the bottom, and allows for the air on the top to move faster, which creates less pressure.
This is what creates lift, which allows planes to fly. An airplane is also acted upon by a pull
of gravity in which opposes the lift, drag and thrust. Thrust is the force that enables the
airplane to move forward while drag is air resistance that opposes the thrust force.

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Lift
One of the most common trends that occur in the modern day physics world is that of lift. Lift
can be seen in many different ways, shapes, and forms in our world. Lift is seen in air flight,
as in my example above, as well as in several of my forthcoming examples. But, what is lift
exactly? Most people define lift in terms of Bernoulli's principle which has some validity to
it, but the main way for one to define lift is through Newton's three laws. While most accept
that Bernoulli's principle is what creates lift, some say that it leaves many unanswered
questions. For one, it says that upside down flight cannot happen. Also, many people say that
by using Bernoulli's principle to explain lift, it doesn't take into account the fact that nowhere
in the commonly accepted definition of lift, is there any mention of work, and lift can only
take place if there is a certain type of unit of work that we are all familiar with, called power.
The next most widely accepted definition of lift involves Newton's three laws, specifically his
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first and third. (The first is the law of inertia and the third is that for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.) As we have all seen on an airplane, the wing moves up and
down a little bit as it flies through the air, but under the common definition of lift, this cannot
happen; the wing just stays still. Many physics scholars believe that there must be some form
of movement on the object that is being lifted. Some believe that according to Newton's law
"the wing must change something of the air to get lift.
Baseball
Baseball is an example of where Bernoulli's principle is very visible in everyday life, but
rarely do most people actually take note of it. One example in baseball is in the case of the
curve ball. The entire pitch works because of Bernoulli's principle. Since the stitches of the
ball actually form a curve, it is necessary for the pitcher to grip the seams of the baseball. The
reason as to why this is a necessity is that by gripping the baseball this way, the pitcher can
make the ball spin. This allows for friction to cause a thin layer of air to engulf the
misunderstanding of the baseball as it is spinning, but since the ball is spinning in a certain
manner, this allows for more air pressure on the top of the ball and less air pressure on the
bottom of the ball. Therefore, according to Bernoulli's principle there should be less speed on
the top of the ball than there is on the bottom of the ball. What transpires is that the bottom
part of the ball accelerates downwards faster than the top part, and this phenomenon allows
for the ball to curve downward, which causes the batter to miscalculate the ball's position.

Draft
And furthermore, another example of Bernoulli's principle in our everyday lives is in the case
of someone feeling a draft. We all at at least one time or another have experienced feeling a
draft, and it is because of Bernoulli's principle that we feel this draft. Let's say that in your
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room, you are really hot, but you know that it is nice and cool both outside your window and
outside your door. If you open up your window, to try and let fresh air in, there won't be much
of a temperature change, unless the door to your room is open to air out the hot air. The
reason why it works this way is that if the front door is closed the door will become an area of
high pressure built up from the hot air, and right outside the door there is little pressure,
meaning that the rate at which the air enters will be in an incredibly high speed. When you
open the door, the pressure is relieved from the door on the inside and the hot air exits
quickly. When the hot air exits there is a lot more pressure outside meaning that it will take a
while for the cool air to come in. Once the hot air has flown out, the cool air will come in at a
fast speed, thus causing a draft.

Sailing
In addition to the three items above, Bernoulli's principle is also the governing theory that is
behind sailing. Most people believe that sailing is just having a big sail and that when you put
it up, the wind just takes your boat and drag it along the sea. This is not 100% correct. This is
true only in the cases when the boat is moving with the wind, otherwise it is not true. When
the boat does not travel with the wind, it usually moves perpendicular to the wind, and the
boat moves not because the wind drags it along, but because of the concept of lift, which as
mentioned above and in the case of airplanes, is what happens when either a liquid or a gas
act on an object. The same way that Bernoulli's principle works for creating lift in airplanes,
it works for creating lift in sails. All sail boats have two parts to it: a sail which points north
and a keel which points on the opposite direction. If the speed of the air increases on the sail,

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there is less pressure on the sail, and conversely there is less pressure on the keel but a higher
speed. Just like with an airplane this produces lift and propels the sail to move in the water.

CONCLUSION
The results show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure difference
increases. From the result obtained, we can conclude that the Bernoullis equation is valid for
convergent and divergent flow as both of it does obey the equation. For both flow, as the
pressure difference increase, the time taken for 37L water collected increase and the flow
rates of the water also increase. Thus, as the velocity of the same channel increase, the total
head pressure also increase for both convergent and divergent flow.
REFERENCES
i.
ii.

https://www.scribd.com/doc/131472020/Fluid-Lab-2-Bernoulli-Exp
http://bernoullisprinciple.weebly.com/applications.html
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iii.

http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/211_fall2002.web.dir/josh_palmer/freebody

iv.
v.

%20dia1.jpg
http://www.portageenv.com/community/pp/images/ppbb1.jpg
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/--1lCEInL8pc/TuV30e3DAI/AAAAAAAAAMw/MUEx0LaePAg/s1600/BERNULI.GIF

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