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EXPERIMENT OUTCOMES
1) Analyse critically the experimental data in relation to the theoretical aspects. (C4)
2) Organize appropriately experiments in groups according to the standard of
procedures. (P4)
3) Write critically the appropriate report in group based on the experiment results. (A2)
THEORY
i.
Bernoullis Law
Bernoullis law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross
section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the
pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many people find this
situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure). This is
expressed with the following equation:
v
2g
+ z = h* = constant
Where,
P = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
= Elevation head of the centre at the cross section with respect to a datum
velocity head ), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as
the total head (h*). According to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the
total head h* at any cross section is constant. In a real flow due to friction and other
imperfections, as well as measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the
theoretical ones.
In our experimental setup, the centreline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the
same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the z values
are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
v2
2g
+ z = h* = constant
hi
hi
,
v=
Q
A1
The results for the calculated velocity, Vcalc can be found in the table.
EQUIPMENTS/ APPARATUS
In order to achieve the objectives of the experiment and to complete the demonstration of
Bernoullis Theorem, there are several apparatus and also the equipments that are needed.
They are as follows:
EQUIPMENTS
FUNCTIONS
The hydraulic bench which allows water
flow by time volume collection to be
measured.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
i.
It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
laboratory session.
Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.
PROCEDURES
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
does not obstruct the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure.
Repeat step 5 for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E and #F).
Repeat step 3 to 6 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.
viii.
V iB
V iB
ix.
h8hi
= 2 g ()
x.
V iC
Ai
RESULT/DATA
Data Analysis:
Volume (L)
Average Time (min)
3
Flow Rate ( m /s )
37
3
4
2.056 10
h*= h
(mm)
hi
(mm)
2 g (h hi )
[ ]
V iB =
Using
Continuity
equation
(calculation)
Ai =
Differenc
e
V iC
Di / 4
V iBV iC
(m/s)
Qav
m2 )
Ai
(m/s)
46 m
54 m
=0.046
=0.054
1000
1000
0.396
39 m
23 m
=0.039
=0.023
1000
1000
0.56
35 m
=0.035
1000
31m
4m
=0.031
=
1000
1000
0.009
0.829
3.66 10
0.56
-0.194
0.65
5
0.072
0.727
3.14 10
30 m
10 m
=0.030
=0.010
1000
1000
0.626
29 m
75 m
=0.029
=0.075
1000
1000
-0.95
0.085
5.31 10
0.38
7
= 0.563
CALCULATION :
V iB= [2 g (h hi )]
A i= D2i / 4
V iC =Qav / A i
(m/s)
(m/s)
(m )
A = 2(9.81)(0.046
0.054)
= - 0.157
= 0.157
A i= (0.026)2 / 4
= 0.56
C = 2(9.81)(0.035-0)
= 0.687
= 0.687
2.056 104
5.309 104
5.309 10
0.387
= 0.396
B = 2(9.81)(0.0390.023)
= 0.314
= 0.314
V iC =
A i=
V iC =
(0.0216)2 /4
3.66 104
A i= (0.016)2 / 4
V iC =
A i= (0.020)2 /4
3.14 104
0.387
0.009
2.056 104
3.66 104
0.56 0.56
2.056 104
4
2.01 10
0.829
1.023
D = 2(9.81)(0.0310.004)
= 0.529
= 0.529
0.396
0.56
2.01 10
= 0.829
V iBV iC
V iC =
2.056 104
3.14 104
0.655
1.023
- 0.194
0.727
0.655
0.072
= 0.727
E = 2(9.81)(0.0300.010)
= 0.392
= 0.392
2.056 104
V iC =
4
3.80 10
3.80 10
2.056 104
V iC =
5.31 104
A i= (0.026) / 4
5.31 104
0.95
0.387
0.563
0.387
= 0.95
0.541
0.085
0.541
= 0.626
F = 2(9.81)(0.0290.075)
= -0.903
= 0.903
0.626
DISCUSSION
i.
3
Q = AV in m /s
CROSS SECTION
5.309 10
)( 0.387)
A
Q
2.05 104
B
4
Q ( 3.66 10 ) ( 0.56 )
2.04 10
C
4
Q ( 2.01 10 ) ( 1.023 )
2.056 10
4
Q (3.14 10 ) ( 0.655 )
2.057 104
4
Q ( 3.80 10
)( 0.541 )
2.056 104
7
4
Q ( 5.31 10 )( 0.387)
2.056 104
ii.
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
3
ViB
iii.
ViC
There must be some parallax and zero error occurs when taking the
measurement of each data. The observer must have not read the level of static head
properly. Moreover, the eyes are not perpendicular to the water level on the
manometer. Therefore, there are some minor effects on the calculations due to the
errors and this can be seen from the result obtained which there is few value
calculated get negative values for ViB-Vic.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the Bernoullis equation is valid when
applied to steady flow of water in tapered duct and absolute velocity values increase
along the same channel. Although the experiment proof that the Bernoullis equation
is valid for both flow but the values obtain might be slightly differ from the actual
value. This is because there is some error maybe happen during the experiment is
done. While taking the reading of the manometer, there might be possibility that the
eye position of the readers is not parallel to the scale.
iv.
Air flight
One of the most common everyday applications of Bernoulli's principle is in air flight. The
main way that Bernoulli's principle works in air flight has to do with the architecture of the
wings of the plane. In an airplane wing, the top of the wing is somewhat curved, while the
bottom of the wing is totally flat. While in the sky, air travels across both the top and the
bottom concurrently. Because both the top part and the bottom part of the plane are designed
differently, this allows for the air on the bottom to move slower, which creates more pressure
on the bottom, and allows for the air on the top to move faster, which creates less pressure.
This is what creates lift, which allows planes to fly. An airplane is also acted upon by a pull
of gravity in which opposes the lift, drag and thrust. Thrust is the force that enables the
airplane to move forward while drag is air resistance that opposes the thrust force.
Lift
One of the most common trends that occur in the modern day physics world is that of lift. Lift
can be seen in many different ways, shapes, and forms in our world. Lift is seen in air flight,
as in my example above, as well as in several of my forthcoming examples. But, what is lift
exactly? Most people define lift in terms of Bernoulli's principle which has some validity to
it, but the main way for one to define lift is through Newton's three laws. While most accept
that Bernoulli's principle is what creates lift, some say that it leaves many unanswered
questions. For one, it says that upside down flight cannot happen. Also, many people say that
by using Bernoulli's principle to explain lift, it doesn't take into account the fact that nowhere
in the commonly accepted definition of lift, is there any mention of work, and lift can only
take place if there is a certain type of unit of work that we are all familiar with, called power.
The next most widely accepted definition of lift involves Newton's three laws, specifically his
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
10
Draft
And furthermore, another example of Bernoulli's principle in our everyday lives is in the case
of someone feeling a draft. We all at at least one time or another have experienced feeling a
draft, and it is because of Bernoulli's principle that we feel this draft. Let's say that in your
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
11
Sailing
In addition to the three items above, Bernoulli's principle is also the governing theory that is
behind sailing. Most people believe that sailing is just having a big sail and that when you put
it up, the wind just takes your boat and drag it along the sea. This is not 100% correct. This is
true only in the cases when the boat is moving with the wind, otherwise it is not true. When
the boat does not travel with the wind, it usually moves perpendicular to the wind, and the
boat moves not because the wind drags it along, but because of the concept of lift, which as
mentioned above and in the case of airplanes, is what happens when either a liquid or a gas
act on an object. The same way that Bernoulli's principle works for creating lift in airplanes,
it works for creating lift in sails. All sail boats have two parts to it: a sail which points north
and a keel which points on the opposite direction. If the speed of the air increases on the sail,
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CONCLUSION
The results show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure difference
increases. From the result obtained, we can conclude that the Bernoullis equation is valid for
convergent and divergent flow as both of it does obey the equation. For both flow, as the
pressure difference increase, the time taken for 37L water collected increase and the flow
rates of the water also increase. Thus, as the velocity of the same channel increase, the total
head pressure also increase for both convergent and divergent flow.
REFERENCES
i.
ii.
https://www.scribd.com/doc/131472020/Fluid-Lab-2-Bernoulli-Exp
http://bernoullisprinciple.weebly.com/applications.html
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
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http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/211_fall2002.web.dir/josh_palmer/freebody
iv.
v.
%20dia1.jpg
http://www.portageenv.com/community/pp/images/ppbb1.jpg
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/--1lCEInL8pc/TuV30e3DAI/AAAAAAAAAMw/MUEx0LaePAg/s1600/BERNULI.GIF
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