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Open-SpaceSchools:
The Opportunity
to BecomeAmbitious*
ElizabethG. Cohen
StanfordUniversity
Ambition in womeniteachlersis analyzed in relation to opportunitiesavailable in the worksetting.Open-space elementaryschools with team teaching,
in contrastto traditionalschools, provide the teachlerwith greateropportunities for interactiotn,
influenceand informalrewards. These opportunities
are associated withla high frequency of "professional ambition" among
women teachersin the open-space schlooland account for a positiveassociation between "professionalambition" and job saitisfaction
that is found only
among these teachlers."Vcrtical ambition" hlasa consistentnegativerelationship with job satisfactionin bothlsettings;this relationshipis interpretedas
a functionof limited opportunitiesfor women teachersin eithersettingto
gain administrativejobs. Implications of innovations in work organization
and barriersto upward mobilityfor ambitiouswomen teachersare discussed.
THE FUNDAMENTAL PECULIARITY of the occupation
of public ele-
143
Sociology of Education 1973, Vol. 46 (Spring):143-161
144
Cohen
145
Open-Space-Schools
146
Cohen
147
Open-Space Schools
148
Cohen
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
Ambition
Two indicesofambitionwereconstructed
fromattitudeitems
includedin theinstrument.
Ambitiousteacherswho wereoriented
towardclinicalskillsand the classroomwere seen as distinctfrom
ambitious teachersinterestedin promotioninto administrative
ranks.The firsttypeof ambitionis measuredby an index called
ProfessionalAmbition,and the second is measuredby an index
calledVerticalAmbition.
ProfessionalAmbition.The itemsof thisindex show a substantiallevel of intercorrelation;
each item is significantly
correlated with everyother item; the correlationcoefficients
range
from.31 to .52. The contentof theseitemscenterson colleague
leadershipbased upon high levels of professionalskill:
ProfessionalAmbition
to help new youngteachQ 26. I would like the opportunity
ers develop classroomskills.
Q 32. I could see myselfhelpingto lead a workshopon teachingtechniques.
Q 34. I would be veryinterestedin showingotherteachers
stylesand techniquesI've developed.
Q 35. I would be competentat makingsupervisoryevaluationsof theotherteachers(Meyer,Cohen,et al., 1970:
97).
VerticalAmbition.Items in this index are more concerned
with the lack of promotionopportunitiesin the hierarchyof the
school. These itemsreflectmore of a desire for upward occupational mobilitythan does the previousindex. Of the itemscomposed forthisdimension,fiveshoweda modestlevel of intercorrelation.These are as follows:
VerticalAmbition
Q 4. In comparisonwith other teachers,I would say that
I am a veryambitiousperson.
Q 6. I personallyreallywishgood teachersgotmorerecognition.
Q 18. If myschoolencouragedme in acquiringa supervisory
certificate
by financingme, I would be extremelyinterested.
Q 22. I have oftenthoughtthat I would like to returnto
school forat least a year to improvemy professional
abilitiesas a classroomteacher.
Q 29. It is veryimportantto me to be in a schoolwithmany
opportunitiesfor advancement for the classroom
teacher(Meyer,Cohen,et al., 1971:101).
149
Open-Space Schools
Cohen
150
Score
Professional
High
Medium
Low
19
38
42
21%
26
33
Vertical
High
Medium
Low
33
37
29
21%
30
35
151
Open-Space Schools
TABLE 2
Percentage Distribution of Trichotomized Scores of the Index of Professional
Ambition in Open and Self-ContainedClassroom Schools for Women Only
Self-Contained
Classrooms
Professional
Ambition
Open
Schools
High
Medium
Low
327o
42%
27%
19%
38%
42%
100%
(N=94)
100%
(N=99)
Total
152
CohenTABLE 3
ProfessionalAmbition and Job SatisfactionAmong Women:
For Open and Self-Contained Classroom Schools
Percentage High on Job Satisfactiona
Open
Professiona
AmbitioSchools
Professional
Ambition__
__
Self-Contained
Classrooms
_
Score
High
Medium
Low
30
39
25
53
49
40
19
38
42
21
26
33
a
The Index of Job Satisfaction was trichotomizedwith approximately onethird of all the teachers falling into "High," Medium," and "Low" categories.
Open
Schools
Vertical Ambition
Score
High
Medium
Low
26
37
31
31
49
61
33
37
29
21
30
35
a
The Index of Job Satisfaction was trichotomizedwith approximately onethird of all the teachers falling into "High," Medium," and "Low" categories.
153
Open-Space Schools
INTERPRETATION
154
Cohen
WORKORGANIZATION
FORMAL
INFORMAL
WORKORGANIZATION
uU
3
e-'
C
upwr
umti
2. Aspirations
for upward
mobility associated
with job satisfaction.
2.
Ambition
Professional
associated
positively
with job satisfaction.
155
Open-Space Schools
Vertical
Ambitionl
Ilighl
Percaption
of Teacher__
a
Self-ContainedI
Classrooms
Open
Schools
_
__
Influencea
High
37
60
30
33
21
29
41
29
Low
"All three indices were dichotomized in order to preserve the number of cases
fallinginto the (lifferenlt
categories.
156
Cohen
classrooms.If a
associatedwithjob satisfactionin self-contained
verticallyambitious teacherperceivesteachersto be influential
in theopen-spaceschool,she is twiceas likelyto have a highscore
on Job Satisfactionthan if she does not have this perception.
Secondly,verticallyambitiousteachersin open-spaceschoolswho
with
do not perceiveteachersas influentialare quite dissatisfied
theirjobs; as a matterof fact,forthisgroup the generalincrease
in satisfactionof teachersworkingin the open-spaceschools as
compared to self-containedclassroomsdisappears (29 per cent
have High Job Satisfactionin both settings).
In absolute terms,the morale of ambitiouswomen in openspace schoolsappears to be markedlyimprovedif theyperceive
thatteachersin generalare influentialin theirschool.The source
of this improvementin job satisfactionin particularchangesin
formaland informalworkorganizations,
is not clear at thistime;
measuresdesignedpreciselyforthetheoreticalconceptsin Figure1
are necessaryin orderto testthepropositionsof interest.
of Individual Needs
OrganizationalGratification
which an indiInitiallywe saw ambitionas a characteristic
vidual broughtwithherto a worksetting.If thatworksettingprovided gratification
forthatambition,we reasonedthe individual
Contraryto our expectateacherwould showmorejob satisfaction.
tions,teachersin the open-spaceschoolsweremuch morelikelyto
receive a high score on ProfessionalAmbition than teachersin
As theanalysisdocumentedtheincreased
self-contained
classrooms.
professionalinteractionand attendantfeelingsof influenceand
autonomyof the open-spaceschool teachers,we interpretedthis
findingas a functionof the creationof an ambitiousresponseby
thenewworksettingitself.We reasonedthatas teachersconvinced
decisions,
teammembersof the besteducationaland instructional
fortheirteaching,
and as theywererewardedby praiseand suipport
in full view of each other,many teacherswould develop professional ambition.It hardlyseems unreasonable,when looking at
thisworksetting,to supposethatpeople mightbecomeambitious
when given the opportunityto tryout new skillsand to achieve
new recognitionfor competence.Although with cross-sectional
data thereis no way to tell withcertaintywhetheror not the orambitiousresponseovertime,
ganizationcreatedtheprofessionally
a longituidinalstudyis in the planning stage to determinethe
answerto thisamongotherquiestions.
At thistime,the best interpretationis thatorganizationalchange probablycreatedthe proat one and
ambitiouisresponseand the job satisfaction
fessionally
the same time.It wouildnot be too suirprising
to findthatwomen
who like to playthesenew rolesalso are satisfiedwiththeirjobs.
157
Open-Space Schools
158
Cohen
TABLE 6
Probability of Havinig High Scores in Child and Matcrnal Orientations for Higl
and Low Scorers on Professional Ambition: Women Only
Percentage High Scorc
Professionial
Ambitioni
Child
Maternal
High
Medium
Low
49%
25%
22%
41%
38%
30%
49
77
67
Child
Highi
Me(lium
Low
44%
28%
18%
Maternial
42%
39%
30%
N
59
74
60
159
Open-Space Schools
160
Cohen
161
Open-Space Schools
Molnar, S.
1971