Harappan Civilization

ca 6000

Agricultural settlements, domestication of animals

ca 4000

Spread of farming, villages in western India

ca 3000

Pre-Harappan* (?) settlements have bronze tools, pottery making.

*From Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization (ca. 3000 B.C.E.) by Dr. S. Kalyanaraman - A tentative conclusion
in need of further research: "This may mean a new paradigm in our protohistoric
studies. Aryans and Dravidians and perhaps Mundas lived in harmony in this civilization. The
so-called indo-aryan and so-called dravidian languages may have originated from the common
lingua franca spoken by these people of the Indus and Sarasvati river valleys."
"The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the world's first great urban civilizations. It
flourished in the vast river plains and adjacent regions in what are now Pakistan and
western India. The earliest cities became integrated into an extensive urban culture around
4,600 years ago and continued to dominate the region for at least 700 years, from 2600 to
1900 B.C. It was only in the 1920's that the buried cities and villages of the Indus valley
were recognized by archaeologists as representing an undiscovered civilization"
(From Around the Indus in 90 slides).
2600
(to 1900)

Harappan Civilization emerges in (then) forested Indus River

region: (seemap of the region), an urban society, with centralized gov't,
writing system, long-distance trade, priestly class, monumental
architecture, skilled crafts, copper.The major cities of the Harappan
complex of villages and cities areHarappa (map) and Mohenjo Daro.
(Don't miss A Walk through Mohenjodaro and Ancient Cities of the
Indus Valley.)

2300 - 2000

Cultural exchange between the Indus Valley

civilization andMesopotamia (present day Iraq) is especially
prominent. See Chronology: India; a beautiful Harappan Unicorn
Seal, the most common motif on Indus seals appearing to represent a
mythical animal that Greek and Roman sources trace back to the Indian
subcontinent, with long inscription of eight symbols running along the
top of the seal; and links to more images fromExploring World
Cultures' Image Index: India.

"The only inference that can be drawn from the anthropological and linguistic evidences... is that
the Harappan population in the Indus Valley and Gujratin 2000 BC was composed of two
or more groups, the more dominant among them having very close ethnic affinities with the
present day Indo-Aryanspeaking population of India. In other words there is no racial evidence

of any such Indo-Aryan invasion of India but only of a continuity of the same group of
people who traditionally considered themselves to be Aryans"(The Myth of the Aryan
Invasion of India, by David Fawley).
"As old as the pyramids of Egypt and the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, this is one of the
major civilizations of the ancient world, yet it remains virtually unknown to American
audiences" (Great Cities, Small Treasures: The Ancient World of the Indus Valley. "This exhibition
will underscore the importance of South Asia[see big map],
specifically Pakistan and western India [linked to more big maps], as the birthplace of a unique,
highly developed and technologically sophisticated civilization.")
1600-1200

Decline of Harappan Civilization (see map of ancient Indus River

Valley Civilizations), which reverts to rural, regionally distinct
lifeways, but Harappan cultural traditions survive: "Further
excavation revealed that the Indus Valley culture was not destroyed by
outside invasion [ie.by theAryans, see below], but according to internal
causes and, most likely, floods" (The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of
India, by David Fawley).

The Aryans and the Vedic Age

ca. 2000(?)
to 1000

Aryan migrations, invasions (?) into India (see Demise of the Aryan
Invasion Theory, a scholarly essay by Dr. Dinesh Agrawal). The
Aryans are said to have entered India through the Khyber Pass and
invaded or perhaps more peacefully intermingled with the Indus Valley
peoples at least since 1600 BCE, and perhaps earlier. Legend tells us the
Aryans cross the River Sindhu and settled in a region they
called Saptsindu, or the land of seven rivers (now known as
the Punjab, the land of five rivers). The Aryans were Indo-European
warlike herders from Asian steppes. Bronze users and horse handlers,
Aryans had a superior military and their cavalry warfare enabled them
to spread their culture from the Punjab across northern India, preparing
the way for emergence of large empires. The Aryans had a complex
cosmology and knowledge of astral sciences--astronomy considered
central to Aryan statecraft. Aryans spoke the Sanskrit language (the
basis of a majority of Indian languages today), had apolytheist religion
(one basis of Hinduism) with a rich pantheon of deities, and a stratified
class system: with Kshatriyas (warriors) to rule, andBrahmins (priests
and teachers) at the top of the social hierarchy, supported
by Vaisyas (farmers) and the Sudras (outcasts).

From the introduction to The Aryan-Dravidian Controversy, by David Frawley: "The British ruled
India [see Timeline 3], as they did other lands, by a divide-and-conquer strategy. They
promoted religious, ethnic and cultural divisions among their colonies to keep them under

control. Unfortunately some of these policies also entered into the intellectual realm. The same
simplistic and divisive ideas that were used for interpreting the culture and history of India.
Regrettably many Hindus have come to believe these ideas, even though a deeper examination
reveals they may have no real objective or scientific basis. One of these ideas is that India is
a land of two races - the lighter- skinned Aryans and the darker-skinned Dravidians - and
that the Dravidians were the original inhabitants of India whom the invading Aryans
conquered and dominated."

Sanskrit & the Vedas

(ca. 1500 200 BCE)
Vedic Sanskrit, the language used in the Vedas* (sacred Hindu scriptures) and the earliest form of
Sanskrit, flourished: see Aryans and the Vedic Age, Sanskrit Documents: Vedas. The Vedic religious
scriptures (Rig-Veda/Vedic Hymns,Brahmanas, Upanishads) are the oldest preserved forms of Indian
speech. From these oral beginnings, Indian "literary" traditions of verse have sprung. The earliest
works were composed to be sung or recited, and were orally transmitted for many generations before
being written down.
*"The hymns of the Rig Veda are considered the oldest and most important of the Vedashaving been
composed between 1500 and the time of the great Bharata war (of theMahabharata) about 900
BC. More than a thousand hymns are organized into ten mandalas or circles of which the second through
the seventh are the oldest and the tenth is the most recent....As the only writings from this ancient period of
India they are considered the best source of knowledge we have,...Essentially the Rig Veda is dominated by
hymns praising the Aryan gods for giving them victories and wealth plundered from the local Dasas
through warfare" (Political and Social Ethics of India)
*"The word Veda is derived from the root vid - "to know." Veda, therefore, means `Knowledge'. The
`Knowledge' of the divinity lurking in man and the technique by which it can be brought out to full
manifestation are the theme of the veda text books, and the truth of this theme is eternal" (for more, see list
of definitions of key terms in Hinduism). Many of the religious beliefs and practices of Hinduism, which
comes from sindhu, the Indo-Aryan word for "the sea," and came to apply to the region east of the Indus
River, cam from theVedas (knowledge. "Composed over many centuries, Hindus believe that the Vedas
are "revelations" that were heard, not text composed by people. Amongst the major concepts
is dharma, one's duty in this lifetime, and , karma, the actions one has performed in previous lifetimes and
the actions one performs in this lifetime"--The principle of action (karma) is explained as "one becomes
good by good action, bad by bad action" (Vedas and Upanishads).
See also rita (or reta), brahman, , samsara, and moksha; the Sanskrit Home Page for a variety of texts
in Sanskrit scripts; and don't miss Vedavid - an extraordinary site worked up for a dissertation on early
Vedic traditions and texts of Ancient India, c. 1500 BCE,with "Tourist" and "Academic" Visa versions-John Gardner, Ph.D. candidate, Univ. of Iowa..

The Upanishads

(ca. 800 500 BCE)

In the Upanishads, the doctrines of rebirth and the transmigration of souls* appeared, leading to
important theological transformations within Hinduism. "As a king prepares a chariot or ship when
going on a journey, one should prepare one's soul with the mystic doctrines of the Upanishads. The
knowledge that is the light in the heart enables one to transcend this world and death while
appearing asleep"(Sanderson Beck, Vedas and Upanishads; see also Sanskrit Documents:
Upanishads).*In the early Upanishads "the supreme achievement has been indicated by the
termImmortality, meaning 'deathlessness' (amritattvam), although...in the later Upanishadsthe same
has come to be indicated by the term 'birthlessness'" (see list of definitions of key terms
in Hinduism). "The doctrine of reincarnation is clearly implied in theChandogya Upanishad as it declares
that those whose conduct is pleasant here will enter a pleasant womb of a Brahman, Kshatriya, or Vaisya;
but those of stinking conduct will enter a stinking womb of a dog, swine, or outcast [Sudra]. Thus
reincarnation is explained as an ethical consequence of one's actions (karma)" (Sanderson Beck, Vedas
and Upanishads). Related to dharma and karma are "transmigration of the soul after death, and rebirth
of the soul depending upon one's karma in this life. This endless succession of births can be ended
by moksha, or salvation, attainable only by a strict practice of liberation from desire and education in the
higher forms of knowledge....In Hinduism exists the trinity ofBrahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver,
and Shiva the destroyer and regenerator.Vishnu and Shiva incarnate themselves into other forms, as
humans, animals or other living beings on earth to help the beings on earth in times of crisis" (Hinduism).
"Although as the major teachings passed down orally from the century before
the Buddha,the Upanishads don't tell us too much about the worldly society of India, they do express a
widespread mysticism and spiritual life-style that was to prepare the way for the new religions
of Jainism and Buddhism as well as the deepened spirituality and mystical philosophies ofHinduism"
(Sanderson Beck, Vedas and Upanishads).
700 - 550

6th century

Era of unrivaled Brahmin dominance: Brahmins are religious leaders

and political advisors among the social elite. "The priests placed
themselves at the top of the caste system as they supervised a religion
most of the people could not understand without them....
The Brahmins...had three obligations or debts to pay back in life: they
paid back the seers by studying the Vedas, the gods by offering
sacrifices, and their fathers by raising a family" (Sanderson Beck, Vedas
and Upanishads). The Aryan religion had blended with older
indigeneous beliefs. In this period, the Aryans establish themselves in
the fertile Ganges plain region, with large states ruled by kings claiming
divine descent, and the development of cities and a rich merchant class.
Holy men and their followers, seeking more meaningful religious
beliefs & worship, reject or try to reform empty rituals of the selfserving Aryan-Vedic religion. Jainism joins Buddhism and other
reform religions to spur the reform and growth of Hinduism in the
6th century (see also Introduction to Hinduism).

ca. 542 - 483

540 ca. 486

Siddartha Gautama (or Siddharta

Gotama), the Buddha,born in a region now present-day Nepal, lived
and founded Buddhism: SeeIntroduction to Buddhism; and great
photo of the Deer Park at Sarnath ( UPenn) where Buddha gave
his first sermon - the Middle Path(CUNY-Brooklyn). "Having taught
for forty-five years from his enlightenment to his death, the Buddha left
behind a large compendium of teachings that were memorized by
various of his disciples. Since writing was a rarity then in India they
were passed on through the Community (sangha) until they were written
down several centuries later. These earliest texts are in the common Pali
language and usually are dialogs between the Buddha and
others. Often the Buddha emphasized that it was more important for
disciples to see the dharma (doctrine) than the Buddha, because the
dharma would remain and was what they needed to practice to attain
enlightenment and even afterward." See also the text of The
Dhammapada [trans. John Richards], an anthology of 423 verses,
belonging to the part of the Theravada Pali Canon of scriptures known
as the Khuddaka Nikaya; and The Gospel of Buddha.
Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, lives.

Later Upanishads & Buddhist Jatakas

(ca. 4th century)
In the later Upanishads, such as the Mahanarayana Upanishad, a long hymn to the various forms of
God, "[t]he influence of Buddhism can be seen in the description ofliberation from one's own thoughts.
As fire destitute of fuel goes out, so thought losing activity becomes extinct in its source. What is one's
thought, that one becomes; this is the eternal mystery. By the serenity of thought one destroys good and
bad karma; focused on the soul one enjoys eternal delight. The mind is the means of bondage and release.
Though the sacrificial fire is still important, meditation has become the primary means of liberation"
(Sanderson Beck, Vedas and Upanishads).
From the 4th century - Jatakas: "Ancient folktales of India come down to us primarily in two
collections of stories many of which are about animals. These are the Buddhist tales of the former lives of
the Buddha known as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra [traditional Hindu animal stories considered a
textbook for wise conduct in this world]. Many of the original stories probably predate the Buddha, but
the Jatakas were organized into verses about the Buddha and placed into his biography starting about the
fourth century BC, though the whole collection with its prose stories and commentaries was not completed
for several centuries. The Jataka tales always begin with an incident in the life of the Buddha, usually a
sermon he is giving which he illustrates with a story from one of his previous lives. After the tale is told he
often indicates who were the other characters in the story of their previous existence. In this way the law
of karma, or the consequences of actions, is illustrated, and the deep patterns of different souls can be seen.

The Buddha, who is referred to as theBodhisattva in the stories since he is then a future Buddha, is usually
the most heroic and wisest character. He is often an animal or a tree spirit and is frequently the leader of his
group. He never seems to be a female, and in fact there is a strong bias against women in many
stories. The Jatakas are primarily moral tales illustrating the wisdom and goodness of the Bodhisattva
figure, and, with the exception of the prejudice against women, the ethical lessons are usually quite good"
(Sanderson Beck).
537
517-509

Cyrus the Persian campaigns west of the Indus River.

Darius the Persian conquers the Indus Valley region, making the area a
province of the Persian Empire.

The Ramayana & the Mahabharata

(ca. 500 BCE - CE 100)
Written down & formally composed during this period were the two great oral Sanskrit epics: The
Mahabharata and The Ramayana: An Enduring Tradition (a great learning site and illustrated! from
Syracuse Univ. based on an NEH institute)."The greatest imaginative literature of ancient India
can be found in the long epic poems, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Written over many
centuries and not completed until sometime between the fourth century BC and the fourth
century CE, they probably grew out of the story-telling of the traditional bards (sutas) who
acted as charioteers to kings."
The Ramayana (note graph) "is the story of Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu, who was born on
earth to kill the demon king Ravana of Lanka, and to re-establish righteousness in the world"; The time
period of the Ramayana has been estimated as between the twelfth and tenth centuries BC" (Sanderson
Beck, Ramayana). ). This epic works on many levels. As a political treatise, it describes how the Aryans
rose in power and conquered the indigenous peoples who lived peacefully by the Ganges River. At the same
time, "The Ramayana" is an action drama. But it is also a philosophical treatise filled with tales of love,
betrayal, jealousy, greed, and heroism.
The legendary author of the The Mahabharata is Vyasa, who is also given credit for compiling
the Vedas and writing the Puranas." This epic centers in a great war (see chapter 1 of the Bhagavad
Gita: Observing the Armies on the Battlefield of Kuruksetra) that probably took place in the late tenth
century BC and "is filled with stories and situations that describe the culture of ancient India and has been
an entertaining schoolbook for millions. Along with the virtues it also reveals the vices of the conquering
and warlike Aryans and their racist caste system. Even the divine Krishna becomes a spokesperson for the
warrior mentality, as a nearly apocalyptic disaster destroys millions and threatens their whole world. Still a
heroic epic of military glory like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata contains much more real and well
defined characters and portrays many aspects of life. If only humanity could learn from its negative lessons
of violence and ambition, perhaps the peace of the sages could be found.... Sanderson Beck, The
Literature of India). Linked to J. D. Smith's Cambridge files and his Web page for Sanskrit epic texts, is a
sample of the Mahabharata text printed in Nagari script.

The earliest records of such written texts may be later by several centuries than the conjectured date
of its composition, because they were created and passed down orally through generations.
Furthermore, much Indian literature is either religious or reworkings of familiar stories from the
Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and theMahabharata, and the mythological writings known as Puranas,
so the authors often remain anonymous. (See some Sanskrit documents with English translations,
and India Glossary, including dharma, rita (or reta), brahman, karma, samsara, moksha.)

The Bhagavad Gita

Later, the Bhagavad Gita* [see e-text of the Gita this online version trans. Ramanand Prasad) was
added as an episode in the Mahabharata and "now ranks as one of the three principal texts that
define and capture the essence of Hinduism; the other two being the Upanishads and the Brahma
Sutras"(Exploring Ancient World Cultures: India). See another online text of the Gita; and essays "The
Historical Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian Religious Doctrines" (Soumen
De); On the Nature of Brahman: An Introduction to the Bhagavad-Gita (Jeff Hooks, St. Petersburg
Junior College), including links to The Drama of the Gita and the Film of the Mahabharata; and Mohan
Ayyar's Hindu Image Gallery of Deities, including Surya (the Sun & Karna's father) and depictions
of Mahabharata scenes from the Bhagavad Gita like Krishna advising Arjuna.
*The term Yoga has been used in the context of the evenness of mind through work,... tranquillity for
mental composure in all pairs-of-opposites, is defined here as Yoga. Defined thus, the term Yoga, as used
here, indicates a special condition of the mind in which it comes to a neutral equilibrium in all the ebb and
flow of life's tides. The instructions in the stanza [of the Bhagavad Gita] advise us that desireless action can
be performed only when one gets completely established in Yoga, where the term means, precisely
what Vyasa [reputed author of the Mahabharata] defines it to mean here" (and see more definitions of
key terms in Hinduism). For another explanation of Bhakti Yoga, "divine science of yoga as spoken
in Bhagavad-gita," see What Is Bhakti?

Classical Sanskrit (ca. 400 BCE)

Classical Sanskrit was "perfected" by Indian grammarian Panini in his Sutra (lesson),written in
the Devanagari alphabet and script. Vedic and classical Sanskrit have both come to be considered
"high" (artificial or written) languages of literary and technical works, and maintained as the languages of
the priestly, learned, and cultivated castes of India. However, Sanskrit also retains oral traditions, handed
down orally by generations of priestly singers and still exists in many nonliterary vernacular dialects of the
Indian subcontinent. (See Origins of Sanskrit and try a modern lesson in Sanskrit Grammar)

The Pankrits (ca. 3rd c. BCE - CE 12th c. )

3rd cent. BCE (to ca. CE 12th century): Middle Indo-Aryan languages emerged, embracing the vernacular
dialects of Sanskrit called Pankrits. The best known and oldest literary Pankrit is Pali, the language
of Buddhist canonical writings and Jain religious texts. The themes and forms of much traditional Indian
literature are derived from Sanskrit and Pankrits (medieval dialects of Sanskrit). This is true of the literature
of the Dravidian-speaking regions, as well as that of the Indo-Iranian languages of the north. (SeeThe
Buddha and the Texts of the Pali Canon, Australian National Univ., from Anthology of Scriptures of
World Religions, by John Powers and James Fieser, McGraw-Hill, 1996.)
377

Buddhist Council at Vaisali.

327 - 325

Alexander ("the Great") crosses Hindu Kush and invades northwest

India; stimulation of cultural exchange with the West. (See Alexander's
Invasion of India and the World of Alexander.)

323

Alexander the Great dies, providing the opportunity for an independent

state in India.
Chandragupta Maurya founds the Maurya dynasty, the first Indian
empire. Its capital is in Patna (see Chronology: India)

324
321-184

Mauryan Empire flourished (see Mauryan Empire, Ashoka

273-232

and History):
Emperor Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and most
impressive ruler in the Maurya dynasty, rules in India and institutes a
series of edicts designed to bring about moral reform: seeThe Edicts of
King Ashoka. Trade and commerce grows. Ashoka having converted
toBuddhism, his policy on reform flows from his Buddhist orientation.
See theDhammapada, "one of the greatest literary works of
early Buddhism....Put together from highlights of Buddha's ethical
teachings it was in existence by the time of Emperor Ashoka in the
third century BC. It begins with the idea that we are the result of our
thoughts, impure or pure."

250

A general council of Buddhist monks is held in Patna, where the

canon of Buddhist scriptures is selected.(See Rise of Religions and
Emergence of the State: Buddhism and Jainism)

after 184

Mauryan Dynasty ends when the last ruler is assassinated by an

ambitious army commander, and India undergoes political
fragmentation.

AD/CE

1 - 105

Kushans invade northwest India and the Punjab,and establish

theKushan Empire. The Kushans were patrons of Buddhism, and
engaged in international trade overland and by sea. Northern Indian
cities develop along overland routes, and busy port cities attract
foreigners.

1st - 3rd c.

South Indian Kingdoms of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandavas

develop and flourish.

Tamil Language Literature

(CE 1st - 5th centuries)
Tamil language writings stem from oral traditions predating classical Sanskrit, including secular lyrics
on love and war, and the grammatical-stylistic workTolkappiyam (Old Composition). Between the
2nd and 5th centuries, two long Tamil verse romance-epics were written: Cilappatikaram (The Jeweled
Anklet) by Ilanko Atikal, which has been translated into English (1939 and 1965); and its
sequelManimekalai (The Girdle of Gems), a Buddhist work by Cattanar. (See also a 4th century image
of Relief Fragment with Buddha Flanked by Worshipers, and visitTamils - a brief introduction to their
history, culture and literature, by Prof. A. Veluppillai, from Tamil Electronic Library).
320 -535

Gupta Empire (descendants of Mauryan) flourishes

in northern India, with an agricultural economic base, flourishing trade
and cities (though most Indians lived in villages), manufacturing, and
technological advances. Considered "India's Golden Age" the Gupta
period featured an opulent court and scholarly achievements in math,
arts, philosophy, and sciences.Sanskrit revived as the literary language,
along with Tamil as one of major languages of India. During
this "Hindu Renaissance," reformed Hinduism supplants Buddhism,
the Brahmins emphasize the Upanishads (the later books of the Vedas see above), and religious freedom encouraged, with education centered
in Hindu Brahminical schools and Buddhistmonasteries.

5th century

The astronomer Aryabhatta advanced explanations of time concepts.

The concept of different units of time dates back to the Rig Vedas.
(SeePanchanga, literally 'five limbs' - pancha, 'five' and anga, 'limb' is the almanac of the Hindus, so named because it deals with the five
Hindu divisions of time.)

The Notion of Time in India: An Introduction, (Prof. Charles Ess, Drury College, based on Hajime
Nakamura's Notion of Time in India) "...the substance of things is seen as basically unchanging, its
underlying reality unaffected by the ceaseless flux. The Indian does not concede that we never step
into the same river twice; he directs our attention not to the flow of water but to the river itself, the
unchanging universal. Indian thought places a high value on universality, and the connection

between this, and the static conception of phenomena, is of course not accidental. 'The one
remains, the many change and flee.'" See also: "Indian versus Chinese Attitudes Towards
History" (Charles Ess, Professor of Philosophy, Drury College).
405-411

Fa Hien of China travels through India.

By the 6th century, India and China developed two major cultural centers of East Asia, each
with distinctive cultures and highly developed civilizations.
India's Pattern: political disunity, short-lived empires divided by rival kingdoms; regional
identities and cultural diversity pronounced, with common religious ideas and cultural
traditions to bind; caste system; foreign invaders converted and assimilated to Indian ways.
Late 5th c.

First Hun invasions and fall of the Gupta Empire

570-632

Muhammed, founder of Islam, lived. After 632, Islam emerged as

major world religion and power.

Precursors of the Bhakti Tradition &Emergence of Hindi

(6th - 9th centuries)
Tamil language sectarian devotional poems were composed, considered some of the first examples of the
Indian bhakti* tradition (ecstatic personal devotion to a god); for example the Tamil Alvars (mystics)
wrote ecstatic hymns to Vishnu between the 7th and 10th centuries. (See also 6th c. image of Shiva from
World Art Treasures).
*"Self-less love, seeking a fulfilment in itself, when directed towards the divine with firm faith and an all out
belief, is called Bhakti. Love itself means identifying with the object of love in such a way that the joys and
sorrows of the beloved become equally poignant joys and sorrows of the lover. In short, the lovers become
one with their beloveds, both in their physical and emotional lives" (and see more definitions of key
terms in Hinduism).
"[Old] Hindi [language] started to emerge as Apabhramsha in the 7th cent. and by the 10 cent. became
stable. Several dialects of Hindi have been used in literature. Brajwas the popular literary dialect until it was
replaced by khari boli in the 19th century" (Hindi: The Language of Songs, including a timeline).
"Hindi, which is a descendant of the Sanskrit language, is not strictly the name of any chief dialect of
the area but is an adjective, Persian in origin, meaning Indian....[from] a mixed speech spoken around
the area of Delhi, North India, which gained currency during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as a
contact language between the Arabs, Afghans, Persian and Turks, and native residents." "Hindi is
written in the Devanagari script which is ranked as the most scientific writing system among the
existing writing systems of the world. The Devanagari script is written from left to right and is a

descendant of the Brahmi script which was well

established in India before 500 B.C. The script is phonetic in nature and there is a fairly regular
correspondence between the letters and their pronunciation."he literary history of Hindi goes back to
the twelfth century. Some notable literary figures of Hindi are Kabir, Surdas, and Tulsidas. It also has
an approximately three-century old, well-attested and rich grammatical tradition of its own." Today
"Hindi is a modern Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Nepal) and
also in other countries outside Asia (Mauritius, Trinidad, Fiji, Surinam, Guyana, South Africa and
other countries). Approximately six hundred million people speak Hindi, as either a first or second
language. It is ranked among the five most widely spoken languages of the world. Along with English, it
is the official language of India. Hindi/Urdu conversation lessons on the Web at Syracuse University

7th c.
8th c.

Missionaries carry Buddhism to Tibet, where it begins merging with

indigenous Bon religion.
Kings and wealthy families support Buddhism in Tibet. The "great eighth century
A.D. teacher Padmasambhava...travelled from India to
teach in Tibet" (see Saraha Maha-siddha, b. CE 769, credited with
founding Tantra; also Background of the Tibetan Educational
Systemand Dictionary of Tibetan Buddhist Terms (Erik Shmidt [aka Erik Padma
Kunsang] of Rangjung Yeshe Publications, Nitartha International, the Tibetan
teachings preservation project--from Hindu Tantric Home Page).

712

Arab conquest of the Sind, northwest India, by Mohammed bin Qasim.

735

First Parsi (of the Zoroastrian religion) settlement in India.

ca. 750

Islam reaches borders of India and China, carried by traders, merchants, and
missionaries, eventually spreading to No. Asia and Indonesia