Pgsret Proceedings Iiu

PROCEEDINGS
Of the
Editors:
Dr. M. Afzal Khan
Dr. Ahmed Shuja Syed
Dr. Ghulam Yasin Chohan
Organized by:
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
International Islamic University
H-10, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
PROCEEDINGS
of
International Conference
on
Power Generation Systems & Renewable Energy

Technologies (PGSRET)
Nov 29 to Dec 2, 2010, Islamabad, Pakistan
Editors:
Dr. M. Afzal Khan

Dr. Ahmed Shuja Syed
Dr. Ghulam Yasin Chohan
Sponsored by:
Higher Education Commission

Organized and Published by:
Faculty of Engineering and Technology

International Islamic University
i
Copyright 2011 Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET), International Islamic

University, H-10, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan.
All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright. This publication is designed to
provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered.
If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent
professional should be sought from Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET), International
Islamic University, H-10, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan.
ISBN: 978-96 9-96 35 -00-7
Pakistan National Library, Constitution Avenue, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Published and printed by Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET), International Islamic
University (Press), H-10, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Cover illustration by Sohail Ahmad Qureshi
ii
PGSRET 2010 Sponsors

Higher Education Commission
Pakistan Engineering Council
Chitral Engineering - Taxila
SANCO -Oxford instruments, Islamabad
International Polymer Industries (Pvt) Ltd
Agence Franaise de Dveloppement
Support:
Technology (PS3 T)
Journal of Nanosystems and Technology (JNST)
Magazine Engineering Horizons, Lahore
iii
Content List
Sr. No.
1
Title
Affordable, Stable & Assured Supply of Energy for Poverty Alleviation in
Pakistan.
Page
1
Shahab Alam.
Alternative Energy Technology Incentives
10
M.B.Khan, M.Z.Khan, U.Javed, A.Bahadur, T.Hussain

An Overview of Osmotic Power Generation and its Scope in Pakistan
16
Syed Waqar Hasan, Asif Mehdi, Syed Faraz Hasan

Biomass Gasification Trends for New Technology Development for The
Production of Energy
M. Ahsan, N. Ul-Haq, H. Nasir
Coal Liquefaction Technologies for Producing Ultra Clean Fuel
M. S. Tahir, N. Ul-Haq, H. Nasir, N. Islam
Combined Wind, Hydropower and Photovoltaic Systems for Generation of
Electric Power and Control of Water Resources
21
30
36
Kh.S.Karimov, Kh.M.Akhmedov, Muhammad Abid, G.N.Petrov

Computer Simulation for Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Rotor Optimization
41
Ovais Mahfooz, Irfan Ullah

Concentrated Solar Power: An Overview
46
Zeeshan Najam , M. Ishfaq Khan

Design and Development of Direct Drive Generators for Wind Turbines
50
10
M. Nagrial, J. Rizk, A. Hellany

Development of A Scheffler Fixed Focus Concentrator for The Processing of
Medicinal Plants and Fruits
56
11
Anjum Munir, Oliver Hensel, Wolfgang Scheffler, Heike Hoedt

Drying of Fruits and Vegetables Using A Flat Plate Solar Collector with
Convective Air Flow
61
12
Mansoor.K. K, M. Hanif
Effect of Heating Environment On Fluorine Doped Tin Oxide (F: Sno2) Thin
Films for Solar Cell Applications
72
13
Syeda Amber Yousaf , Salamat Ali

Energy Crisis in Pakistan An Opportunity for Renewable Energy
76
Attaullah Shah, Irfanullah Jan, Ehsanul-Haq, Sharifullah, Razaullah Khan
iv
14
Energy Harvesting Usingpiezoelectric Effect Through Wind
82
15
Umber Shafiq
Environment Friendly Use of Conventional Energy
87
16
Sadaf Noureen, Tashia Zaman, Tahira Sultana and Syeda Maria Ali
Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Power Plants and Comparison with Other
Technologies
17
Faisal Asfand, Mehboob Alam

Fuel Optimization in A Multi Chamber Incinerator By The Moisture Control of 96
Oily Sludge and Medical Wastes
18
Imran Haider, Shahid Hussain, Sultan Khan and M. Taqi Mehran

Lack of Indigenization of Renewable Energy Technologies and Its Effects On
Energy Situation in Pakistan
19
20
Ajaz Bashir Janjua, Muhammad Ashraf Butt , Liaqat Ali

Net Metering: Zero Electricity Bill
Aijaz Mangi, Zahid Khan, Inam Shah
Novel Hydrogen Production By Laser Induced Electrical Signals During
Plasma Electrolysis of Naoh Mixed Water
92
103
108
112
21
Muhammad Shahid, Noraih Bidin, Yacoob Mat Daud, Muhammad Inayat

Ullah
Optimization and Application of Hybrid Sustainable Energy Systems
117
22
M. Nagrial , K. Mitchell, J. Rizk

Performance of HTV SiR as Outdoor Insulation at High Altitudes
122
23
Muhammad Amin, Nazir Muhammad

Production of Biodiesel From Melia Azedarach Seed Oil: A Non-Edible
Feedstock for Biodiesel
25
Taslim Akhtara, Muhammad Ilyas Tariqa, Shahid Iqbal Ranaa

Production of Electricity using Methane Generated from Landfill Site at
Mehmood Booti, Lahore, Pakistan
Adeela Mahjabeen
Protection Performance and Operational Statistical Analysis for Karachi Grid.
26
Junaid A.Qureshi, Andaleeb Gufran , Waqar A. Qureshi

Reactor Kinetics Revisited: A Coefficient Based Model (CBM)
24
27
Wajdi M. Ratemi, Tripoli, Libya

Role of Iron Oxide Catalysts in Selective Catalytic Reduction of Nox and Soot
From Vehicular Emission
127
131
138
143
151
S. Anjuman, S.Tahira, K. Hizbullah
28
29
Simple Energy Auditing of Male and Female Campus International Islamic

University, Islamabad
S.Anam , S.Irum , S. Tahira , S.Anjuman
Survey,Design,Development,and Installation of Micro-Hydel Power
Generation
157
161
30
M.Ajaz
The Role of Photovoltaics in Energy Requirements in Pakistan
165
31
A. Shah, N. Ul-Haq, H. Nasir

U.S. NRC Training for Research and Training Reactor Inspectors
170
32
Gary M. Sandquist, Jay F. Kunze

Underground Coal Gasification (UCG): Clean Coal Technology (CCT)
179
33
N. Islam, N. Ul-Haq, H. Nasir, S. Tahir

Unified Force and its Relation with Global Warming Crave for Hydrogen
Energy and Promote Fuel Cell Technology
184
34
Kannan Jegathala Krishnan, Akhtar Kalam

2D Forward Modelling of Marine CSEM Survey Geometry for Seabed
Logging
191
35
Nazabat Hussain, Mohd Noh, Norashikin Bt Yahya

A Paper on National and Worldwide Nuclear Plant Safety Regulations and
Standards
196
36
Muhammad Sadiq, Kamran Mansoor, Waqas Sherani

Coagulation in Clarifier with Micro-Sand
203
37
Kamran Liaquat Bhatti, Waseem Qaiser Awan

Ethanol as an Alternative Source of Energy
211
38
S.E. Benjamin, Hamid Raza, Shah Muhammad Haroon.

Future Strategies for Oil Shale Development As A New Indigenous Energy
Resource in Jordan
214
39
Jamal O. Jaber, Tarek Tarawneh, Thomas A. Sladek

Utilization of Renewable Energy Potentional in Pakistan A Gole Oriented
Approach Through Industry-Cum-Academia Linkage.
233
Muhammad Shahid Khalil, Ajaz Bashir Janjua
vi
40
41
Prospective of Solar Thermal Energy Utilization: Applications for Rural

Population of Pakistan
Saqib Nasir
Understanding Ocean Wave Dynamics for Karachi-Makran Coasts As
A Case Study: Prior to Taking Up The Issue of Ocean Energy
Technology
241
249
42
M.Ayub Khan, Yousuf Zai, Jawwad Baig, Jawaid Quamar

Solar Energy: An Environment Friendly Reliable & Sustainable Source
261
43
Muhammad Abubakar Siddique, Waseem Akhtar

Nuclear Power and Mitigation of CO2 Emissions; Pakistan Case Study
267
44
G.R. Athar, Rehana Tariq, Ijaz Ahmad.

Thermal Analyses of Solar Swimming Pool Heating in Pakistan
272
45
Irshad Ahmad, Zafar Ullah Koreshi, M. Anwar

Modeling and Simulation of Syngas Purification and Power Generation in
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC).
276
46
Nasir Mahmood, M. Zafar-Uz-Zaman, Muhammad Taqi Mehran

Energy Conservation Measures in Media
287
47
M. Sarfraz Alam
Renewable Energy The Best Remedy for Electrical Load Shedding in Pakistan.
290
48
S.M. Bhutta.
Green Electricity
297
49
Aamir Rasool Dar

Design, Analysis and Prototyping of A Hydraulic Ram Pump
305
50
M. Abid, A. Ahmad, H. A. Khan, R. Saleem

Hydrogen-Rich Gas Production by High Temperature Steam Gasification of
Biomass.
312
51
Qari M.K. Waheed, Paul T. Williams

Reduced-Order Modeling in Control and Optimization for High Performance
Energy Efficient Buildings.
318
52
Imran Akhtar, Jeff Borggaard, John Burns

Design and Development of an Affordable Solar Powered Street Lighting
System
322
53
M Junaid Khan, Yasir Arrfat

Sustainable Energy Development & Linking Renewable Energy Resources for
Pakistan
328
M Usman Haider, M Sohaib Irshad,Bilal Asad, M Qamar Raza, Fahad Saleem
vii
54
55
56
Test Results of Pongamia Pinnata Methyl Esters with Direct Injection Diesel
Engine
M. G. Bannikov, J.A. Chattha, Ahmed Faraz Khan, I. P. Vasilev
Major Prospects of Micro-Grids in Modern Power Systems
Muhammad Qamar Raza, Abdul Rashid, S. Muhammad Ali
Muhammad
Usman Haider
Man-Made Greenhouse Gases Trigger Unified Force to Start Global Warming
Impacts Referred to As Climate Change.
333
337
343
57
Kannan Jegathala Krishnan, Akhtar Kalam

Management and Conservation of Electrical Energy in Industrial Units.
351
58
Rehan Liaqat, Abdul Rauf Bhatti, H.T.Hassan

Microgeneration from Renewable Resources Secure & Sustainable
356
59
Shafiq A.Khan
Depletion of Energy or Depletion of Knowledge: Alternative Use of Energy
Resources.
364
60
Muhammad Arslan
Renewable Energy Distributed Power System with Photovoltaic/Thermal and
Bio Gas Power Generators
370
61
Muhammad Usman Haider, Bilal Asad, Sadiq Ur Rehman

Experimental and Computational Analysis of a 1.2 kw PEMFC Designed for
Communications Backup Power Applications
378
62
63
Kannan Jegathala Krishnan, Joevis Claveria, Lavanya Varadharajan Akhtar

Kalam
Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines and their Feasibility for Pakistan
Safi Ullah
Advanced Dust Control Techniques in Cement Industry Electrostatic
Precipitator A Case Study
386
394
64
Zulfiqar Khattak, Jamil Ahmad

Cogeneration an Opportunity for Industrial Energy Saving
403
65
Mirza Jahanzaib, Riffat Asim Pasha, Zahid Suleman Butt

Spintronics
410
66
Syed Ahmad, Waseem Kazmi

Energy Dynamics of Pakistan
418
M. Azhar, B.B. Rana, A. Sultan, A. Nouman, M. K. Saleem, A. Javed
viii
STEERING COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Anwar H Siddiqui
Dr. Samar Mubarakmand
Mr. Pervez Butt
Mi Karirn Ahrnad
Mrs. Rukhsana Zuberi
Prof. Dr. Harnid Saleern
Prof. Dr. Zahid Hussain
Patron
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Mrs. Parveen Qadir Agha
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Shuja Syed
Prof. Dr. S. M. Bhutta
Prof. Dr. M. Afzal Khan
Dr. Ihsan ul Haq
Chairperson
Co-Chairman
Advisor
Secretary
Treasurer
Members:
Dr. A. Majeed
Dr. Arbab Ali Khan
Mr. Javed Ahmad Khan Tipu
Mr. M. Asghar
Mr. Adeel Sabir
Mrs. Saba Hameed
Mr. Khurshid Alam
Mr. Khalid Mehmood Raja
Mr. M. Ahmad Farooqi
Mr. S. Muzammil Husain
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Ghulam Yasin Chohan
Chairman
Members:
Prof. Dr. Ehsan UIIah Khan
Prof. Dr. M. Zubair Khan
Prof. Dr. Zaffar M Khan
Prof. Dr. M. Zafarullah Koreshi
Prof. Dr. Shahab Khushnood
Prof. Dr. Shahid KhaIiI
Mr. M. Shuaib
Mr. Fawad A. Qureshi
Mr. Zeeshan Najam
Mr.Wasim Khan
Mr. M. Imran
ix
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC (REVIEW) COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Zahid Hussain, USA

Prof Dr. Ehsan UIIah Khan (Dean FBAS, IIUI)
Prof Dr. Irfan Ullah, UET Peshawar
Prof Dr. Fazal A. Khalid, GIKI
Prof Dr. M. Mujahid, NUST
Dr. Ahmed Shuja Syed, Dean FET, IIUI)
Dr. Shafaat Bazaz, GIKI
Dr. Amir Karim, Acreo, Sweden
Dr. Dean Aslam, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Nazir Mustapha, Al-Imam bin Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. S. Tajammul Hussain, National Centre for Physics, Pakistan
Mr. un Ning, Hangzhou, China
SUB-COMMITTEES
1. Editorial Committee
Dr. Ihsan ul Haq
Mr. Fawad Ahmad Qureshi
Mr. Muhammad Shoaib
Mr. Mshhood Murtaza
Mr. Adeel Sabir
Mr. M. Mobin Mirza
Mr. Muhammad Asad
Mr. Mohsin Khan
2 Publicity Committee
3. Transport Committee
4. Registration Committee
5 Technical Sessions Convener Committee
6.Arrangements Committee
International Conference
on
Power Generation Systems and Renewable Energy Technologies

(PGSRET)
November 29 December 02, 2010
-
Preface
A four days International Conference on Power Generation Systems and Renewable Energy Technologies
was held in the beautiful Capital City of Islamabad, at the International Islamic University, Old Campus
Auditorium (Faisal Masjid), Sector E-8, Islamabad, Pakistan. The foreign and Pakistani experts delivered
their keynote talks, contributory lectures and poster presentations on the conference topics. The topics
were selected to elaborate on the theme of the conference on new power generation technologies and
available hydro-power capacity in Pakistan. This conference offered an opportunity for engineers,
scientists, professionals, policymakers, investors and other parties for the review of the recent
developments in the energy systems and technologies.
The conference topics beside hydro power, nuclear power and fossil fuel power also included subjects
like: green power that is bio-fuels, sustainable energy, solar power, wind power, clean energy technology,
climate change and renewable energy which is an important input for economic development of a country.
Today, the worlds oil, gas and coal energy supply has proven to be contributors to our environmental
problems. Since exhaustible energy supplies are limited, there is an urgent need to focus attention on
development of renewable energy sources and use of energy efficient technologies. With increasing
scope, scale, research and development, the costs of renewable energy technologies will come down. It is
estimated that renewable energy could contribute at least half of all electric power in large economies in
the future. The renewable energy will drive worlds economic system in the future as its share rose to
16% 20% in 2009 with an estimated investment reaching to the tune of USD 100-130 billions.
-
The outcome of the topics, lectures, expert discussions, presentations and latest R&D on different power
generation systems and technologies will definitely help our societies in Asia and particularly in Pakistan,
to get rid of energy crises and power shortages. The experts have helped us during the discussions and
meetings for possible solutions on our industrial and domestic energy production goals.
I acknowledge the hard work of Dr. lhsan ul Haq, Sohail Ahmed Qureshi and Ali Murtaza for completion
of this book.
Dr. M. Afzal Khan

Secretary PGSRET Conference
xi
CONFERENCE TOPICS
1-Hydro power generation systems and technologies
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Dams and Civil Structures

Equipment and Technology
Project Development: Micro project, Macro project, Mega project
Water Resources Management: storm/flood water control and management; Flood forecast
and analysis, wastewater management, Water supply and distribution; Water demand
forecasting; water consumption trends; Water resources; groundwater; water saving
technologies; Rainwater harvesting; Grey water recycling;
Ocean energy; wave and tidal; conversion of wave, tidal and salinity gradient; wave
energy technology; Tidal Energy; Wave energy conversion principles, machinery, control
principles, materials, moorings, installation, operation and maintenance; The
development of tidal turbines, horizontal and vertical axis tidal turbine, oscillating
hydrofoil
2-Renewable Energy
Clean renewable energy, alternative/renewable sources for power, large-scale
incorporation of renewable energy, grid-connection, design and manufacturing of
renewable energy plant, connection with LT lines, sustainable energy supply
Green technology/renewable industry
2.2
Geothermal energy, geothermal energy with heat and cold storage in the ground,
2.3
thermal Storage; molten salt storage system; Concrete storage
2.4
Biogas: bio-fuels, biogas production, large scale biogas heat and electricity production;
technologies for biogas cogeneration, gas turbines and fuel cells; biogas grid connection;
biogas transportation, production, storage, fuelling and distribution; biogas from organic
waste, Industrial waste & waste water; biogas from sewage treatment plants; biogas
production from animal manure gasifying high yield from crops; biogas role in the
renewable energy supply systems
2.5 Wind Power / Energy
Offshore wind projects development and prospects, greenfield and brownfield sites;
efficiency and output of wind power plant, sources of technology, components and
manufacturing; drivers for joint wind and solar power plants; technology of seamless
interworking of wind and solar equipment; potential of offshore wind farms technology
options; power generators technology; innovations in turbine technology; technologies for
wind forecasting, measurement and meteorological data analysis; offshore Sites for
Maximum Power Generation; wind Forecasting to Power Levels; wind resource
aerodynamics and structural dynamics; new conceptual designs and technologies
2.1
xii
3-Solar power generation systems and technologies

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Solar Technologies and System Engineering: solar energy for rural and remote locations; solar
energy power plant; operational efficiency of solar power plant; advanced photovoltaic
technologies; concentrator; photovoltaic's; application of photovoltaic on grid; establishing
indigenous production of photovoltaic; photovoltaic systems; photovoltaic Solar Electricity;
Organic-based PV; polymer PV and hybrid approaches; components for pv systems and
manufacturing technology; large PV Power Plants;
high Penetration of
Distributed PV; solar thermal technologies; Solar cells; solar cell materials and
technologies; silicon solar cells; integrating solar into future grid supplies, dye-sensitized cells
and modules, carbon nanotubes.
Terrestrial Concentrator Systems: Materials and processing for very-high efficiency cells
Efficient silicon production technologies; wafer-based silicon; Mono- and Multicrystalline Silicon
Materials and Cells;
Thin film solar cells technology: Ternary Thin Film Solar Cells; CdTe Solar Cells
Inverters and grid interfacing; Connecting Concentrated Solar Power to the grid system
Batteries; charge regulators, mounting structures, trackers, cabling, measurements and testing,
standardization, and regulations.
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP); CSP industry; CSP Technology; CSP plant precise engineering,
synergies and R&D; Global Concentrated Solar Thermal Power Industry; Compact Linear Fresnel
Reflector (CLFR) technology; torresol Energies; advantages with regard to other CSP concepts
4-Energy Systems and Technology

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
All energies such as: blue energy, clean energy, energy production for the future,
global energy outlook, key energy industry, energy automation systems
energy supply systems, services, efficient use, operation and storage
Advanced energy systems: Fusion Plasmas, Lasers, Radiation, Nanomagnetism,
Spintronics, electrochemical energy systems etc
Energy and the Economy
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Energy Technologies
Transportation Energy Systems
Thermofluids and Thermodynamics of Energy Systems
Energy Science and Technology
Distributed energy technology
Energy and Environment
5-Fossil fuels power generation systems and technologies

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.6
5.7
Oil power generation systems and technologies

Gas power generation systems and technologies, gas storage
gas to liquids conversion
Coal power generation systems and technologies
Unconventional Oil, unconventional gas, unconventional fossil fuels and liquids
Fuel supply and energy planning
Conversion technologies for heat and power applications
Equipment and Technology
CO2 reduction technologies
xiii
6-Nuclear power generation systems and technologies

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Advances in Nuclear Power Technology Development, advanced small reactors, safer new
reactor designs, cheaper models, National and worldwide nuclear plant safety regulation and
standards, environmental impacts of nuclear power plant, the future of nuclear power, Role of
the fuel cycle in a nuclear power program, fuel procurement, used fuel management,
reprocessing fuel, Underground Nuclear Reactors and subterranean power generation, NPP
materials fatigue, embrittlement study and NPP reliability, life enhancement analysis, NPP
Technology Transfer
Condensed Matter Nuclear Science
Fusion Device Engineering
Innovative transmutation systems
Best Practice Waste Management Techniques and Safety
7-Mixed Topics
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
New technologies: Battery & Fuel Cell, carbon and Li+ materials structures, electrolytes and other
material developments, energy storage products, ultra capacitors and high power batteries.
Hybrid components; advances in the combination of battery and ultra capacitor structures to
optimize performance for specific applications or characteristics.
Smart grids, microgrid, energy storage in smart grid.
Smart Meters
New approaches such as nano technology and quantum technology
Renewable fuels for transportation.
Zero emission buildings, greenhouse gas emissions, green building, building blocks for high
efficiency energy storage
Lighting technology
B
Organic Solar Cells
Radically Novel Concepts in Plastic Solor Cells
Biovoltiacs Technologies
Portable or Miniaturized Energy Sources
B
8- Energy Applications of Nanotechnology

8.1
Nanomaterials for energy technology, for Fuel Cell Technologies and

Production and Storage
8.2
Nanotechnology for Efficient Energy Conversion
8.3
Functional Surfaces and Nanostructured Coatings for Energy Systems
8.4
Selective Nanostructured Absorbers for Thermal Collectors
for Hydrogen
xiv
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON POWER GENERATION SYSTEMS

AND RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES, Nov 29 - Dec 2, 2010
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD,PAKISTAN
AFFORDABLE, STABLE & ASSURED SUPPLY OF ENERGY FOR

POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN PAKISTAN
Shahab Alam
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources,
Islamabad, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
For people living in poverty, the most pressing
priority is the satisfaction of basic human needs, which
includes access to food, shelter, water supply and sanitation
and other services that will improve their standard of living,
such as healthcare, education, and better transport. Problems
of poverty in all its dimensions can be addressed with the
improved provision of energy services and it is significant that
most of those without having access to modern energy services
live in developing countries; like Pakistan and belong to the
segment of the human population that lives in poverty. While
assured and adequate energy supplies do not guarantee
economic growth and employment generation, their absence
typically limits growth. Although low energy consumption is
not a cause of poverty, the lack of available energy services
correlates closely with many poverty indicators.
The link between poverty and energy should not,
however, be construed simply in terms of ability of the poor to
afford better energy services. Energy services constitute a
sizeable share of total household expenditure in Pakistan.
People living in poverty often pay a higher price per unit of
energy services than do the rich. They also spend more time in
obtaining these energy services and rely on resource-scarce
and polluting ways of converting energy for services like
cooking, drinking water, heating and lighting, all of which
have associated health impacts. The production and use of
energy have environmental consequences at local, regional and
global levels. These impacts extend throughout the fuel cycle
of an Energy Chain.
for social uplift of the people of Pakistan at large through

affordable, stable, and assured supply of energy keeping in
view the environmental constraints.
KEY WORDS: Energy, Environment, Reference Energy
System, Poverty Alleviation
1. BACKGROUND:
Energy plays a substantial role in
the everyday lives of humans. Poverty describes a condition of
people who are denied the opportunities for sustainable
existence. There are multiple links between energy and the
poverty. People living in poverty have benefited very little
from conventional energy policies and their implementation.
At the same time, it has become widely recognized that
development depends on access to appropriate energy services.
Our goal for energy should be to make energy an instrument to
help realize the broader goal of sustainable development.
Energy services are the desired and useful products, processes
or services that result from the use of energy, for instance,
illumination, comfortable indoor climate, refrigerated storage,
transportation, appropriate temperatures for cooking,
materials, etc. The energy chain to deliver these services
begins with the collection or extraction of primary energy,
which is then converted into energy carriers suitable for the
end-use(s). Fig.1 depicts Reference Energy System of
Pakistan, which indicates how energy is converted to useful
product. These energy carriers are used in energy end-use
technologies to provide the desired energy services. Thus
improved energy services will increase the satisfaction of basic
needs of the end-user(s), and in the process, reduce energys
adverse impacts on the environment.
Energy plays a substantial role in the everyday

lives of humans. Poverty describes a condition of people who
are denied the opportunities for sustainable existence.
Natural gas consumption decreased slightly by 0.5%

during 2008-09 as compared to previous year. This decrease in
2. ENERGY SITUATION IN PAKISTAN:
consumption was due to cement industry by 43%, power
Uninterrupted supply of energy is not only the need of sector by 6% and industrial sector by 1% while the increase
the citizens but all sectors of the economy. The industrial was in transport sector (23%) followed by domestic (5%),
sector in Pakistan has already been hit very badly in the last commercial (5%) and fertilizer (0.5%) over the previous year.
three years. Prime Ministers Economic Advisory Council has
Coal production decreased by 9% in 2008-09 over the
developed an integrated energy plan to cater for the short-, previous year due to lesser production from Sindh and
medium-, and long-term energy needs of the country. Balochistans coal fields. Coal imports have also gone down
Government is well aware of the problems that have arisen in by 22.3% resulting in overall decrease in coal supplies/
the wake of energy crisis in the country.
consumption by 17% over the last year. Electricity generation
during 2008-09 decreased by 4.2% (with major decrease of
Pakistan is endowed with a variety of energy producing 47.5% in nuclear generation) over the last year and reached
natural resources, particularly oil, natural gas, hydropower, 91,843 GWh (including 227 GWh of electricity imported from
and coal as shown in Fig.2 (PPIS Annual Report, 2009-10). In Iran.). Electricity generation included 67.7% thermal, 30.3%
recent years, the use of commercial energy resources like oil, hydel, 1.8% nuclear, while 0.2% of electricity was imported
gas, and coal have increased very rapidly. There are a number from Iran. Electricity consumption decreased slightly by 4.1%
of overlapping factors which contribute to high energy usage; to 70.371 GWh during 2008-09 as compared to 73,400 GWh
e.g., industrialization, population growth, urbanization and so- last year. The electricity consumption in domestic, industry
called improving social conditions. The following sections and commercial sectors showed a decrease of 1422GWh, 1399
provide an outlook regarding supplies/ consumption of both GWh and 320 GWh respectively while the increase in
commercial as well as non-commercial sources of energy.
consumption was in the agriculture sector (324 GWh).
Transmission and Distribution (T&D) losses of public sector
2.1
Commercial Energy Supplies/ Consumption: power system were increased from 20.3% to 21.6% during
During financial year 2008-09, primary commercial 2008-09 (Pakistan Energy Year Book, 2009).
energy supplies in the country witnessed a decrease by 0.6%
Fig. 3 compares the share of commercial energy
to 62.6 million tones of oil equivalent (mtoe) from 62.9 mtoe
supplies
in Pakistan for the years 1988-89, 1998-99 and 2008in 2007-08. Oil, gas, coal, nuclear (although infinitesimal
09.
Fig.4
depicts Pakistans commercial Energy Supply Mix in
amount), and hydro-electricity are among the primary sources
of commercial energy supplies. The electricity generated from 2008-09 (DGPC, 2010)
oil, gas and coal is not considered to be a primary source. The 2. 2
Non-Commercial Energy Supplies:
share of natural gas in primary energy supplies during 2008-09
was 48.3% followed by oil 32.1%, hydroelectricity 10.6%,
Sixty-five to seventy percent of Pakistans population
coal 7.6%, nuclear electricity 0.6%, LPG 0.6% and imported is rural. These people fulfill
electricity 0.1%. Natural gas production during the year 2008- their households energy requirements through non09 increased from 3.973 to 4.002 million cubic feet per day commercial sources of energy. The following fuels comprise
(0.5% increase), while oil production decreased to 65,845 the non-commercial energy resources:
from 69,954 barrels per day (5.9% decrease). Oil consumption a). Fuel wood/ charcoal
e). Shrubs
decreased by 1% during 2008-09 over the preceding year. The b). Dung cake
f). Weeds
decline in consumption was due to agriculture (36%), c). Bagasse
g). Tobacco sticks
domestic (19%), industry (10%) and transport (6%) while the d). Cotton sticks
h). Rice Husk
increase was in government sector (18%), followed by power
(7%). Product-wise, Furnace Oil consumption increased by
Fuel wood and dung cake constitute the main sources
6% and gasoline by 5%, while HSD consumption was of rural energy (mostly for household) in Pakistan. The
decreased 8% over the last year. Consumption of furnace oil in possibilities of finding substitutes for these fuels in rural areas
cement industry dropped by 31% from 152014 tonnes in 2007- are limited. At present the replacement of such non08 to 105424 tonnes in 2008-09.
commercial fuels often implies a transition to petroleum
Imports of petroleum products increased by 10.5% as products which rural household can not afford. On the other
compared to the previous year. Furnace Oil imports increased hand, large-scale rural dependence on wood and dung has
by 19% while HSD imports decreased by 3% during 2008-09. resulted in deforestation, soil run-off and erosion,
The refineries production was down by 8.6% resulting in desertification and a steady decline in crop yields. The
production of 9% and 4% less quantities of HSD and gasoline planting of quick-growing trees and energy forests is,
respectively, during 2008-09 as compared to the preceding therefore, a matter that deserves serious consideration for
implementation on massive scale.
year.
Directorate General of
Petroleum Concessions
Pakistan Petroleum
Information Service
Energy Infrastructure Map - 2010

6100'
6300'
6200'
6400'
PRIMARY ENERGY SUPPLIES AND FINAL CONSUMPTION BALANCES

(2008-2009) (Unit - Million TOE) **
6900'
7000'
7100'
7200'
AGRICULTURE
2.10%
LOCAL CRUDE OIL

5.03%
IMPORTED CRUDE OIL

13.00%
SHOGO-SIN
INDUSTRIAL
39.80%
GILGIT
Chitral
Juglot
MATILTANT
CHITRAL
GABRAL-KALAM
1MW
BASHA
84MW
KAIGHA
137MW
NUCLEAR+IMPORTED
ELECTRICITY
0.69%
TRANSPORT
30.50%
KALAM-ASRIT
548MW
130MW
72MW
115MW
157MW
ALLAI
Charbagh
OTHER GOVT
2.10%
121MW
MALAKAND-III
81MW
147MW
Mardan
Sawabi
Khazana Shagar
200MW
31MW
ARL-PSO PROPOSED
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
BHAL SAYDAN
10
DIA
DIA
KM
DIA 6x2
PINDO RI
6 DIA
DCL
OG
720 MW
DIA
CHAK NAURANG
BALKASSAR
JHELUM
Khewra
RANGE
Khuthiala Sheikhan
Kotla jam
Total: 27.32 Million TOE
Farooq Abad
BHAKKAR
GE Power
150 MW
SUNDER
SHAHKOT
200 MW
FAISALABAD
SAMUNDARI
RENALA
Satgara
135MW
NISHAT POWER
200MW
Habibabad
1MW
Chunian
NISHAT CHUNIAN
200MW
OKARA
Sandhilianwali
BAHU
PACKAGES
201.30MW
PATTOKI
Tandlianwala
Samundri
RESHMA
ORIENT BALLOKI
225MW
150 MW
Gojra 200 MW
DHODAK
131MW
SOUTHERN
135MW
JARANWALA
INDEPENDED
CEMENT
0.60%
KOHINOOR
200 MW
101MW
UAE G.T.
240 MW
3100'
3100'
JHANG
SAVI RAGHA
Narowal
SHAHDRA
55 MW
LAHORE
225MW
ALSTOM
SPS FAISALABAD
132 MW
18/16 PARCO MFM PIPELINE
CEMENT/
OTHER INDUSTRY
45.30%
COKE USE
14.30%
Dhamthal
225 MW
62 MW
SHAHDRA
SAPPHIRE 55 MW
225 MW
ATLAS
Kala RUBA
225 MW
155.55 MW
TAPAL
70 MW
Machike SHEKHUPURA
Chak Jhumra 135MW
GTPS FAISALABAD
244 MW
FERTILIZER-FEED STOCK
3.10%
RHODO
PANJPIR
COMMERCIAL
2.80%
KOT ADDU KAPCO
HABIBULLAH P.H
Kach
BRICK KILNS
39.00%
POWER
1.30%
PIR ISMAIL ZIARAT

& MARGAT
QUETA
MACH-ABEGUM
QUETTA
35MW
140MW
CHAMALANG
362MW
D.G.KHAN CEMENT
18"x15 KM, MACH MVA-KOLPUR MVA

LOOPLINE
D.G.KHAN
18"x18 KM, ABEGUM-MACH

MVA LOOP LINE
Kolpur
PARCO
MULTAN
147 MW
Vihari
Jahanian
Machhianwala
BAHAWALNAGAR
Chishtian Mandi
12x2 KM LALPUR-AES
PSO PIPELINE
Hasilpur
26 PAPCO WHITE OIL PIPELINE
18"x40 KM, PIRKOH-SUI

PIPLINE(YEAR 1984)
Dadhar
BAHAWALPUR
Ahmadpur East
PIRKOH
18"x129.5 KM, JCB-DAMBOLI

LOOPLINE (YEAR 1998)
Dumboli
2900'
2900'
Fazilpur
18"x14 KM,BYPASS OF QPL

LAID IN DINGRA NALA
18"x17 KM, DHADAR-GOKART LOOPLINE
12"x303 KM, JCB-QUETTA

PIPELINE (YEAR 1983)
Burewala
PIRAN GHAIB
192 MW
TPS MUZAFFAR GARH
Kallarwali
NOK KUNDI
GRANGE HOLDING
120 MW
NGPS MULTAN
195MW
Basirpur
Pakpattan
Airfwala
1350MW
Khan Garh
16 PARCO KMK PIPELINE
Dipalpur
SAIF POWER
225MW
MIAN CHANNUN
18"x31 KM, DINGRA-SIBI

LOOPLINE (16-02-2007)
SIBI
20"x30 KM, KOLPUR-QUETTA

450MW
Khanewal
SAHIWAL
CHICHIWATNI
ROUSCH
FKPCL
TAUNSA
LALPIR
MUZAFFARGARH
JANDRAN
20"x30 KM, SIBI-DADHAR

JOHAN
Kamalia
NANDPUR
157MW
Chowk Sarwar
Shaheed
AES PAKGEN
365MW
AES LALPIR
DUKI
KHOST SHARIG HARNAI
ZARGHUN SOUTH
Sariab
HABIBULLAH
DOMESTIC
16.90%
10x32 KM LAILPUR-KAPCO
PSO PIPELINE
3000'
3000'
SOR RANGE DIGHARI
Sh.Manda
FAUJI KABIR WALA
1638MW
12"x64 KM, PROPOSED ZARGHUN GAS PIPELINE
FERTILIZER-FUEL
12.80%
GEN. INDUSTRIES
25.10%
GULF
65 MW
CHICHO KI MALIAN
526 MW 14 MW
HALMORE
Chiniot
200 MW
Bhawana
POWER
31.80%
TRANSPORT (CNG)
7.00%
SIALKOT
134MW
150MW
Lalian
COAL CONSUMPTION
150MW
HUBCO NAROWAL
SHAHPUR
Sahiwal
D.I.KHAN
Pasroor
GUJRANWALAGULISTAN
Hafizabad
SABAH POWER
Satiana Rd.
200 MW
GAS CONSUMPTION
14MW
Daska
Bhalwal
Hussain Shah
SARGODHA
BULK SUPPLIES
5.90%
DOMESTIC
45.90%
150 MW Badiana
RADIAN
NANDIPUR
425 MW
20MW
Khushab
KCP
Piplan
SHAHUWALA
NANDIPUR
SHADIWAL
Bhera
325MW
325MW
Tank
SIALKOT
GUJRAT
3200'
3200'
OTHER GOVT
2.10%
DOMESTIC
0.50%
Jalalpur Jattan
Mandi Bahauddin
Kundian
184MW
CHASHMA
Chakpirana
22MW
Gharibwal
CHAKWAL CEMENT
CHASHMA
Pezu
Kharian
RASUL
SALT
MIANWALI
83 MW
AGRICULTURE
12.50%
84MW
KAL
DAUD KHEL
10/12 GAS PIPELINE
Manjuwal
KURRAM TANGI
ARL-PSO PROPOSED
16 DIA WHITE OIL PIPELINE
MACHIKE-TARUJABBA
NEW BONG
RAJIAN
JOYA MAIR
96MW
KOTLI
RAJHDANI
132MW
BHANGALI MISSA KESWAL

MANGLA
ADHI
1000MW MIRPUR
TURKWAL
FIMKASSAR
3300'
12
KHAUR
JINNAH
D-SH
6 DIA
IA
4 D
-KUR
RWAL
DIA
KM
3300'
MAKE
DC
D)
NE
AN
(PL
6x2
DHURNAL
8 DI A
MEYAL 4 DIA
DHULIAN
LACHI-SHAKARDARA
BANNU
KOTLI
OG
RATANA
S
4x13KM
MELA
MAKORI
TOOT
4MW
SEHRA
130 MW
97MW
AZAD PATTAN
GULPUR
SIHALA 165MW
650MW
100MW
KAROT
NAUGHAZI
GALI JAGIR
DAKHNI
Lachi
MANZALAI
MANZALAI PLANT MANZALAI CPE
KURRAM GARHI
INDUSTRIAL
27.50%
JAMMU&
KASHMIR
(Disputed Territory)
600MW
ISLAMABAD
RAWALPINDI AGL
ARL
SADKAL
Sanjwal
CHOI
MAHL
Taxila
BESTWAY
Wah
ALTERN
12 DIA WHITE OIL PIPELINE

MACHIKE-TARUJABBA
SRINAGAR
MURREE
Haripur
Hazro Havailian
Kallar Kahar
Faqirabad
Hatar
ATTOCK
Kamra
T. Jabba
KOHAT
Kallar Kahar
40KW
1450MW
CHERAT
Hangu
CHAKOTI HATTIAN
500 MW
1100 MW
Topi
GHAZI BROTHA
Noshera
PESHAWER
Nassapura
10X78KMS GURGURI-KOHAT
GAS PIPELINE-MOL
MUZAFFERABAD
KOHALA
3478MW
243MW
HANGU-ORAKZAI
SECTORAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY SOURCE
969MW
ABBOTTABAD
TARBELA
LOTI
ZIN
DERA BUGTI
8"x85 KM, JHAL-NUTTAL PIPELINE
18"x34 KM, SHKP-JCB

QPL SECTION (YEAR 1994)
UCH
Shori
Khanpur
SUI
Shahwali
GUDDU
UCH POWER
UCH-II
1655MW
586MW
450MW
FFC
HAMZA
8x15 KM
8 DIA MAZARANI GAS PIPELINE-PPL
HASEEB
227MW
8x19.6 KMS (PEL)
RETI
MARI
BADAR
4/6 PIPELINE
FFC-MM
Mirpur Methelo
MIANO
Sanghi
16 PSFL PIPELINE
DADU
24x132.33 KM SAWAN-QAADIRPUR
PIPELINE
LAKHRA
6x23KM LATIF GAS PIPELINE-OMV
TAJJAL-1 - SAWAN CPP
8X19.12 KM
20X19 KM SAWAN
GAS PIPELINE-OMV
10X23 KM
BADHRA TO BHIT PIPELINE
HYDERABAD-BADIN
SAWAN
LATIF
250MW
24x40 KM BHIT-BAJARA PIPLINE
KADANWARI
20IRBP DADU-SUI-ZAMZAMA
REVERSE GAS TO SNGPL
GREEN
16"x35 KM, MIANO-KADN

PIPE LINE 2001-OMV
ZAMZAMA
Jam Shoro
850MW
KOTHAR
160 0
FO TCO Jet ty
136MW
42"x249.5 KM
00
FO&HSD LINES FOTCO-ZOT
BIN QASIM
Buffe r Ter m ina l
GREEN 50MW
ZEPHYR 50MW
ARBIAN SEA 50MW
DAWOOD 50MW
BECON 50MW
TENAGA GENERASI 50MW
8"x11.5 KM, BP PIPELINE
B UZD AR
LA SHAR I S.
6"x7 KM, BP PIPELINE

TAN DO GHU LAM ALI
H ALIPOTA
24"x35KM, KUNAR-HQ3 PIPLINE
KATO
M AZARI
DAB HI
DARU
18"x108 KM, BADIN PIPLINE

(BGFIP)NARI-HYDERABAD
LAG HAR I
ZAUR DEEP
M AHI
DU PHR I
NAR I
N OO R
N. AKRI
KHOREWAH
B AGLA
TAJED I
P IR
MAKHDUMPUR
S HAH DIN O
24x116KM, JAMSHORO-
(SMS PAKLAND)LOOPLINE
G HU N GH RO
NUR
BAGLA
NARI
11
00
PIR
RAJO
JABO
CITIES
HEAD QUARTER (HQ) / TERMINAL
TOWN
REPEATER / TERMINAL STATION

31 00
3
6
2 00
3
0 10
0
21
16 0 0
HYDEL
THERMAL
OIL REFINERY UNDER CONSTRUCTION
21
NUCLEAR
CONDENSATE PLANT
00
WIND
CONDENSATE PLANT UNDER CONST.
21
00
2100'
16
31
2100'
POWER STATIONS PROPOSED/UNDER CONSTRUCTION
00
6,481
4,900
5,987
462
1955
19,785
Total
OTHER FUELS
LPG PLANT
LPG / NGL PLANT
LPG PLANT PLANNED/UNDER CONST.
AVIATION FUELING FACILITY
310
HYDEL
ENERGY RESERVES & PRODUCTION
THERMAL
NUCLEAR
OIL STORAGE EXISTING

OIL STORAGE PLANNED
260
WIND
Million US Barrels
Billion Cubic Feet
Megawatt
Tonnes of Oil Equivalent
6200'
PRODUCT
OIL (MBBLS)
GAS (BCF)
COAL (Million Tonnes)
OTHER FUELS
**Source: Pakistan Energy Year Book 2009
RESERVES
314.390
28902.713
3450.000
2008-2009
PRODUCTION
24.033
1460.678
3.74
2000'
2000'
6100'
KEY HOLE-G
WAPDA (Hydel)
PEPCO (Thermal)
IPPs (Thermal)
Nuclear
KESC (Thermal)
0
POWER STATIONS
6 0 EXISTING
2200'
2200'
OIL PIPELINE EXISTING

OIL PIPELINE UNDER CONST./PLANNED
RAJ
2008-2009 (Unit- Mw)
COAL OCCURANCES
COMPRESSOR STATION UNDER CONST.

2 6 00
ABBREVIATIONS
MMBBLS
BCF
Mw
TOE
INSTALLED CAPACITY OF
ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY SOURCE
EXISTING COAL FIELDS
COMPRESSOR STATION
OIL REFINERY EXISTING
GHUNGHRO
2300'
2300'
SHAHDINO
2 6 00
SSGCL GAS PIPELINE PLANNED
PURIFICATION PLANT
BADIN
TAJEDI
OIL FIELDS
GAS FIELDS
CONDENSATE FIELDS
SNGPL GAS PIPELINE PLANNED

SSGCL GAS PIPELINE EXISTING
DUPHRI
JOGWAI
N.AKRI
BADIN
BHATTI
GOLARCHI
160
SNGPL GAS PIPELINE EXISTING

10
MAHI
NAKURJI
BADIN
KHOREWAH DEEP
FATEH SHAH NORTH
FATEH SHAH
MAKHDUMPUR DEEP
J ABO
RAJ
K EYH OLE-G
31 0
MISSRI
KOLI
BADI N
24x6 KM SPUR
FOR FFBQL
BARI
BACHAL
KHASKHELI
BH ATTI
GO LA RC HI
PANIRO
LAGHARI
JUNATHI SOUTH
TURK
TURK DEEP
BADIN
MUBAN
JHABERI
BUKHARI ZAUR SOUTH

JHABERI SOUTH
BUKHARI DEEP
JALAL
KO LI
KHO REWAH
MATLI
ZAUR
ALI ZAUR
ZAUR WEST
T H A R
K HASK HELI
M AKHD UM PUR
SONRO
MAZARI
S. MAZARI DEEP
S. MAZARI
DABHI N
DABHI
DABHI S
KATO
RIND
PA NIRO
RIND
TANDO GHULAM ALI
LIARI
BHULAN SHAH
M ATLI
ZAUR
Z AUR S OU TH
B UKHA RI
THATTA
BQPS-2
528 MW FJFC GHARO
BQPS-1
1260MW
JHIM
24"x15 KM, MASSU-HQ3
KU NAR E.
THO RA
LIA RI
2400'
2400'
260
PASAH KI
K UNAR
NO RAI JAG IR
DAR U
TU RK
M ars helling Yar d
ZO T
GUL AHMED
31
PASAH KI WEST DEEP
UAE G.T.
TAN DO ALAM
80MW
INTEGRATED
405MW
232MW
TAPAL
126MW
26 00
00
174MW
SON O
Zorlu
50MW
Jhimpir
IND
US
ACPL OFFICE
KARKEY
KARACHI
2 10 0
31
30"x9 KM,
HUNDI BYPASS ON 16ILBP

METRO 50MW
SAPHIRE 50MW
GUL AHMED 50MW
MAKWIND 50MW
MASTER 50MW
HOM 50MW
SACHAL 50MW
WIND EAGLE 50MW
FFC 50MW
LUCKY 50MW
SURJANI
THAT
JERR TA-S
UCK OND
-ONG A
AR
SARI
BOSI CAR
1292MW
137
MIRPUR KHAS
UMAR
T.Allahyar
PA SA HK I N .
SH AH
BUZDAR SOUTH DEEP
2500'
2500'
ACPL
HUBCO
PALLI
ALI
205MW
EAS
T
PASNI
600
850MW
6X37 KM,BOBI-CHAK DIM-5

12X44 KM,BOBI-TANDO ADAM
USMAN
JAM SHORO WALTER
HYDERABAD
KOTRI
MISAN
BUZDAR SOUTH
SONO SAKHI DEEP

SAKHI SOUTH DEEP
NIM
SAKHI
M.ISMAIL
M.ISMAIL D JAGIR
BAQAR DEEP TANGRI
NORAI JAGIR
LIARI D. HALIPOTA
INDU
RAHIM
NAIM AT
BASAL
Tando Adam
KAUSAR DEEP
GWADAR
00
6X24 KM, BP PIPELINE
DHAMRAKI
BOBI
BILAL
ADAM-x1
150MW
18x18 KM, LHF KOTRI

16" ILBP PIPELINE
PIR
MET
ING
BILAL NORTH
LAKHRA
LAKHRA
SANGHAR
KAMAL N
18"KHADEJI-FJFC
INTERLINK PIPLINE
CHANDIO
BUZDAR
KUNAR WEST
KUNAR SOUTH
TANDO ALAM
DHACHRAPUR LASHARI SOUTH
80MW
DA-JH
ERRU
CK-O
NGAR
ZIRKANI
24X132 KM
KARCHAT-KARACHI LOOPLINE
12"x25 KM
ACPL PIPLINE
17MW
PASAHKI DEEP
SHAH
KUNAR
UAE G.T
LALA JAMALI
CH AK-5 SOUT H
CHAK-63 SE
6x9KM, BP PIPELINE
120 KM DADU-KARCHAT (YEAR 1997)

24x40 KM BHIT-BAJAR PIPELINE
PASNI
CHAK-66
CHAK-5 DIM
CHAK-63
HAKEEM DAHO
JAKHRO
THAT
TA-S
ON
TURBAT
174MW
CHAK-7A
CHAK-2
BALOCH
RESHAM
6"x9.5KM, BP PIPELINE
THORA
KOTRI
2600'
2600'
BADHRA
DARS DARS WEST

DARS DEEP
T.A. YAR NNORTH
T.A. YAR
PASAHKI NORTH
PASAHKI NE
PASAHKI
PASAHKI WEST DEEP
UNAR
KUNAR DEEP
24"x84KM HQ2-TANDO ADAM SECTION

NAWABSHAH
24x200K BAJARA
KARACHI PIPLINE
BHIT
NIM
NIM WEST
HYDERABAD
20x280KM N.SHAH-
KAR SEC(YEAR 1994-2000)
24X64 KM
BAJARA-KARCHAT LOOPLINE
WALTER
250MW
LAKHRA
150MW
15 KM SAWAN-KADANWARI
24"x132 KM, KADANWARI-N.SHAH

SECTION (YEAR 1994)
Daulatpur
Bubak
18"x504 KM, IRBP SUI-KAR.(YEAR 1977)

20"x386 KM, IRBP LOOPS OTHER THAN
DADU KARCHAT (YEAR 1992)
2700'
2700'
CONDENSATE PIPELINE-BHP
12&10 TWO PIPELINE

TO ENGRO
12"x10 KM, MIANO2-KHIPRO1

PIPE LINE-OMV
16"x558 KM, INDUS LEFT BANK

PIPELINE (YEAR 1954)
PANJGUR
8 PIPELINE-TULLOW
ENGRO
235MW
REHMAT
MEHAR
38MW
SARA
SURI
SARA WEST
126MW
LIBERTY
KANDRA
26 PAPCO WHITE OIL PIPELINE
20/10X12 KM ZAMZAMA
GAS PIPELINE BY BHP
FAUJI MARI
202MW
Daharki
STAR
6x9 KMS (PEL)
16x35.56 KM PIPELINE
KANDRA
120MW
16 & 14 TWO PIPELINE

TO FFC
202MW
4x7 KMS (PEL)
SADIQ
HASAN
SUKKUR
NAUDERO
51MW
LARKANA
16"x55 KM, MEHARTH.MUHABBAT PIPELINE
SADIQABAD
MARU
FOUNDATION
4x13 KMS (PEL)
KH ANP UR
Shikarpur
16"x58.75 SUI-HASSAN
REVERSE GAS TO SNGPL
MAZARANI
PANJGUR
RAHIMYAR KHAN
Bhong
QADIRPUR ENGRO ENERGY
KONJ
KHUZDAR
GUDDU
750MW
TPS GUDDU
110MW
CHACHAR
KANDHKOT
QPL SECTION(1983)
2800'
2800'
12"x42 KM,RS1-JCB
JACOBABAD
18"x34 KM, SHKP-JCB

QPL SECTION(FUTURE PLAN)
JHAL MAGSI
11
3400'
3400'
CHARSADDA
Muzafarabad
NEELUM-JHELUM
MANSEHRA
Tangi Takhtabai
FRONTIER UNDEFINED
PATRIND
24DIA LINE BANDA DAUDSHAH TO NOWSHERA
6605MW
Net Energy Consumed

37.34
30MW
840MW
SAIDU
Malakand
Sakhakot
MUNDADAM
WARSAK
STREET LIGHT TRACTION

OTHER GOVT.
0.80%
COMMERCIAL
7.50%
JAGRAN
SUKI KINARI
Mingora
DOMESTIC
21.70%
3500'
3500'
KHAN KHWAR
MADIAN
*Excluding Consumption for Power Generation

and Feed Stock
TRANSPORT
49.30%
SKARDU
DASSU
4350MW
DUBER KHWAR
215MW
SHARMI
COMMERCIAL
3.90%
GAS
47.18%
LPG LOCAL
0.52%
OIL CONSUMPTION
4500MW
197MW
ASRIT-KEDAM
HYDRO ELECTRICITY
10.35%
Net Primary Energy Supply

62.55
POWER
42.30%
7900
7800'
132MW
Less Transformations, Distribution Losses

& Non-Energy Uses
-25.21
INDUSTRIAL
5.40%
7700'
(Excluding fuels consumed in thermal power generation)

Total : 37.30 Million TOE
IMPORTED LPG
0.10%
IMPORTED COAL
4.77%
COAL LOCAL
2.61%
AGRICULTURE
0.40%
7600'
144 MW
IMPORTED PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS
15.75%
10.84
16.30
0.57
3.90
5.73
37.34
Net Consumption
Net Energy Supply

37.34
7500'
SECTORAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
GROSS ENERGY SUPPLIES
By Source*
Oil
Gas
LPG
Coal
Electricity
Less Exports, Bunkers & Stock Changes

-1.55
7400'
SHUSHGAI ZHENDOLI
Net Consumption
Gross Energy Supply

64.10
7300'
RASHIT
8.09
1.46
14.84
0.79
11.37
0.79
37.34
Domestic
Commercial
Industrial
Agriculture
Transport
Other Govt.
8.33
10.10
0.07
3.06
0.05
21.61
6800'
Total : 64.10 Million TOE
Energy Consumed
By Sector
3.22
30.24
0.34
1.67
6.63
0.39
42.49
6700'
6600'
3600'
3600'
Indigenous Supplies
Crude Oil
Gas
LPG
Coal
Hydro Electricity
Nuclear Electricity
Total
Imports
Crude Oil
Pet. Products
LPG
Coal
Electricity
Total
6500'
S EA
ST
6000'
6300'
6400'
6500'
6600'
6700'
6800'
6900'
7000'
7100'
7200'
7300'
7400'
7500'
7600'
7700'
LMK Resources Pakistan (Pvt) Ltd.
Directorate General of Petroleum Concessions

Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources
1019-A Pak Plaza, Blue Area, Islamabad
Tel: 92-51-9204176 Fax: 92-51-9213245
http://www.mpnr.gov.pk
Pakistan Petroleum Information Service

www.ppisonline.com
NTC Centre
No. 53, G-5/2,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Tel: 92-51-111 101 101 Fax: 92-51-831 7933
E-mail: ppis@lmkr.com
www.lmkr.com
Figure: 2
In addition to the non-commercial fuels, Pakistan has

also potential for the development of new and renewable
energy resources for rural areas. Pakistan has a huge
renewable resource potential but most of it, except for some
hydel, remained unexploited. Wind, Solar and Bio-Energy can
play a major role in the renewable energy mix in Pakistan;
however, because of inherent technological deficiencies and
social acceptance problems, private sector can hardly be
attracted to invest in these technologies. In order to provide
thrust to the development of renewable energy, the
government has established Alternative Energy development
Board (AEDB) under an Ordinance, 2005. The Board has
prepared short, medium and long-term plans with ambitious
but not unrealistic targets in Wind, Solar (PV and thermal) and
is devising implementation strategies for these plans. AEDB
has launched 100MW Wind Energy project in Karachi and
also has completed 100 solar homes demonstration projects in
Islamabad ~ the federal capital.
The contribution of renewable resources to energy
consumption would however be very small unless the cost of
existing renewable technologies (especially solar) decreases
substantially or the cost of competing fuels, especially oil,
rises substantially.
3. ENERGY, POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION:
Although low energy consumption is not a cause of
poverty, the lack of available energy services correlates
closely with many poverty indicators. Moreover, the prospects
for income generating activities that can help break the cycle
of poverty often rely on the availability of energy. For
instance, nearly 2 billion people, constituting about a third of
humanity, continue to rely on biomass fuels and traditional
technologies for cooking and heating and about 1.5 2 billion
people have no access to electricity.
end-use. They could also manifest themselves over short,

medium or long time-scales, or have cascading effects by
combining with other environmental problems. Energy
services are the desired and useful products, processes, or
services that result from the use of energy, for instance,
illumination, comfortable indoor climate, refrigerated storage,
transportation, appropriate temperatures for cooking etc. The
energy chain to deliver these services begins with the
collection or taxation of primary energy, which is then
converted into energy carriers suitable for the end uses. These
energy carriers are used in energy end-use technologies to
provide the desired energy services. Energy interventions can
help in the challenges of poverty alleviation and environmental
protection. The conventional belief has been that poverty and
environment are linked in a downward spiral in which
people living in poverty, forced to overuse environmental
resources for their daily survival, are further impoverished by
the degradation of these resources. Increasingly, however, it
has become evident that people living in poverty are capable
of creating arrangements that protect the environment while
sustaining their livelihoods, to the extent that they are provided
access to superior technology and finance. Thus improved
energy services will increase their satisfaction of basic needs,
and in the process, reduce energys adverse impacts on the
environment. Nevertheless, realizing this dual potential
requires institutional as much as technological innovation.
Primarily, the level of energy services, rather than energy
consumption, needs to be taken as the indicator of
development.
Energy is directly related to the most pressing social,

environmental, economic and security issues which affect
sustainable development: poverty, jobs and income levels,
access to social services, the situation of women, population
growth, agricultural production and food scarcity, health, land
degradation, climate change and environmental quality.
Energy challenges should be tackled in ways such that these
social, environmental, economic and security problems are
Policies and programs that directly address the
ameliorated not aggravated as is typically the case with
creation of opportunities for people living in poverty to
conventional energy strategies, which either ignore these
improve the level and quality of their energy services (by
global problems or do not deal with them adequately.
making more efficient use of commercial and non-commercial
energy and by shifting to higher quality energy carriers) will
allow them to enjoy both short-term and self-reinforcing longterm improvements in their standard of living. The substitution
of modern energy carriers and more efficient energy
conversion devices would confer sizable gains in purchasing
power on poor households. Improvements in energy efficiency
have considerable potential to reduce poverty in all of its
major dimensions and to facilitate development.
The production and use of energy have environmental
consequences at local, regional and global levels. These
impacts extend throughout the fuel cycle of an Energy Chain,
that is, the entire chain of activities from resource through to
3.1
Households Willingness and Ability to Pay
for Fuels:
Whether or not cash outlays are required to use
a given fuel, it affects the households energy mix.
Those households that rely on free biomass to meet the
bulk of their fuel needs, especially among the poor,
rarely, if ever, abandon biomass even if relative fuel
prices are changed considerably. Therefore, how many
households rely on free biomass is an important policy
question. For instance, urban population using wood
and similar fuels purchase these fuels. In contrast, the
vast majority of rural households do not pay cash for
woodthe most commonly used fueland dung.
Therefore, the percentage of households that depend
primarily on free biomass is significantly higher in rural
areas than in urban areas. Among the rural poor, the
percentage is close to sixty. In contrast, only about a
tenth of the urban poor depend on free biomass to meet
the bulk of their cooking and heating needs.
Nationwide, about half of the poor depend primarily on
free biomass. For this category of households, there is
unlikely to be sustainable government support that will
induce them to switch out of biomass. To mitigate
adverse effects of biomass use, other measures such as
raising awareness about the health threat of smoke, and
the benefits of better ventilation, removing children out
of smoky rooms and improved stoves will need to play a
significant role (UNDP/ ESCAP, 2005).
Most estimates of household expenditures on
fuel are substantially understated for very low income
households because people living in poverty devote a
larger portion of their most important asset, their time, to
the production of energy services. In general, people
living in poverty spend more time and effort to obtain
energy services that tend to be of lower quality than the
energy services available to the rich. Poor women and
children, in particular, bear the burden of having to carry
water and firewood across long distances, while the
better-off typically enjoy the convenience of having
piped water and cooking gas delivered to their homes.
The fact that the poor, and especially poor

women, spend more time than others for energy
services, has a powerful implication. The economic
hardship endured by very low-income households is
understood when their incomes or consumption
expenditures are evaluated in terms of their command
over the basket of goods and services typically
consumed by households with average incomes or
consumption expenditures. In particular, most of
womens work remains unpaid in non-marketed or
subsistence activities and is thus unrecognized and
undervalued. Moreover, people living in poverty are
often more willing to pay for energy and energy-related
services than is conventionally assumed, and typically
do so for small quantities of kerosene, charcoal and, in
some cases, fuelwood.
4. FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS:
AND
Based on the analysis made in the preceding

sections, it is now concluded that conventional energy
strategies for the most part have failed to help meet the
basic human needs of the poor majority. In terms of
affordability and stable supply of energy, natural gas is
the preferred fuel for Pakistan for the next ten to fifteen
years. But this resource is available to urban population
only. Yet numerous opportunities are available for
meeting basic needs at much lower energy consumption
levels than has traditionally been the case. By using the
most efficient technologies available today, the focusing
increasingly on renewable sources of energy, the level of
energy services can be increased considerably. Those
increased services are essential for meeting basic human
needs and in the process of alleviating poverty and
protecting the environment.
For people living in poverty, the first priority is
the satisfaction of such basic human needs as access to
jobs, food, health services, education, housing, running
water, sanitation etc. Energy plays an important role in
providing for these needs. Although low energy
consumption is not a cause of poverty, the lack of
available energy services correlates closely with many
poverty indicators.
Now, based on analysis made in preceding
sections, recommendations can be made for the design of
sustainable energy policies for poverty alleviation.
Poor women spend far more time and effort than

men on energy-related activities. This gender bias is a
further reflection of energys largely non-monetized
attributes among the poor, since much of womens work
is characteristically unpaid work. Poor women are also
disproportionately the victims of energy scarcity, which
4.1 Designing Sustainable Energy Policies for
is expressed in their poor nutritional status, since fuel
Poverty Alleviation:
availability affects cooking habits and food availability,
poor health due to indoor air pollution, and even low
The central priority for people living in poverty
literacy rates, which could be attributed to the fact that
is the satisfaction of basic needs, which could be
girls are more likely than boys to spend about 5 hours a
addressed by increasing the level of energy services. In
day gathering fuelwood or drinking water.
fact, one of the ways in which energy strategies could be
7
sustainable, that is, meet sustainable development goals,

is by introducing specific technologies that would
increase energy services for people living in poverty
(e.g., efficient lighting technologies, water pumping
technologies, efficient cook stoves , modern energy
carriers for cooking). Such strategies could also promote
job creation in rural areas and thereby help those
currently living in poverty acquire the capability to free
themselves from poverty. Moreover, the emphasis given
to promoting the wide availability of modern energy
carriers and inherently clean energy technologies would
help improve their nutritional status and reduce their
risks of ill-health and resource depletion, while also
addressing global and regional environmental concerns.
Policies to promote the implementation of
sustainable energy strategies must be sufficiently
resourceful and yet adaptable to local situations to be
able to address the numerous institutional and other
challenges discussed in this paper. A few general
guidelines for the development of policy measures are
listed below:
Promote the creation of favorable
legal,
institutional and regulatory climates for sustainable
energy development and increased involvement of
private sector. Privatization policies must be designed
explicitly to improve the access to energy services for
people living in poverty, with incentives offered to
private power developers to make use of the best suited
technology options. In some case, where grid access is
convenient and cost-effective, flat rate, yet low cost,
billing can overcome barriers related to costly metering.
Similarly, many conventional problems of theft can be
avoided by encouraging local, self-governing
institutions to manage distribution of energy services,
for instance, through bulk sales to co-operatives.
Develop policies to phase out energy
subsidies by offering to provide improved energy
services to end-users such that their net expenditures
remain nearly the same. Currently, most energy prices
do not reflect externalities such as environmental and
social costs due to energy production and supply, initial
measures to increase energy efficiency and introduce
renewable energy sources may seem to be too costly in
some context. Thus, unless all costs are internalized in
energy pricing, consumers may find it difficult to justify
purchasing cleaner fuels or energy technologies that
would also promote sustainable development. Many
energy efficient technologies that could improve energy
services and benefit the environment (e.g., renewable
energy and energy efficiency technologies) without the
need for large investments to improve the supply of
energy (through grid extension, for instance) are placed
out of reach to poorer households.
Promote initiatives to overcome high

first
costs and risks associated with sustainable energy
technologies. This can be done by developing
innovative financing mechanisms for extending credit to
non-conventional borrowers through SME/ micro-credit
banks. This is particularly important for people living in
poverty because they think primarily in terms of the first
cost, rather than the life-cycle cost, which would
ultimately result in lower energy prices and improved
energy services. Early penetration of advanced
technologies (for instance, household lighting system
using photovoltaic technology or efficient biomass or
LPG stoves) will also help bring down costs, thus
widening the market even further to encourage new
entrants. In many cases, the initial cost of renewable
energy systems requires financial mechanisms to make
them affordable to consumers. Because most renewable
energy technologies are small and modular, their
manufacture can benefit from the economies of
producing large numbers of identical units. However,
consumers can not capture the full potential economic
benefits of mass production if the market volume per
supplier is small and if there are large transaction costs
associated with accessing this limited market.
Promote
the
development
of
productive
uses (e.g., creating an additional income stream) for
energy services. This could include developing
strategies to fully utilize natural resources in order to
create additional economic benefits and possibly the
establishment of new industries (e.g., food processing
industrial residues for ethanol). New urban industries
can be created in value added energy generation
activities, Such measures may persuade development
aid agencies, governments and entrepreneurs to perceive
the direct value in promoting sustainable energy
policies. In addition, well designed demonstration
projects may also cause governments to revise obsolete
laws and regulations that hinder the development of
renewable energy or energy efficient technologies.
Support
measures
to
develop
indigenous
capacity in the area of sustainable energy. This could
include training and education in order to create local
manufacturing capabilities, sales, and service industries
related to sustainable energy thus creating new jobs and
economic activity. It will be essential to consider both
value-added activities directly related to the delivery of
energy services (e.g., battery charging stations, CNG
filling stations or bottled gas distribution) and those that
are directly related (e.g., food processing industry, trade
and small scale manufacturing). Training will help build
awareness of sustainable energy opportunities, widen
skill levels and create a new manufacturing class that
could eventually form new lobbies for sustainable
8
energy. Training for government officials and

development workers is also essential to help build
organizational capability for creating and sustaining
energy programs that promote renewable energy and
energy efficient technologies.
Promote various means to improve the
utilization of modern energy services that will help to
improve the living conditions of people living in
poverty and promote the delivery of more energy
efficient municipal services for urban areas. This might
include improved stoves, better ventilation, provision of
hot water, improved sanitation, etc. Retrofitting existing
structures for energy efficiency improvements would

also improve energy services for people living in
poverty. Similarly considerations can be given to the
energy services required to provide adequate street
lighting, cleaner public transportation, communication
infrastructure, water pumping and delivery etc. All such
measures would help mainstream sustainable energy
strategies by including them in other development
initiatives considered by governments, donors and
NGOs.
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alam, S. (1994), Fuel-Choice Model for Pakistan
A Multinomial Logit Approach, unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Center For Energy and the Environment,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
2. Bhatia, R., (1987), Energy Demand Analysis in
Developing Countries: A Review , The Energy
Journal 18(Special L.D.C. Issue): 1 33.
3. Directorate General of Petroleum concessions
(DGPC), (2010), Primary Energy Supplies and
Consumption, Energy infrastructure Map, M/o
Petroleum and Natural resources, Islamabad.
4. Husain, I. and Hanjra, M.A., Irrigation and Poverty
Alleviation: Review of the Empirical Evidence.
Irrigation and Drainage Vol.53 (2004), pages: 1 15.
5. Knox, R. (editor), Energy 2000, Sovereign
Publications Ltd., London, U.K.
6. Pakistan Energy Year Book (various issues),
Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan,
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources,
Islamabad.
7. Pakistan Energy Year Book (2009), Hydrocarbon
Development Institute of Pakistan, Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Resources, Islamabad.
8. PPIS (2008-09), Petroleum Exploration and
Production Activities in Pakistan, Annual Report,
Directorate General of Petroleum Concessions,
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources,
Government of Pakistan and LMK Resources Pakistan

(Pvt.) Ltd., Islamabad.
9. Smil, V., and Kuz, T. (1976), Energy and the
Economy A Global and National Analysis , Long
Range Planning 9(3): 65 - 74.
10. Tinker, I., (1987), The Real Rural Energy Crisis:
Womens Time , The Energy Journal 18(Special
L.D.C. Issue): 125 146.
11. UNDP, 1997: Energy after Rio. New York
12. UNDP/ ESCAP (2005),Regional Energy program
For Poverty Reduction Access to Energy:
Assessment of Policies, Capacities and Knowledge
Repositories at National Level, A Country report for
Pakistan.
13. USAID (June, 2007), Energy Sector Assessment
For USAID/ Pakistan, Office of Infrastructure and
Engineering Bureau For Economic Growth,
Agriculture and Trade, USAID.
14. World Bank (2000), Fuel For Thought: An
Environmental Strategy for the Energy Sector ,
Washington, D.C.
15. World Oil and Gas Review 2003 (June, 2003), Eni
, Rome, Italy.
16. www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/statistics/hies0708/table19.pdf

Alteernatiive En
nergy Tech
hnologgy Inccentives
M.B.Khaan, M.Z.Khann, U. Javed,A
A. Bahadur annd T.Hussainn,
NUS
ST Rawalpindii Pakistan
0.35 KN is reccorded at a loadding rate of 0.05 KN/sec. for a
full scale loadd range of 25 K
KN. These resuults demonstratee
that the mannufactured com
mposite rotors had adequatee
structural integgrity, subsequenntly verified in actual windmill
operation at 4000rpm. The insttalled windmill now adorns thee
skyline of NU
UST.Fast Trackk liquid biofuells are producedd
from non-ediblle crop oil usingg bimodal nanoo materials. In a
process develloped at SCM
ME NUST, a conversion too
biodesiel time of 5 min. at 225oC is achieveed compared too
droxide catalyst
9O min. at 700oC for the conventional hyd
route. The process
p
param
meters, characcterization andd
evaluation testiing are presenteed.
Abstraact
The paper citess three praactical

propositioons to furnish vviable green eneergy in the Biofuels,
Clean Coaal Processes, annd Windmill seectors. We sharre our
experiencee on indigenoous fabricationn of 500 W, 1.5m
windmill rotors with a hub
h height of 6.0m above grround
UST-AERO-Fibber Tech outtreach
level as part of NU
industrial link project. Mirror proceess with matcching
r
receptaclees is used too fabricate thhe windmill rotors
according to NACA aerofoil
a
profilee. Full scale loadfness tests aree conducted using
deflectionn/bending stiffn
simulated aerodynamic load
l
with increemental loadingg. An
nding stiffnesss of 14.85 KN/m and mean
avg. ben
displacem
ment of 21.17mm
m for the maxim
mum applied looad of
I.
ND FABRICATIION
II. WIND MILL ROTTOR DESIGN AN
The first and foremost part

p of designinng a rotor bladde is to
select propper airfoil. Sincce blade is aerodynamic body, having
special geeometry characcterized by an air foil cross section,
s
extensive calculations are necessary in order
o
to determ
mine the
blade parameters such as
a chord and thickness
t
distriibution,
s
twist distrribution and tappper, which are matched with selected
airfoil seleection [1, 2].
equations to precisely geenerate the cross-section of thee airfoil
and
i properties. IIn this study we
w have used NACA
measure its
four digit profile. The Digits
D
involved in NACA seriees have
following significance
First Digiit: specifies thee maximum cam
mber (m) in perccentage
of the choord ( airfoil lenggth)
Second Digit:
D
specifies tthe position of maximum cam
mber (p)
in the tentths of chord
Third and
d Fourth Digitt: specifies thicckness (t) of aiirfoil in
percentagee of chord.
Measurem
ment of Coordinates
We can calculate
c
the cooordinates for an
a entire airfoiil using
the follow
wing principles:
Pick valuees of x from 0 too the maximum
m chord c.
Compute the mean cambber line coordinnates by pluggging the
f
equations
values of m and p in the following
Fiig 1 Profile cooordinates of winnd mill rotors

Thhe NACA airfoils have beeen developed by
b the National
A
Advisory
Comm
mittee for Aerronautics (NAC
CA). Series off
diigits is used to describe the shhape of airfoil. The parameterss
inn the numerical code can be enntered into
yc =
( 2px -
yc =
1.
for x =0 to x = p
[(1 2p
p)+2px-
] fo
or x=p to x=c
Calculate the thicknness distributio

on above andd
below the mean line bby plugging thee value of t intoo
fo
equaation for eacch of the x
the following
coordinnates.
yt =
(0..2969
0.1015 x4 )
2.
- 0.11260x -0.3516 x2
x +0.2843 x3 -
mine the final cooordinates for the

t airfoil upperr
Determ
surfacee and lower surrface using relattionship
10
Xu = x yt sin
Indigenous Rotor Fabrication

First mould of the rotor is prepared using appropriate airfoil
section designed and shaped according to NACA profile,
using GRP material. After mould fabrications, mould was
cleaned properly; Wax and Poly vinyl acetate (PVA) were
applied on it as releasing agent. Simple cavity moulds of
fiberglass composites are used.
Yu = yc + yt cos
XL = x + yt sin
YL = yc yt cos
Where
= arctan (
Rotor Blades
The most important part of wind turbine is the blade, which is
designed according to aerodynamics to get maximum output.
Horizontal axis blades are made from composite materials. A
wind turbine should be strong enough to withstand all loads
during its service life [3, 4]. Thus rotor designing is a
complete science.
Root of the blade Root of the blade constitutes heaviest and
thickest part. It should be designed to resist maximum
moments and torques which are transmitted by aerodynamic
forces through the blade to rotor shaft and therefore, the
stresses and strains are concentrated in the root sectional area.
The geometry of the root is complex and requires great
precision as it is attached with the steel hub. Static Proof test
is used to evaluate ultimate strength and fatigue
characteristics of the rotor blade .
The static poof-load is derived form the assumption of and
extreme thrust load of trot = 300N/m2 over the swept area. [5]
Fig 1 Die fabrication using perform mandrel
Fig 2 Matching receptacles fabricated using Mirror technique

Trot = trot A rot
Trot = (300 N/m2) (3.84 m2) = 1152 N
The load is equally shared among the three blades and
distributed in a triangular pattern from zero at the root centre
to maximum value at the tip. This means that each blade
should withstand an extreme load as computed below:
The process of applying wax yields the highest luster

possible with an easy application and excellent parting. Three
applications initially will effectively fill the pores and coat
the surface. On the second part, two applications are
executed. For the third part a single application would be
sufficient. A good mould surface is equally important for
proper luster. White gel coat is applied and properly dried.
Layers are added in mould by Hand lay up technique to
achieve the design thickness.
T Blade = Trot /B = 1152/3 = 384 N/ blade

The blade should withstand this load without sustaining any
damage. Actual testing was performed on Dynamic Test RIG,
DAQ Module, Lvdts. Results on bending stiffness and load
deflection data are provided in table 1.
SR
Max
Bendin
Bending
Bendin
Applie
Applie
Max
Max
Loa
g Stiff
Stiffness
d load
d load
Dis
Dis
KN/M
Downwar
Stiffnes
Upwar
Dwnwr
Upwr
Dwnwr
d (KN/M)
d KN
Averag
KN
KG
mm
Fig 3 Schematic showing components of rotor
mm
Hand Lay up Method
(KN/M
)
10
19.45
11.85
15.65
0.14
0.10
8.25
8.25
20
18.64
12.66
15.65
0.26
0.21
15.03
14.10
30
15.30
11.21
13.25
0.34
0.29
21.17
21.17
Hand lay technique is open mould technique used for variety

of composite products like boats, tanks and housing
components. Multiple moulds are used to produce substantial
production quantities. [6]
11
Power(Watt)
Fig 4 Setup for Hand Lay Up technique
The Performance of wind mill in terms of output wattage as a

function of pitch angle and wind speed is presented below.
These data are for the root portion, similar output is
computed for 40%, 60%, 80% and 95% downstream of the
root
using
MATLAB.
Fig 5 Fabricated rotor according to close weight balance

tolerance
The manufactured rotor is mounted on wind mill assembly
hub and tested for mechanical integrity and vibration free
operation. An electric motor is integrated with the wind mill
hub drive shaft and motion is induced to produce 400 rpm.
The experiment is repeated several times for durations of
eight hours each. The fabricated windmill assembly erected at
SCME, NUST appears below together with the Auto-Cad
drawing.
Fig 6 Wind mill assembly mounted at SCME, NUST for

trials
Fig 8 Power output graph of rotor blade

Innovative Bio-diesel Production
There is dire need to identify practical and sustainable
solutions for todays energy security, environment and
climate change challenges. Fossil fuels based on coal, oil,
gas, petroleum and nuclear sources have been the mainstay in
furnishing the energy needs of the world to date. They still
continue to provide the bulk of world energy requirements.
Nearly all the worlds power plants/transport runs on fossil
fuels.
However, the use of fossil fuels is replete with three major
limitations: (a) fast depletion rate concomitant with the
exponential rise in the energy needs, (b) global warming,
greenhouse effect and carbon loss associated with their
emissions, and (c) Fossil Fuel prices are volatile causing
unpredictable operating margins for power plant/transport
operators coupled with a direct negative impact on the
agricultural sector.
Conventional power plants, due to lack of profitability, are
often subsidized. Subsidized Power plants have a negative
impact on numerous revenue streams. Consequently, Power
Plants/transport/agriculture using fossil fuels result in
unpredictable prices/operating margins and harmful
environmental conditions. Over the past months, prices for
electricity, oil, gas and coal have shot upwards, at times
dramatically.
Fig 7 Dimensional drawing of Wind mill test rig
A modern energy supply follows the guiding objective of

sustainable development. It combines security of supply,
ability to compete and environmental compatibility.
Renewable energies are particularly suited to fulfilling these
criteria. Therefore, in common with many other countries
worldwide - as can be seen from the great interest here
Pakistan has decided to vigorously increase the use of
renewable in all areas of energy supply: in electricity, heat
and fuels!
12
Biomass energy crops run parallel to solar, wind and fuel

cells in this respect. Renewable energy is now on the world
stage and is seen as a viable source to address the rampant
energy crisis, more so in the liquid fuels sector. According to
Breamar Energy Ventures (USA), there isnt an imminent
overall global energy crisis with 1342 Billion Barrels of
proven reserves, but there is a looming crisis in liquid fuels
with world demand rising to a staggering
consumption of 130 million barrels/day of liquid fuel by

2030. Oil companies like PSO have set an ambitious goal for
this: the PSO aims to increase the share of renewable energy
derived from energy crops and biodiesel to 15 % by 2015
and to at least 20% by 2020. This is a step in the right
direction as competing technologies like wind and solar have
certain built in drawbacks like inconsistent power generation
and lower energy density, respectively. Typically, lead acid,
NiCd and Lithium ion batteries used for commuter and
hybrids possess an energy density of less than 2 Mj/kg as
compared to 45 Mj/kg for biodiesel used in on road trucking,
long range driving, generators and the more exotic sectors of
aviation and marine. The Government of Pakistan directive of
May 21, 08 to exempt all taxes on plant, machinery and
specific items used in the production of biodiesel is a timely
boost which will enable the required capacity building in this
utterly important sector of renewable energy.
The size of the economy can be visualized by considering
that Pakistan consumes around 8 million tons of diesel &
7.2 million tons of furnace oil per year. Around 9 million
tons of diesel & furnace oil is imported out of which PSO
alone imports 3.4 million tons of diesel & 4 million tons of
furnace oil. If 10 % of the total diesel & furnace oil
consumed by Pakistan (i.e. 0.80 million tons of diesel & 0.72
million tons of furnace oil) is switched to blended fuel the
countrys import bill can decline by ~ US $ 1.00 Billion.
Generally speaking, any type of energy crops can be used as
a biomass materials for the purpose of generating energy,
however, considering that the aim of various biomass projects
in general and this project in particular is to generate energy
economically viable on commercial scale, then the selection
process in choosing the most suitable biomass materials
would have to undergo strict testing from scientific and
technical factors to the market, business and regulations
factors.
Conventional Technology
Having said that, presently there are a number of popular

examples presently being researched and/or used as an
example of the types of biomass materials with possible
future commercial use. NUSTs initiative to employ Jatropha
Curcas as a preferred energy crop is based on its highest yield
per hectare compared to other land-based feedstock (table 1).
It is resistant to a high degree of aridity and as such does not
compete with food crops. The seeds contain 30-40% oil that
can be easily expelled and processed to produce a highquality biodiesel fuel, usable in a standard diesel engine. An
experimental farm at NUST campus green belt is being
nurtured with promising 80 % germination rate.
Feedstock
Oil / Hectare ( kg)
Oil / Acre ( Pounds )
Cotton
273
244
Soybean
375
335
Sunflowers
800
714
Rapeseed
1000
893
Castor beans
1188
1061
Jatropha Curcas
2800
2464
Table 1 Comparative Oil Yields for Competitive

Feedstock
The oil expelled from the energy crop is converted into
biodiesel by the trans-esterification process. The
conventional process based on hydroxide technology
consumes considerable energy at conversion temperatures of
80-90oC, it is remarkably slow (90 minutes reaction time)
and yields undesirable by-products with the attendant
separation costs. Recent collaborative research at SCME
NUST has defined new yardsticks in biodiesel production.
The innovative process using nanomaterials supplied by
NCP,QAU converts plant oil into biodiesel in mere 5 minutes
at ambient temperature, without the negative baggage of byproducts. This is a quantum leap in biodiesel production,
which has earned global recognition.Process comparison
between new and traditional routes is presented below:
Conversion Rate
Temperature Conditions
By-product Yield
90 min Process
70C
Glycerin10-12%
Soap
Investigated Technology
5 min Process
25C (Ambient)
2-4.0 %
Glycerin 1.0 %
Table 2 New and old process comparison
13
The work was presented in the ASEAN Workshop on new

and renewable technologies (June 2009), published by the
American Institute of Physics (Vol.1169, pp. 197-205,
2009) and cited by NASA/Harvard. A formal joint patent in
collaboration with NCP has already been filed through the
Technology Incubation Centre at NUST. The research was
further highlighted in the World Future Energy Summit (a
global energy moot featuring world leaders, experts and

capital ventures) at Abu Dhabi (January 18-21, 2010) with
the consensus that the new technology will go a long way in
improving the economy of biodiesel production. More
significantly, it promises to reduce the plant size and capital
investment, owing to the greatly reduced process time.
Pulverized Coal
Gas
IGCC
East. Coal
Wind
Nuclear
Solar
Geo-thermal
Bio
diesel
Capital Cost
($/kW)
2,438
700
2,795
1,700*
4,000
3,000
4,000
700
1,500
Total Cost
(cents/kWh)
5.8
6.8
6.8
7.1
7-11
5 10
6.9
CO2 Capture
Cost ($kW)
940
470
450
Cost for Carbon

Capture & Storage
(cents/kWh)
6.2
2.8
3.4
Cents / kWh
12.0
9.6
10.2
7.1
8.9
7-11
5-10
6.9
Cents / kWh
(credits $30)
7.9
7.7
8.7
7.1
9.1
7-11
5-10
6.9
Table 3 Fixed and operating cost comparisons of competing

technologies
The IR spectra comparing the fast track bio diesel with
standard bio diesel and that produced by PSO was reported
earlier [7].An invited round table discussion session was
conducted at a global esteemed moot and recently reported in
the 4th Annual Edition of the monthly Energy Update [8, 9].
The GCMS spectrum of the biodiesel is produced below.

Capital and energy production cost comparison of batch wise
biodiesel with other competing renewable technologies as
given by Delta Global Alternatives is quite favorable
(Table 3).
The major objective of Bio-diesel Production is to limit
reliance nationally on imported diesel, thus a significant
amount of foreign exchange can be saved. Bio-diesel
Production by Jatropha is cheaper than other sources and can
promote rural economic growth since Jatropha can be planted
at relatively barren land. The objective is to first demonstrate
and then share the technology with the farming community
and the largest stake holder namely PSO which imports
diesel to the tune of one billion dollars per annum. The
farming community consumes diesel at the rate of 5000
ltr/annum/100 acres, which implies that sparing less than 5 %
of land can make them self sufficient in their energy needs.
Such portion of land is normally available as
wasteland/spurious land with the agricultural community.
FIG 12 GCMS SPECTRUM OF FAST TRACK BIODIESL.
14
REFERENCES
[1] K.L.jackson and P.G. Migliore, Design of wind turbine
blades employing advanced airfoils, West Wind Indutries,
Inc., Windpower 87 Conf, San Francisco,CA.1987
[2] E.H. Lysen, Introduction to Wind Energy, 2nd edn,
CWD 82-1. Amersfort. The Netherlands 1983.
[3] P.D. Clausen, Ebert, P. Meyer, C. Peterson, P.D.H and
Wood, Development and testing of a prototype 5kW wind
turbine, Perth, Australia.
[4] D.M. Eggleston, D. M. and F.S. Stoddard, 1987. Wind
Turbine Engineering Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York.
[5] P.H. Jensen, 1986. Static test of wind turbine blades.
Test station for wind mills, Risoe National Laboratory,
Roskilde, Denmark, April, Jensen PH, Krogsgaard J,
Lundsger P, Rasmussen F. Fatigue testing of wind turbine
blades. EWEA Conference and Exhibition, Rome, Italy.
[6] T. Nishino, K. Hirao, M. Kotero, K. Nakamae, and H.
Inagaki,.Kenaf reinforced biodegradable composite,
Composites Science and Technology 63 , 1281-1286. 2003
[7] M.B. Khan, A. Bhadur, W. Anjum, American Institute
of Physics Vol.1169, pp. 197-205, 2009
[8] M.B.Khan, I.Durani and A.Bahadur, Innovative Biodiesel producton, 3rd World Future Energy Summit Abu
Dhabi (January 18-21, 2010)
[9] M.B.Khan, A.Bahadur and S.T Hussain, Fast Track Bio
diesel Process, Energy Update pp. 53 April May 2010.
15

An Overview of Osmotic Power Generation and its

Scope in Pakistan
Syed Waqar Hasan1, Asif Mehdi2 and Syed Faraz Hasan3
1
Final year undergraduate student

Department of Mechanical Engineering,
NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi
Email: waqar_hasan88@yahoo.com
2
Laboratory Engineer, Department of Automotive Engineering,

3
Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering,

Abstract
The need of introducing innovative power
generation methods is increasing rapidly. The
conventional fuel driven methods not only
require heavy financial investments, they have
also been held responsible for many natural
calamities faced by the human population. While
the research on better utilizing the renewable
resources such as wind, tidal and wave energy etc
is underway, the Osmotic Power has been
commercially introduced as a new fuel-free
energy resource. The energy in the osmotic
power is derived from the difference in salt
concentration between the fresh water and the salt
water. In an osmotic power plant, the river water
is used as the fresh water and the sea water is
treated as the salt water for getting electric power
through osmosis. While the hydroelectric dams
can threat irrigation activities in some areas by
blocking the water supply, the osmotic plants are
situated at locations where the river water falls
into the sea and hence cause no water hold-ups.
In this paper, we take an in-depth look into the
technical methods and the associated challenges
of the osmotic power generation. We highlight
the scope of osmotic power in Pakistan. We
identify important geographical locations in the
country which can be ideal for setting up an

osmotic power station.
Keywords
Osmosis, Osmotic power
generation, Renewable energy
plant,
Power
I. Introduction
Pakistan is facing an energy crisis which is
worsening every day. The difference between
supply and demand is increasing at a regular
pace, which affects commercial and domestic
activities alike. According to the latest figures
reported in [1], the gap between supply and
demand is between 3600-4000MW. This power
shortage has resulted in frequent elongated power
break downs across the country. While the
authorities consider getting more supply from
hydroelectric power generation and other fueldriven sources, the need for increasing the
installed capacity is plummeting drastically. A
power system is composed of three main
components, namely, generation, transmission
(and distribution) and utilization. For a power
system to run efficiently, all the three sectors
must perform satisfactorily. Utilization is one
sector which has attracted the attention of many
16
in the recent days. Closing the markets in the

evenings and taking 2 days off in a week are
tactics which aim at reducing utilization. The
approach of reducing utilization to cope up with
the energy crisis has serious drawbacks. It has
severe economic consequences and most
importantly, it does not solve the problem in the
long run. Many blame the transmission system
responsible for losing a significant amount of
generated power while delivering it to the
consumers. The transmission and distribution
system of the Lahore Electric Supply Corporation
(LESC), for instance, has become completely
outdated. It records dozens of transformer
tripping even under normal load conditions [2].
Theoretically, the transmission lines losses
amount to about 40% of the generated power.
Without undermining the need of an efficient
transmission system, authors believe that the
current installed capacity of the country shall still
not be able to cope up with the demand even if
the line losses are reduced. Furthermore, the
consumer load increases with the increasing
industrialization and urbanization, which cannot
be tackled merely by improving the transmission
system. We maintain that the generating capacity
of the country must be increased in order to deal
with the current energy crisis.
The country mainly relies on fuel-based power
generation with the main fuels being the Natural
Gas, Petroleum and Coal. Despite having
reasonable coal and natural gas reserves in the
country, much of the generated power comes
from the furnace oil. Despite having a staggering
economy, Pakistan chooses the most expensive
power generation method. Table I shows the
contribution of different resources in electricity
generation in Pakistan [3]. Todays world is
rapidly switching towards the alternate energy
sources in order to save the all important
economy. For instance, the United Kingdom aims
at providing one third of the countrys energy
demands from the renewable resources [4]. The
trend is even more popular in Norway which not
only supplies the power demands from the
hydroelectric plants; it is also exporting
electricity to the neighbouring countries. Very

recently, Norway has started a new form of
renewable power plant called the Osmotic Power
Plant [5]. In this paper, we give an overview of
this recent trend of power generation and relate it
with the opportunities to exploit the same in
Pakistan.
Table I: Power contributed by different sources in Pakistan
Hydel
Thermal (Gas and Oil)
Thermal (Coal)
Nuclear
Power generated
6500
13000
150
450
The rest of the paper is organized as follows.

Section II briefly describes the principles of
Osmotic Power, followed by a brief discussion on
the potentials of osmotic power in Pakistan in
Section III. The conclusions are given in Section
IV and the references are given at the end of the
paper.
II. Principles of Osmotic Power
The pressure exerted by the solution on a semi
permeable membrane that separates the solution
from a pure solvent is known as the Osmotic
pressure. Figure 1(a) and 1(b) show the solution
and solute separated by a semi permeable
membrane (permeable to solute). Initially, as
shown in Figure 1(a), same quantities of the
solvent and solution are added in the container.
The solute on one side tends to drift across the
membrane to dilute the solution on the other side
and hence increases the height of the solution in
the container. Consequently, a pressure difference
is generated on one side of the container [6]. The
membrane typically allows fresh water to pass
through it and hence the fresh water is normally
used as a solute in commercial installations [7].
The pressure difference Pdiff, shown in Figure
1(b), is referred to as the Osmotic Pressure and
can be used for generating electricity. This
pressure is later imparted against the turbine
blades to get renewable electricity.
17
Figure 1: Th
he principle off Osmotic Pow
wer
Fig
gure 2: Schem
matic diagram of an Osmoticc Power
A. Operaation of the Osmotic Po

ower Plant
d
off the
A convenntional schhematic diagram
Osmotic po
ower plant iis given in Figure
F
2 [8]]. The
plant requiires abundaant supplies of fresh an
nd sea
water to exploit
e
the principles of osmosiss. The
sea water is fed too Tank A after moddestly
pressurizinng it using the pressurre exchangger. In
terms of pressure eneergy, the plaant shown in the
s
excitedd. The sea water is fiiltered
figure is self
before it reeaches the tank. Simillarly, fresh water
is suppliedd into Tank B, which is
i separatedd from
Tank A via a semi peermeable membrane.
m
D to
Due
the osmootic pressuure differeence (disccussed
fr
water from
f
Tank B diffuses into
i
abbove), the fresh
Taank A and further inccreases the fluid presssure
innside Tank A. The ppressure buuilt up duee to
aggainst the turbine whhich
ossmosis is imparted
i
evventually produces
p
m
mechanical power at its
teerminals. Soome of the pressure frrom Tank A is
feed back to the pressuure exchannger, which
h is
uttilized in pressurizing the incom
ming sea waater.
Thhus, the eneergy requireed for presssurizing the sea
w
water
does not
n come fr
from any exxternal souurce.
Thhe turbine coupled w
with a geneerator conv
verts
thhis mechaniical power into electrricity. A more
m
deetailed andd illustratedd block diagram
d
of an
ossmotic pow
wer plant cann be found in
i [9].
18
Figure 3: The Pakistani coastal belt showing several rivers falling into the sea (image taken from www.mapsofworld.com).
For optimum performance of the osmotic power

plant, the selection of suitable membrane is a key
factor. In the following, we highlight some of the
issues related with selecting the appropriate
membrane for the plant.
B. Semi-permeable Membrane
A semi-permeable membrane is also termed as
the partially or differentially permeable
membrane because it allows certain liquids to
pass through and it resists the others. The process
of diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane
is also called the facilitated diffusion. The
penetration rate of molecules through a semipermeable membrane is a function of pressure,
temperature and the concentration of molecules
on both sides of the membrane, as given in
equation (1).
, ,
(1)
Where, is the penetration rate, P and T are the

pressure and temperature in the container, and
is the concentration of the molecules.
The permeability of the membrane and the tube
diameter which contains it have significant
impact on the osmotic power generated. The
membrane tube diameter has an inverse relation
with the output osmotic power, on the other hand,
higher the permeability of the membrane higher
is the output power. The diameter of the

membrane tubes must be selected carefully
because they are subjected to high fluid
pressures. Kulkarni et al. in [10] have selected
10mm of membrane tube diameter, which can
withstand a pressure of 100 bars. The reported
work deals with the design of 100kW osmotic
power facility and hence larger membrane tube
diameters may be selected for large scale plants.
Table II: List of major rivers falling into the Arabian Sea
River
Dasht
Hingol
Hub
Indus
Location
District,
Gwadar
Balochistan
Makran
Coast,
Balochistan
Lasbela, Balochistan
Karachi port, Sindh
Features
Mirani dam being
built
Part
of
Hingol
National Park
Houses the Hub dam
Key water resource
for Pakistan
III. Osmotic Power options in Pakistan

Pakistan has a reasonably large coastal belt
spread across the south of Sindh and Balochistan.
The southern areas of the two provinces touch the
Arabian Sea. It has been mentioned before that
the ideal locations for setting up an osmotic
power plant is where the rivers fall into the seas
and oceans. Figure 3 shows Pakistans coastal
belt at the Arabian Sea and the rivers which flow
into the sea. It is evident from the figure that
several places provide an appropriate opportunity
19
to set up an osmotic plant and reap the renewable

benefits for generating electricity. Table II details
the rivers falling into the Arabian Sea and the
developments made on them, if any. Authors
believe that considering these locations for
setting up an osmotic plant can be fruitful for
increasing the overall installed capacity of the
nation.
IV. Conclusion
The identification of new generation methods is
very important for Pakistan as the country faces
the severe power crisis. In this paper, we have
given an overview of an increasingly popular
renewable resource, namely the osmotic power.
In the first part of the paper, the main concept and
methodology of the osmotic principles have been
introduced. It has been discussed that the ideal
location of setting up an osmotic plant is where
the river water falls into an ocean or a sea. In the
second part, we have shown that the southern
coastal belt of Pakistan has several locations
where an osmotic plant could be set up.
References
[1] K. Kiani, Rs. 1.44 per unit hike sought in power
tariff, Dawn News Online (As of 20th March 2010).
[2] U. Bhatti, LESCO system too old to sustain load, The
News (As on 1st May 2010).
[3] W. Habib, Pakistan Electricity Crisis, Free online
articles
directory,
2009.
http://www.articlesbase.com/public-companyarticles/pakistan-electricity-crisis-912410.html
[4] Renewable UK The Voice of Wind and Marine
Energy, Manifesto 2010.
[5] M. Gregory, Norways Statkraft opens first Osmotic
Power Plant, BBC News (As on 24th November 2009).
[6] H. D. Gesser, Applied Chemistry: A textbook for
engineers and technologists, Springer, 2002.
[7]
Osmotic
Power
Inc.
Available
online:
http://www.osmoticpower.com/
[8] K. V. Peinemann and S. P. Nunes, Membranes for
energy conversion, illustrated edition, Wiley-VCH, 2008.
[9] O. S. Skramesto, S. E. Skilhagen and W. K. Nielsen,
Power Production based on Osmotic Pressure,
Waterpower VI, 2009
[10] D. S. Kulkarni and A. W. Date, Design of a 100kW
Pressure Retarded Osmotic Power Plant, available online
at
docstoc,
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/34289185/DESIGN-OF-A100-kW-PRESSURE-RETARDED-OSMOSIS-POWERPLANT
.
20

Biomass Gasification Trends for New

Technology Development for the Production of
Energy
M. Ahsan, N. Ul-Haq and H. Nasir
*
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical & Materials Engineering (SCME),

National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract--- The drive to find alternative fuels to replace such

hydrocarbons as diesel and petrol has resulted in an excess
of different fuelsfew of which are commercially available
in large quantities. As fuels, by their very nature, must be
combustible, the fire, explosion and explosion properties will
need to be known. The use of biomass as a source of energy
has been further improved in recent years and special
interest has been paid to biomass gasification. Due to the
increasing interest in biomass gasification, several studies
have been proposed in order to explain and understand this
complex process, and the design, simulation, optimization
and process analysis of gasifiers have been carried out. This
paper reviews several Biomass gasification studies.
I. INTRODUCTION
With increasing concern for greenhouse gas emissions
and anthropogenic climate change, consciousness in
renewable energy assets is substantial. This is evidenced
by the EU renewable energy directive, which imposes the
aim of a 20% share of energy from renewable sources,
with a necessary least share of 10% renewable energy in
the transportation sector [1]. Directive 2009/28/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009
on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable
sources and amending and subsequently repealing
Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, 2009 [1].
Biomass is projected to play a key role in getting the
goal, in particular but not only, for member states with
huge forest resources, as is the case in Sweden for
example. Since the delivery of biomass is limited, wellorganized use is vital. Today, biomass gasification is
considered as one of the main technologies for future
biorefineries where biomass will be changed into fuels,
power and value-added chemicals.
District heating (DH) offers opportunities to both
reduce the utilization of fossil fuels for space heating and
to attain high total energy conversion effectiveness. The
finest known example of the latter is combined heat and
power (CHP) production, which is accepted by the
European Parliament as a method to raise the energy
competence systems to decrease worldwide CO2
emissions [2]. Wide completion of gasification based
biofuel making in European DH systems is discussed by
Berndes et al. [3], who conclude that if the 2020 target for
biofuels would be met by gasification based fuels, the
total heat descend of the EU DH systems would be large
compared to the amount of heat delivered from the

biofuel plants.
In an previous study [4] it was established that the
municipal DH system of Linkping, Sweden wants
investments in new production capacity to be able to meet
an enlarged heat requirement with existing profitability
margins.
II. HISTORY
Since the beginning of idea, gasification has passed
through a number of phases of progress. Year wise
development of the technology is given in Table 1.
III. THEORY OF GASIFICATION
A.
Types of Gasifiers
Updraught or counter current gasifier:The oldest type of

gasifier is the counter current or updraught gasifier shown
schematically in Fig. 1.
The air enters from the bottom and the gas leaves at
the top. Near the grate at the bottom the combustion
reactions happen, which are followed by reduction
reactions somewhat higher up in the gasifier. In the upper
part of the gasifier, heating and pyrolysis of the feedstock
takes place as a result of heat transfer by forced
convection and radiation from the lower zones.
The tars and volatiles formed during this process will
be carried in the gas stream. Ashes are removed from the
bottom of the updraught gasifier.
The main advantages of this type of gasifier are its
simplicity, high charcoal burn-out and inner heat
exchange leading to low gas exit temperatures and high
equipment efficiency, as well as the chance of operation
with many types of feedstock (sawdust, cereal hulls, etc.)
Major drawbacks result from the option of "channelling"
in the equipment, which can lead to oxygen breakthrough and unsafe, explosive situations and the
requirement to install automatic moving grates, as well as
from the problems associated with disposal of the tar
21
TABLE I.
HISTORY OF BIOMASS GASIFICATION [5]
1669
Thomas Shirley conducted crude experiments with carborated

hydrogen
1699
Dean Clayton obtained coal gas from pyrolitic experiment
1788
Robert Gardner obtained the first patent with regard to

gasification
1792
First confirmed use of producer gas reported, Murdoc used

the gas generated from coal to light a room in his house.
Since then, for many years coal gas was used for cooking and
heating
1801
Lampodium proved the possibility of using waste gases

escaping from charring of wood
1804
Fourcroy found the water gas by reaction of water with a hot

carbon
1812
developed first gas producer which uses oil as fuel
1840
First commercially used gasifier was built in France
1861
Real breakthrough in technology with introduction of

Siemens gasifier. This gasifier is considered to be first
successful unit
1878
Gasifiers were successfully used with engines for power

generation
1900
First 600 hp gasifier was exhibited in Paris. Thereafter, larger

engines upto 5400 hp were put into service
1901
J.W. Parker run a passenger vehicle with producer gas
19011920
Many gasifier-engine systems were sold and used for power

and electricity generation
1930
Nazi Germany accelerated effort to convert existing vehicles

to producer gas drive as part of plan for national security and
and independence from imported oil
1930
1939
After
1945
19501970
After
1970
Began development for small automotive and portable gas

producer. British and French Goverment felt that automotive
charcoal gas producer is more suitable for their colonies
where supply of gasoline was scarce and wood that could
charred to charcoal was readily available
About 2,50,000 vehicles were registered in the Sweden. Out
of them, 90 % were converted to producer gas drive. Almost
all of the 20,000 tractors were operated on producer gas. 40
% of the fuel used was wood and remainder charcoal
operations.
Figure 1
Updraught or counter current gasifier
Downdraught or co-current gasifiers: A key to the

problem of tar entrainment in the gas stream has been
establish by designing co-current or downdraught
gasifiers, in which primary gasification air is introduced
at or above the oxidation zone in the gasifier.
The producer gas is removed from bottom of the
apparatus, so that fuel and gas go in the same direction, as
schematically shown in Fig. 2
On their way down the acid and tarry distillation
products from the fuel must pass through a glowing bed
of charcoal and therefore are converted into hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane.
The main benefit of downdraught gasifiers lies in the
possibility of producing a tar-free gas appropriate for
engine applications.
In practice, however, a tar-free gas is rarely if ever
achieved over the whole operating range of the
equipment: tar-free operating turn-down ratios of a factor
After end of second world war, with plentiful gasoline and

diesel available at cheap cost, gasificaton technology lost
glory and importance
During this decades, gasification was "Forgotten Technology
". Many goverments in europe to felt that consumption of
wood at the prevailing rate will reduce the forest, creating
several environmental problems
The year 1970s brought a renewed interest in the technology
for power generation at small scale. Since then work is also
concentrated to use fuels other than wood and charcoal.
containing condensates that result from the gas cleaning

22
TABLE II.
COMPOSITION OF PRODUCER GAS FROM VARIOUS FUELS [8]
Fuel
Gasification
Method
Volume Percentage
Calorific Value
MJ/m3
Charcoal
Downdraft
CO
28-31
H2
5-10
CH4
1-2
CO2
1-2
N2
55-60
4.60-5.65
Wood with12-20%
moisture content
Wheat straw pellets
Downdraft
17-22
16-20
2-3
10-15
55-50
5.00-5.86
Downdraft
14-17
17-19
11-14
4.50
5.80
Coconut husks
Downdraft
16-20
17-19.5
10-15
Coconut shells
Downdraft
19-24
10-15
11-15
7.20
Pressed Sugarcane
Downdraft
15-18
15-18
12-14
5.30
Charcoal
Updraft
30
19.7
3.6
46
5.98
Corn cobs
Downdraft
18.6
16.5
6.4
6.29
Rice hulls pelleted
Downdraft
16.1
9.6
0.95
3.25
Cotton stalks cubed
Downdraft
15.7
11.7
3.4
4.32
requirement to maintain uniform high temperatures over a

given cross-sectional area makes impractical the use of
downdraught gasifiers in a power range above about 350
kW (shaft power).
Cross-draught
gasifier:
Cross-draught
gasifiers,
schematically illustrated in Figure 3 are an adaptation for
the use of charcoal. Charcoal gasification results in very
high temperatures (1500 C and higher) in the oxidation
zone which can lead to material problems. In cross
draught gasifiers insulation beside these high
temperatures is provided by the fuel (charcoal) itself.
Advantages of the system present in the very small
scale at which it can be operated. Installations below 10
kW (shaft power) can under definite setting be
economically possible.
Figure 2
Downdraught or co-current gasifier
3 are measured standard; a factor 5-6 is measured

excellent.
Because of the lower level of organic components in
the condensate, downdraught gasifiers experience less
from environmental objections than updraught gasifiers.
A major drawback of downdraught equipment lies in
its incapacity to operate on a number of unprocessed
fuels. In particular, fluffy, low density materials give rise
to flow problems and extreme pressure drop, and the
solid fuel must be pelletized or briquetted before use.
Downdraught gasifiers also suffer from the problems
linked with high ash content fuels (slagging) to a larger
level than updraught gasifiers.
Negligible drawbacks of the downdraught system, as
compared to updraught, are somewhat lower competence
resulting from the lack of internal heat exchange as well
as the lower heating value of the gas. Besides this, the
Figure 3. Crossdraught or co-current gasifier
23
The reason is the very straightforward gas-cleaning

train (only a cyclone and a hot filter) which can be in use
when using this type of gasifier in conjunction with small
engines.
A disadvantage of cross-draught gasifiers is their
minimum tar-converting capabilities and the consequent
need for high quality (low volatile content) charcoal.
It is because of the ambiguity of charcoal quality that a
number of charcoal gasifiers employ the downdraught
principle, in order to keep at least a minimal tar-cracking
capability.
Fluidized bed gasifier: The operation of both up and
downdraught gasifiers is inclined by the morphological,
physical and chemical properties of the fuel. Problems
normally encountered are: lack of bunker flow and
extreme pressure drop over the gasifier
A design approach aiming at the elimination of the
above difficulties is the fluidized bed gasifier illustrated
schematically in Fig. 4
Air is blown through a bed of solid particles at a
sufficient velocity to keep these in a state of suspension.
The bed is originally externally heated and the feedstock
is introduced as soon as a satisfactorily high temperature
is reached. The fuel particles are introduced at the bottom
of the reactor, very rapidly mixed with the bed material
and almost immediately heated up to the bed temperature.
Problems with feeding, instability of the bed and fly-ash

sintering in the gas channels can take place with some
biomass fuels.
Other drawbacks of the fluidized bed gasifier lie in the
rather high tar content of the product gas (up to 500
mg/m gas), the partial carbon burn-out, and poor
response to load changes.
Mainly because of the control equipment needed to
cater for the latter difficulty, very small fluidized bed
gasifiers are not foreseen and the application range must
be cautiously set at above 500 kW (shaft power).
Fluidized bed gasifiers presently exist on a semicommercial basis from numerous manufacturers in
Europe and U.S.A.
Other types of gasifiers: A number of other biomass
gasifier systems (double fired, entrained bed, molten
bath), which are to a certain extent spin-offs from coal
gasification technology, are presently under development.
In some cases these systems incorporate needless
refinements and complications, in others both the size and
sophistication of the equipment make near term
application in developing countries unlikely. For these
reasons they are omitted from this explanation.
B.
Reaction Chemistryof Biomass

The following main reactions take place in
combustion and reduction zone [6].
1. Combustion zone: The combustible substance of a
solid fuel is generally composed of elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. In entire combustion carbon
dioxide is obtained from carbon in fuel and water is
obtained from the hydrogen, generally as steam. The
combustion reaction is exothermic and produces a
theoretical oxidation temperature of 14500C. The major
reactions, therefore, are:
C + O2 = CO2 (+ 393 MJ/kg mol)
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O (- 242 MJ/kg mol)
Figure 4. Fluidized bed gasifier
As a result of this treatment the fuel is pyrolysed very

fast, resulting in a component mix with a relatively big
amount of gaseous materials. Further gasification and tarconversion reactions happen in the gas phase. Most
systems are equipped with an internal cyclone in order to
reduce char blow-out as much as possible. Ash particles
are also passed over the top of the reactor and have to be
removed from the gas stream if the gas is used in engine
applications.
The main advantages of fluidized bed gasifiers, stem
from their feedstock flexibility resulting from easy
control of temperature, which can be kept below the
melting or fusion point of the ash (rice husks), and their
capability to deal with fluffy and fine grained materials
(sawdust etc.) without requirement of pre-processing.
(1)
(2)
2. Reaction zone: The products of incomplete combustion

(water, carbon dioxide and uncombusted partially cracked
pyrolysis products) now pass through a red-hot charcoal
bed where the following reduction reactions occur [6].
C + CO2 = 2CO (- 164.9 MJ/kg mol)
C + H2O = CO + H2 (- 122.6 MJ/kg mol)
CO + H2O = CO + H2 (+ 42 MJ/kg mol)
C + 2H2 = CH4 (+ 75 MJ/kg mol)
CO2 + H2 = CO + H2O (- 42.3 MJ/kg mol)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Reactions (3) and (4) are major reduction reactions

and being endothermic have the ability of reducing gas
temperature. Consequently the temperatures in the
reduction zone are usually 800-10000C. Lesser the
reduction zone temperature (~ 700-8000C); lesser is the
calorific value of gas.
3. Pyrolysis zone: Wood Pyrolysis is an intricate process
that is still not fully understood [7]. The products depend
24
upon temperature, residence time, pressure and heat

losses. However following common remarks can be made
about them.
Up to the temperature of 2000C only water is given
off. Between 200 to 2800C carbon dioxide, acetic acid
and water are driven off. The real pyrolysis, which occurs
between 280 to 5000C, makes large quantities of tar and
gases containing carbon dioxide. Besides light tars, some
methyl alcohol is also produced. Between 500 to 7000C
the gas production is less and contains hydrogen.
Thus it is simple to see that updraft gasifier will
produce much more tar than downdraft one. In downdraft
gasifier the tars have to go through combustion and
reduction zone and are partly broken down.
Finally in the drying zone the major process is of
drying of wood. Wood ingoing the gasifier has moisture
content of 10-30%. Various experiments on different
gasifiers in different circumstances have shown that on an
average the condensate formed is 6-10% of the weight of
gasified wood [7].
C.
Properties of producer gas

The producer gas is affected by different processes as
outlined above hence one can suppose variations in the
gas produced from different biomass sources. Table II
lists the composition of gas produced from different
sources. The gas composition is also a meaning of
gasifier design and thus, the same fuel may give different
calorific value as when used in two different gasifiers.
Table III therefore shows approximate values of gas from
different fuels.
The maximum dilution of gas takes place
because of existence of nitrogen. Almost 50-60% of gas
is composed of noncombustible nitrogen. Thus it may be
beneficial to use oxygen as an alternative of air for
gasification. However the cost and availability of oxygen
may be a restrictive factor in this regard. However where
the end product is methanol a high energy quality item,
then the cost and use of oxygen can be justified [9].
On an average 1 kg of biomass produces about
2.5 m3 of producer gas at S.T.P. In this process it
consumes about 1.5 m3 of air for combustion [7]. For
complete combustion of wood about 4.5 m3 of air is
required. Thus biomass gasification consumes about 33%
of theoretical stoichiometeric ratio for wood burning. The
average energy conversion efficiency of wood gasifiers is
about 60-70% and is defined as:
Calorific value of gas/kg of fuel
(8)
Gas = -----------------------------------------Avg. calorific value of 1 kg of fuel
D.
Temperature of Gas
On an average the temperature of gas leaving the
gasifier is about 300 to 4000C [12]. If the temperature is
higher than this (~ 5000C) it is a sign that partial
combustion of gas is happening. This usually happens
when the air flow rate through the gasifier is higher than
the design value.
TABLE III.
AVERAGE LOWER HEATING VALUES
Fuel
Moisture content (%) 1
wood
20 - 25
Lower heating
value (kJ/kg)
13 - 15000
charcoal
2-7
29 - 30000
peat
35 - 50
12 - 14000
per cent of dry weight
IV. GASIFIER FUEL CHARACTERISTICS

Biomass fuels available for gasification contain
charcoal, wood and wood waste (branches, twigs, roots,
bark, wood shavings and sawdust) as well as a multitude
of agricultural residues (maize cobs, coconut shells,
coconut husks, cereal straws, rice husks, etc.) and peat.
Because those fuels differ significantly in their chemical,
physical and morphological properties, they make
different demands on the method of gasification and as a
result require different reactor designs or even
gasification technologies. It is for this cause that, during a
century of gasification experience, a large number of
different gasifiers have been developed and marketed, all
types geared towards handling the specific properties of a
usual fuel or range of fuels.
Each type of gasifier will operate suitably with respect
to stability, gas quality, efficiency and pressure losses
only within certain ranges of the fuel properties of which
the most important are:
A. Energy content of the fuel
The selection of a fuel for gasification will in part be
decided by its heating value. The method of measurement
of the fuel energy content will influence the guess of
efficiency of a given gasification system. Reporting of
fuel heating values is often confusing since at least three
different bases are used:
Fuel higher heating values as obtained in an adiabatic
bomb calorimeter, these values comprise the heat of
condensation of the water that is produced during
combustion. Because it is very hard to recover the heat of
condensation in actual gasification operations these
values present a too optimistic view of the fuel energy
content;
Fuel higher heating values on a moisture-free basis,
which disregard the real moisture content of the fuel and
so give even more optimistic estimates of energy content;
The only practical way therefore of presenting fuel
heating values for gasification purposes is to give lower
heating values (excluding the heat of condensation of the
water produced) on an ash inclusive basis and with
specific reference to the actual moisture content of the
fuel. Average lower heating values of wood, charcoal and
peat are shown in Table III.
25
B. Moisturee content of thhe fuel

The heatiing value of thhe gas producced by severall type
of gasifier deepends at leastt in part on thhe moisture coontent
of the feedstoock.
Moisture content can be determineed on a dry basis
plus on a wett basis.
Moisture conntent is explainned as:
(9)
Alternativelyy the moisturre content onn a wet bassis is
defined as:
TABLE IIV.
SLAGGING OF
F AGRICULTUR
RAL RESIDUES IN A SMALL
LABORATORY
L
DOWN DRAUG
GHT GASIFIER (JENKINS,
(
[18]
Slaagging fuels
Ash coontent
percennt
Degree
D
of
slagging
s
Baarley straw mix
10.3
severe
s
Beean straw
10.2
"
Co
orn stalks
6.4
moderate
m
Co
otton gin trash
17.6
severe
s
Cu
ubed cotton stalkss
17.2
"
RD
DF pellets*
10.4
"
Peelleted rice hulls
14.9
"
Saafflower straw
6.0
minor
m
Peelleted walnut sheell mix
5.8
moderate
m
Wheat straw andd corn

staalks
7.4
severe
s
(10)
Conversions from one to another

a
can bee calculated byy:
(11)
(
(12)
* RD
DF = refuse derived
d
fuel
High moisture
m
conttents decreaase the theermal
efficiency sinnce heat is used to drive offf the water annd as
a result thiss energy is not
n available for the reduuction
reactions andd for convertinng thermal eneergy into chem
mical
bound energgy in the gas.
g
Thereforre high moiisture
contents resuult in little gass heating valuees.
In downddraught gasifieers large moissture contents give
rise not onlyy to low gas heating
h
valuees, but also too low
temperaturess in the oxidaation zone, annd this can leaad to
unsatisfactorry tar convertiing capabilityy if the gas is used
for engine appplications.
Both because of the gas
g heating vaalue (engines need
m in order to keep a reasonnable
gas of at leaast 4200 kJ/m
efficiency) and of thee tar entraainment probblem,
downdraughtt gasifiers neeed practicallly dry fuels (less
than 25 perceent moisture dry
d basis).
C. Volatile matter contennt of the fuel
The amouunt of volatilles in the feedstock determ
mines
the need off special meaasures (either in design of the
o
gasifier or inn the layout off the gas cleannup train) in order
to eliminatee tars from the product gas in enngine
applications.
D. Ash conttent and ash chemical
c
compposition
Ashes cann cause a variiety of problem
ms mainly in up
u or
downdraughtt gasifiers. Sllagging or cliinker formatioon in
the reactor, caused by melting
m
and agglomeratioon of
ashes, at thee best will seeriously add to the amounnt of
labour requiired to operaate the gasifi
fier. If no unnique
measures aree taken, slaggging can lead to unnecessarry tar
formation annd/or completee blocking of the
t reactor.
E. Reactivity off the fuel

The
T reactivity is a main facctor determining the rate off
redu
uction of carbbon dioxide to carbon monoxide in a
gasifier. Reactivitty influences the reactor design
d
insofarr
h
requiredd in the reducttion zone.
as itt dictates the height
F. Particle size and size distribution
Up
U and downddraught gasifiers are limited
d in the rangee
of fuel
fu size satisfactory in thee feed stock. Fine grainedd
and//or fluffy feeddstock may cause flow pro
oblems in thee
bunk
ker section off the gasifier aas well as an unacceptablee
pressure drop over
o
the reduuction zone and a highh
prop
portion of dusst in the gas. Large pressu
ure drops willl
direcct to reductiion of the ggas load of downdraughtt
equiipment, resuulting in low
w temperatu
ures and tarr
prod
duction.
Acceptable
A
fuel sizes for gaasification systems dependd
to a certain levell on the desiggn of the unitts. In general,,
od gasifiers work
w
on woood blocks an
nd woodchipss
woo
rang
ging from 8 x 4 x 4 cm. to 1 x 0.5 x 0.5 cm. Charcoall
gasifiers are norm
mally fuelled bby charcoal lu
umps rangingg
betw
ween 1 x 1 x 1 cm. and 3 x 3 x 3 cm. Fluidized
F
bedd
gasifiers are usuaally able to handle fuels with particlee
meters varyingg between 0.1 and 20 mm.
diam
G. Bulk density of
o the fuel
Bulk
B
density is describedd as the weiight per unitt
volu
ume of looseely tipped fuuel. Fuels witth high bulkk
denssity are useful because theyy represent a high energy--
266
TABLE V.
AVERAGE BULK DENSITIES
Fuel
Wood
Charcoal
Peat
Bulk density (kg/m) *

300 - 550
200 - 300
300 - 400
* The bulk density varies significantly with moisture

content and particle size of the fuel.
for-volume value. Low bulk density fuels sometimes give
rise to unsatisfactory flow under gravity, resulting in low
gas heating values and ultimately in burning of the char
in the reduction zone. Average bulk densities of wood,
charcoal and peat are shown in Table V.
V. GASIFICATION SYSTEM
Gasification is a thermo-chemical procedure in which
carbonaceous (carbon-rich) feedstocks such as coal,
petro-coke or biomass are converted into a gas consisting
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (and lesser amounts of
carbon dioxide and other trace gases) under oxygen
depleted, high pressure and high-heat and/or steam
conditions. The resultant gaseous compound is called
Syngas. Carried out under proper conditions, gasification
is a capable energy extracting process that can return
double benefits as a waste stream disposal system.
A. The Process: Gasification, not Combustion
Combustion is an exothermic (heat releasing) reaction
between a high carbon fuel and an oxidizer (a material
that supports combustion, usually oxygen) in which the
fuel is burned to generate heat as an energy source.
Carbon fuel + Oxygen Heat + Water + Carbon
Dioxide
Gasification is an exothermic reaction between a high
carbon fuel and a watchfully controlled and limited
supply of oxidizer, in which the fuel yields valuable
elemental and compound gases that can be made into
other products.
Carbon fuel + Oxygen Hydrogen + Carbon Monoxide
(plus trace Water and Carbon Dioxide)
The gasification story is not all magnificence. It has

its drawbacks and trade-offs just like any other difficult
endeavor, and whether it is eventually fruitful and
sustainable remains to be seen. Looking at the big picture
though, gasification, and its resulting Syngas, with its
potential to create all types of useful chemicals and
synthetic fuels, surely deserves a spot-at-the-table with
other alternatives [10].
VI. APPLICATIONS
A review of gasifier applications has been published
by Foley and Barnard [11], which discusses the use of
gasifiers for production of fuel gas for heat generation as
well as the operation of gasifiers in combination with
engines.
Production of fuel gas
Most gasifiers in commercial operation today are used
for the production of heat, rather than fuel for internal
combustion engines, because of the less stringent
necessities for gas heating value and tar content.
A.
B. Production of mechanical or electrical power in

stationary installations
Gasifiers connected to stationary engines offer the
option of using biomass to generate mechanical or
electrical power in the range from a few kW up to a few
MW.
It is convenient to differentiate between applications
in terms of power output. Figure 5 shows the power range
of the various systems [12].
a) Large scale applications (500 kW and above): This is
the domain of the specialized fluidized bed or fixed bed
installations.
Equipment costs are likely to be in the range of US$
1000 per installed kW and upwards.
B. Advantages of Gasification
Feedstock flexibility
Product flexibility
Near-zero emissions
High efficiency
Energy security
C. Disadvantages of Gasification
Complex multi-stage process

Up-front processing of feedstock
Syngas must be cleaned/purified

Initial setup is expensive
Figure 5
Application of biomass gasification processes
b) Medium scale applications (30 -500 kW): Fixed bed

equipment fuelled by wood, charcoal and some types of
agricultural wastes (maize cobs, coconut shells) is
presented by a number of European and US
manufacturers.
27
c) Small-scale applications (7 - 30 kW): This size would

be appropriate for a large number of village applications
in developing countries (e.g. village maize, cereal mills,
small-scale sugar crushers and looms, etc.).
The equipment must be cheap (less than 150
US$/kW), extremely consistent and should need no
special operation and repairs skills.
Designs fit for local manufacture are tested and
produced in the Philippines [13], Tanzania [14]-and a
number of other countries.
It is sometimes also supposed that charcoal gasifier
systems can be made cheaper than wood gasifiers
systems in the 7 - 30 kW power range. There is some
support for this in the prices charged for vehicle gasifier
systems throughout the Second World War [15].
d) Micro scale applications (1 - 7 kW): This is the range
use by small and medium farmers in developing countries
for providing power for irrigation systems.
C. Mobile applications
The exercise of down-draught gasifiers fuelled by
wood or charcoal to power cars, lorries, buses, trains,
boats and ships has proved its importance and at least one
European country (Sweden) maintains plans for largescale production in case of a crisis. This technique is
presently being studied for powering of tractors
(Switzerland, France, Finland, and Netherlands) as well
as small vans and boats (Philippines) and Lorries (Sri
Lanka).
been
based on downdraft gasification. However it
appears that for fuels with high ash content fluidized bed
combustion may suggest a solution. At present no
dependable and economically feasible systems exist.
Biggest
challenge in gasification systems lies in
developing consistent and economically cheap cooling
and cleaning trains. Utmost usage of producer gas has
been in driving internal combustion engine, both for
agricultural as well as for automotive uses. Though direct
heat applications like grain drying etc. is very attractive
for agricultural systems. A spark ignition engine running
on producer gas on an average produces 0.55-0.75 kWh
of energy from 1 kg of biomass. Compression ignition
(diesel) engines cannot run totally on producer gas. Thus
to produce 1kWh of energy they use 1kg of biomass
and 0.07liters of diesel. As a result they effect 80-85%
diesel saving. Future applications like methanol
production, using producer gas in fuel cell and small
scale irrigation systems for developing countries
recommend the greatest potentialities.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
VII. CURRENT STATUS OF BIOMASS GASIFICATION

Excellent survey of existing status of gasification
technology has been carried out by Foley and Barnard
[16]. They have reviewed the position in both developed
and developing countries.
The worlds biggest gasification manufacturing
facility is Gasifier and Equipment Manufacturing
Corporation (GEMCOR) in Philippines. They are
producing about 3000 units/year range in size from 10250 kW. Besides they have just started producing
gasifiers for
Direct heat applications. Their main applications
have been for irrigation pumps and power generating
sets. So far about 1000 units have been installed within
Philippines running on charcoal, wood chips and
briquettes.
In other countries of Asia and Africa the work is being
carried out in research institution and a small amount of
prototypes have been made and tested [17].
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
VIII. CONCLUSION
Biomass gasification is the most workable alternative
energy system for agricultural purposes. Most ideal fuels
for gasification have been charcoal and wood. However
biomass residues are the most suitable fuels for on-farm
systems and offer the maximum challenge to researchers
and gasification system manufacturers. Very narrow
experience has been gained in gasification of biomass
residues. Most widely used and researched systems have
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy
from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing
Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, 2009.
Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 11 February 2004 on the promotion of cogeneration
based on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market and
amending Directive 92/42/EEC, 2004.
Berndes G, Hansson J, Egeskog A, Johnsson F. Strategies for 2nd
generation biofuels in EU Co-firing to stimulate feedstock
supply development and process integration to improve energy
efficiency and economic competitiveness, Biomass and
Bioenergy, in press, doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.07.007.
K. Difs and L. Trygg, Pricing district heating by marginal cost,
Energy Policy 37 (2) (2009), pp. 606616.
Chandrakant Turare , ARTES Institute, University of Flensburg
Flensburg, Germany
Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Generator Gas- The
Swedish Experience from 1939-1945. SERI, Golden, Colorado,
1979, Chap. 2.
Schapfer, P.,
and Tobler, J., Theoretical and Practical
Investigations Upon the Driving of Motor Vehicles with Wood
Gas, Bern 1937
Anil K. Rajvanshi BIOMASS GASIFICATION Chapter (No. 4) in
book Alternative Energy in Agriculture, Vol. II, Ed. D. Yogi
Goswami, CRC Press, 1986, pgs. 83-102.
Reed, T. B., Graboski, M., and Markson, M., The SERI High
Pressure Oxygen Gasifier, Report SERI/TP-234-1455R, Solar
Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colorado, Feb.1982.
Christine & Scott Gable Gasification's History, Process, Pros and
ConsFrom, former About.com Guide
Foley, G. and Barnard, G. 1983. Biomass gasification in
developing countries. Earthscan Technical Report No. 1. London,
U.K.
Skov, N.A. and Papworth, M.L. 1974. The Pegasus unit. Pegasus
publishers Inc. Olympia, Washington, U.S.A.
Gasifier and Equipment Manufacturing Corporation (GEMCOR),
1982. Gasifier Applications, Manila, Philippines.
Zijp, T. and Stassen, H.E.M. 1982. Gasification of maize spills for
mechanical energy generation in rural areas in Tanzania. 1st Int.
Prod. Gas Conf., Colombo, Sri Lanka
The Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences. 1979. Generator
Gas - The Swedish Experience from 1939-1945. Translated by the
Solar Energy Research Institute, U.S.A. SERI/SP-33-140.
28
[16] Foley, G., and Barnard, G., Biomass Gasification in Developing

Countries, Technical Report No. 1, Earthscan, London, 1983,
Chap 2.4.
[17] California Energy Commission, An Investigation of the
Downdraft Gasification Characteristics of Agricultural and
Forestry Residues; Interim Report, 1979.
[18] Jenkins, B.M. 1980. Down-draught gasification characteristics of
major California residue-derived fuels, Ph.D. Thesis, Engineering,
University of California, Davis, U.S.A.
29

Coal Liquefaction Technologies for Producing

Ultra Clean Fuel
M. S. Tahir, N. Ul-Haq, H. Nasir and N. Islam
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical and Materials Engineering,
National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
AbstractThe expanding demands for petroleum,
accompanied by the diminishing petroleum reserves and the
energy security, has intensified the significance in coal
liquefaction technologies (CTL) globally and specially in
Pakistan. Pakistan is rich in coal resources, but short of
petroleum. The Geological Survey of Pakistan based on
wide spread drilling over an area of 9000 sq. km, a total of
175 billion tons of coal resource potential has been assessed.
This paper overviews a general introduction on the
mechanisms and processes of CLT such as direct coal
liquefaction (DCL) and indirect coal liquefaction (ICL)
technologies.
INTRODUCTION
The Industrial Revolution has made coal an important
source of energy. Coal consumption exceeded the limit
that of firewood and charcoal for the first time in the
latter half of the nineteenth century, making coal a major
source of energy. Economically viable global coal
reserves are expected to total about one trillion tons,
about half of which is comprised of low-grade coal such
as sub-bituminous coal and brown coal. Coal has a larger
ratio of reserves to production (R/P) than that of oil and
natural gas. The main components of coal and different
liquid fuels are carbon and hydrogen. The molecular size
of coal is greater than 1000 which is greater than liquid
fuels as well as other chemicals (about 200 for liquid
fuels). The hydrogen to carbon ratio (H/C, molar) of coal
is about 0.8 while that of liquid fuels is about 2.0.
Pakistan is rich in its coal reserves. Thar coalfield is
approximately located between Latitudes 2415N and
2545N and Longitudes 69 45E and 70 45E in the
southern part of Sindh Province in the Survey of Pakistan
topo-sheet Nos. 40 L/2, 5 and 6. Based on available
infrastructure and favorable geology, the Geological
Survey of Pakistan selected four blocks near Islamkot for
exploration and assessment of coal resources. As a result
of wide spread drilling over an area of 9000 km2, a total
of 175 billion tons of coal resource potential has been
assessed.
Due to the rapid increase in demand for petroleum and its
declining reserves, the concern over energy security has
intensified the interest in coal liquefaction, especially for
those countries which are short of oil resources but have
abundant coal reserves, such as the United States, China
and Pakistan, etc [1]. Coal can be converted into liquid

fuels mainly by direct coal liquefaction (DCL), indirect
coal liquefaction (ICL) and Hybrid of both these
technologies. In direct coal liquefaction (DCL) processes
coal is liquefied directly into liquid fuels at around 450
500 C of temperature, under 1530 M Pa of pressure and
with hydrogen (H2) in a suitable solvent with appropriate
catalysts [2, 3]. Indirect coal liquefaction (ICL) processes
can be carried out through gasification followed by
catalytic conversion of synthesis gas into clean
hydrocarbons and oxygenated transportation fuels like
methanol, dimethyl ether, Fischer-Tropsch diesel or
gasoline [1]. The main function of the coal-to-liquid
processes are the breakage of the coals molecular size
and addition of hydrogen into coal, i.e. the destructive
hydrogenation of coal. Both the molecular structure of
coal (lignite, sub bituminous, bituminous and anthracite)
as well as the composition of Coal before and after Coal
Liquefaction Process is shown in Figure 1 [6].
BACKGROUND AND HISTORY
Direct coal liquefaction was developed as a commercial
process in Germany based on research pioneered by
Figure 1. Coal Composition before and after Coal Liquefaction

Process.
Friedrich Bergius in the 1910s. In addition to the Bergius

process (a high-pressure catalytic hydrogenation process),
other types of process, represented by the Pott-Bioche
solvent dissolving process were also developed before
30
World War II. Compared to the ICL processes, the DCL

processes produce a much larger variety of products
(primarily naphtha, a gasoline product) at a higher energy
efficiency, although they are disadvantageous with
respect to the operating difficulty resulting from the
abrasive nature of the coal slurry, the need for expensive
hydrogen-donor solvents (such as tetralin), and the
difficulties associated with separation of solids from the
liquid products [2].
Between around 1920 and 1930, the South Manchurian
Railway Co., Ltd. started basic research on coal
liquefaction using the Bergius Process, and around 1935
initiated operation of a bench scale PDU (process
development unit) plant. Based on this research, a plant
with annual production capacity of 20,000 tons of coal oil
after the war, the U.S. Armed Forces Headquarters

banned coal liquefaction research, alleging that it was
military research. In 1955, coal liquefaction research was
resumed at national laboratories and universities. This
was not, however, research on coal oil production but the
production of chemicals from the high-pressure
hydrocracking of coal. This research continued until
around 1975. The Sunshine Project was inaugurated in
1974 on the heels of the first oil crisis, encouraging
efforts to devise liquefaction technology unique to Japan
as part of an oil-alternative energy development program.
Under the Sunshine Project, technological development
was undertaken for three coal liquefaction processes,
(Solvolysis, Solvent Extraction, and Direct
Hydrogenation), to liquefy bituminous coal. The R&D of
Figure 2. Coal Liquefaction Concept
was built at the Wushun coal mine, China, and operated

until 1943. In the meantime, Korean Artificial Petroleum
Co., Ltd. succeeded, between 1938 and 1943, in the
continuous operation of a direct coal liquefaction plant
capable of treating 100 t/d of coal at its Agochi factory.
The production of coal oil at both of the above-mentioned
plants was suspended at the request of the military so that
the plants could be used for the hydrogenation of heavy
oil or to produce methanol. Around 1930, besides the
direct coal liquefaction method (Bergius Process), a
second process, the Fischer-Tropsch Process, was used as
an indirect coal liquefaction method to study coal
liquefaction technology and to produce synthetic oil. The
Fischer-Tropsch Process was introduced into Japan upon
its announcement in Germany in 1935 and, in 1937, the
construction of a plant commenced in Miike. This oil
synthesis plant was completed in 1940, with an annual
production capacity of 30,000 tons of coal oil. Under the
backdrop of war, production of synthetic oil was
continued until the end of World War II. Immediately
brown coal liquefaction processes began at the end of

1980 [4]. Figure 2 [6] depicts the coal liquefaction
process concept.
DIRECT COAL LIQUEFACTION (DCL) PROCESS /

TECHNOLOGY
Objectives of Direct Coal Liquefaction are first to break
down large coal molecules into smaller component
molecules, then adding hydrogen, which results in the
removal of oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen unwanted
contents. To make liquid fuels from coal there is a need
31
Figure 3. Direct Conversion Process.
to add hydrogen or reject carbon. The direct conversion

process of coal is shown in Figure 3 [7].
Direct liquefaction processes add hydrogen to the
hydrogen deficient organic structure of the coal, breaking
it down only as far as is necessary to produce distillable
liquids. Coal dissolution is accomplished under high
temperature (~400 OC) and pressure (~1500-3000 psi)
with hydrogen and a coal-derived solvent. The coal
fragments are further hydrocracked to produce a synthetic
crude oil. This synthetic crude must then undergo refinery
upgrading and hydrotreating to produce acceptable
transportation fuels. The flow chart of DCL technology is
shown in Figure 4 [7].
Direct Coal Liquefaction Benefits:

Followings are the benefits of the direct coal
liquefaction process:
1. Conceptually simple process.
2. Products have higher energy density (BTU/gallon)
than indirect conversion.
3. Direct coal liquefaction has a thermal efficiency of
around 60%, which is higher than that of FT
synthesis, 50-55%. One ton of a bituminous coal can
be converted into approximately three barrels of high
volatile high quality distillate syncrude oil for
refinery upgrading and blending.
4. Direct Liquefaction provides high octane, low sulfur
Figure 4. Flowchart of DCL Process

Catalyst
Coal + Hydrogen Linear + Ring Type Hydrocarbo ns
(1)
5.
Quality of Liquids Obtained from Direct Coal

Liquefaction Process:
Liquid Products of direct method are much more
aromatic than indirect one.
DCL Naphtha can be used to make very high-octane
gasoline component; however aromatics content of
reformulated gasoline is now limited by EPA.
DCL Distillate is poor diesel blending component
due to high aromatics which results in low cetane
versus U.S. average of about 46.
Raw DCL Liquids still contain contaminants e.g. Sulfur,
Nitrogen, Oxygen, possibly metals and require extensive
hydrotreatment to meet Clean Fuels Specifications.
6.
gasoline and a distillate that will require upgrading to

make an acceptable diesel blending stock.
Development of direct liquefaction technology could
lead to hybrid (direct/indirect) processes producing
high quality gasoline and diesel.
National Coal Council (NCC) and others suggest that
direct liquefaction may have a better carbon footprint
than indirect technology.
Direct Coal Liquefaction Disadvantages:

1. High aromatic contents.
2. Low-cetane number diesel.
3. Potential water and air emissions issues.
4. Fuels produced are not a good environmental fit
Direct Coal Liquefaction Challenges and Implications:
Following main challenges are involved in the direct coal
to liquid technology:
32
Uncertainty in World Oil Prices

High Capital Costs
Investment Risk
Technical Challenges are;
o First technology (since 2nd World War) is being
commercialized in the PRC (Shenhua)need
other first-of-kind large-scale operation (with
carbon management) to verify baselines and
economics.
o R&D activity should focus on remaining process
issues such as further improvement in efficiency,
product cost and quality, reliability of materials
and components and data needed to better define
carbon life cycle.
o The
timelines
for
demonstration
and
development of direct liquefaction technology
and carbon capture and storage must be
integrated.
o Hybrid technology needs development including
integrated demonstration.
Environmental Challenges are
o CO2 and criteria pollutants.
Different DCL Projects and Technologies:

1.
2.
3.
Brown Coal to Liquid (BCL) Technology

Shenhua DCL Project (in China).
Bituminous
Coal
Liquefaction
Technology
(NEDOL)
INDIRECT COAL LIQUEFACTION (ICL) PROCESS /
TECHNOLOGY
Indirect liquefaction involves the gasification of coal

followed by the catalytic conversion of the product gas to
a liquid. Coal is gasified with oxygen to produce a
synthesis gas consisting of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. This gas is cleaned of all impurities, and the
clean synthesis gas is sent to a Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)
reactor where most of the clean gas is catalytically
converted into zero-sulfur liquid hydrocarbon fuels.
Carbon dioxide in the tail gas can be captured for

subsequent storage, and the unconverted synthesis gas
combusted in a gas turbine combined-cycle power plant
to generate electric power. The indirect coal liquefaction
a two-stage process described by:
1. Gasification:
Coal + Oxygen + Steam

Syngas ( H 2 + CO)
2.
(2)
Syngas Conversion:
H 2 + CO Catalyst
Linear Hydrocarbons
(3)
ICL technology can also provide hydrocarbon fuels that

resemble crude oil-derived products. One possibility is
synthetic middle distillates derived via the F-T process
that can either be used directly as diesel or in blends with
petroleum-derived diesel. Another possibility is gasoline
via the route of first making methanol (MeOH) from
syngas and then converting MeOH into gasoline via the
Mobil process. But MeOH can also be used directly as a
fuel, and other oxygenates (fuels containing some
oxygen) such as DME can also be provided via ICL
process technology and used directly as fuels. Figure 5
depicts the processes and steps involved in ICL
technology [8]. At present the most important options are
hydrocarbon fuels synthesized via the F-T process,
MeOH, and DME [9].
Methanol (MeOH) as a synthetic fuel for transportation:
Because of its high octane rating, MeOH is well
suited for use in SIE vehicles. It can be used in such
vehicles with relatively modest modifications of the basic
vehicle. Used in SIE vehicles, MeOH offers air-quality
benefits that are thought to be comparable to those
offered by reformulated gasoline. The ozone formation
potential from formaldehyde emissions of MeOH is
thought to be less than the ozone formation potential of
unburned hydrocarbon emissions; NOx emissions from
MeOH engines operated at the same compression ratio as
for gasoline would be less than for gasoline, because of
Figure 5. Flowchart of ICL Process
33
the lower flame temperature, but when the

compression ratio is increased to take advantage
of MeOHs higher octane rating, thereby
improving engine efficiency, this advantage may
be lost. And just as some of the unburned
hydrocarbon emissions for gasoline are
carcinogenic, the US Environmental Protection
Agency has classified formaldehyde as a
probable human carcinogen, on the basis of
evidence in humans and in rats, mice, hamsters,
and monkeys [9].
The major drawbacks of MeOH as a
transport fuel are its low volumetric energy
density (half that of gasoline), its affinity for
water, its corrosiveness, and its toxicity -- a fatal
dose is 2-7 % MeOH in 1 litre (l) of water, which
would defy detection by taste. MeOH is
classified as a poison (it is rated as slightly more
toxic than gasoline), and it is infinitely miscible
with water (forms mixtures in all concentrations),
allowing ready transport in the environment.
Chronic low-dose MeOH vapor exposure from
normal vehicle operations is not likely to cause
health problems. However, exposure through
MeOH-contaminated drinking water is a concern.
TABLE1.SomePropertiesofAlternativeFuels
Gasoline
Diesel
Methanol
DME
Chemical Formula
---
---
CH3OH
CH3OCH3
Molecular Weight
---
---
32.043
46.069
Saturated Vapor
Pressure @ 20oC, bar.
Liquid Density @ 20oC,
Kg/l
LHV, MJ/Kg
---
---
---
5.1
0.738
0.856
0.797
0.668
42.58
41.68
19.9
28.5
LHV, MJ/l, 20oC
31.44
35.68
15.9
19.0
Carbon Contents Kg
C/GJ
Fuel Cycle, GHG
emissions (CO2
equivalents), Kg C/GJ
19.59
20.87
18.8
18.3
25.56
26.11
---
---
(prospectively at lower cost) in a single step by

combining mainly three reactions in a single reactor [1]:
Dimethyl ether (DME) as a synthetic fuel:

DME is a non-carcinogenic and virtually non-toxic
chemical produced at a rate of 143,000 t/year for
chemical process uses and one significant final consumer
market: as an aerosol propellant that replaced fluorinated
hydrocarbons phased out because of concerns about
ozone-layer damage. It is also usable as a fuel. Currently
DME is made by MeOH dehydration: 2 CH3OH
CH3OCH3 + H2O. But DME can also be made
CO + H 2 O
CO 2 + H 2 (Water Gas Shift )
(4)
CO + 2 H 2
CH 3 OH ( Methanol Synthesis)
(5)
2CH 3 OH
CH 3 OCH 3 + H 2 O
(6)
( Methanol Dehydration)
Dimethyl ether (DME) is a clean oxygenated

synthetic fuel that can be made from any carbonaceous
feedstock. It is a gas at ambient conditions but can be
Figure 6. Flowchart of HCL Process
34
stored as a liquid in mildly pressurized canisters like

those used for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), a
propane/butane mixture. As a liquid DMEs volumetric
energy density (MJ/l) is 82 % of that for propane and 55
% of that for No. 2 diesel (See table 1). DME is well
suited for use as a transport fuel (as an alternative to
diesel) as discussed in the main text, as a cooking fuel (as
an alternative to LPG), and as a fuel for stationary power.
DME can be substituted for LPG, currently the preferred
clean cooking fuel in rural areas where it is available and
affordable and in urban areas where natural gas is not
available [9].
HYBRID COAL LIQUEFACTION (HCL) PROCESS /

TECHNOLOGY
Combination of direct coal liquefaction with FT
synthesis (indirect coal liquefaction process) may be
synergistic on thermal efficiency and fuel quality. It is
generally accepted that fuels produced from direct coal
liquefaction contains more aromatic and is of lower
quality than the fuels from FT synthesis. With increasing
environmental concern and increasingly stringent
emission regulations, fuels produced from direct coal
liquefaction will be less competitive, with octane number
of 40-45 after hydrogenation for diesel. The fuels from
FT synthesis, however, are of super-high qualities with
octane number as high as 75-80, much exceeding the
current market specifications, but with somewhat lower
thermal efficiency (50-55%) compared to direct coal
liquefaction (60%). Blending of FT diesel with
petroleum-derived diesel has been proposed for meeting
the fuel specification at the lowest cost. Blending FT
diesel with direct coal liquefaction diesel would certainly
be a choice [5]. Figure 6 [8] shows the hybrid of both
direct as well indirect coal liquefaction processes. The
theoretical product yield of the hybrid plant consists of
C3-C4 18%, F-T naphtha 19 %, DCL Naphtha 26 %, F-T
diesel 22 %, DCL VGO 5 % and DCL distillate 10 % [7].
(1)
Summary
The brief discussion presented in this report results in the

following:
1. Coal liquefaction is a realistic approach for countries
deficient with oil but abundant with coal reserves.
2. Coal liquefaction processes are complex and
characterized by heavy investment, but they are
economically competitive at oil price of $25/bbl and
at cost of coal at coal mines (without cost of shipping
and handling). Thermal efficiency of coal
liquefactions is reasonably high, 60% for direct coal
liquefaction and 50-55% for indirect coal
liquefaction.
3. Liquefaction of coal significantly reduces shipping
and handling cost of coal, a reduction of 75-80% on
thermal energy equivalent bases. Coal liquefaction
produces ultra-clean fuels and converting the
polluting elements such as sulfur and nitrogen into
marketable products at low cost.
4.
5.
6.
High concentration carbon dioxide rejected from coal

liquefaction plants provides a good platform for
carbon dioxide sequestration at low cost.
Integration of direct and indirect coal liquefaction
processes and blending of the fuels produced in these
two processes will result in fuels that meet the
increasing stringent specification requirement at high
thermal efficiency. Integration of coal liquefaction
plants with modern electricity generation via
gasification of coal will result in about 15%
reduction in fuel cost.
Use of methanol directly to fuel automobile may not
be a realistic choice due to various types of
problems, and the cost of methanol production is not
significantly different from, or even higher than, that
of direct coal liquefaction and FT synthesis on
energy base.
(2)
References
[19] E.D. Larson, T. Ren, Synthetic fuel production by indirect coal

liquefaction, Energy Sustain Develop. Vol. 7, pp. 79-102, 2003.
[20] K.K. Robinson, Reaction engineering of direct coal liquefaction,
Energies vol. 2, pp. 976-1006, 2009.
[21] M. Kouzu, K. Koyama ,M. Oneyama, T. Aramaki, T. Hayashi,
M. Kobayashi, H. Itoh , H. Hattori, Catalytic hydrogenation of
recycle solvent in a 150 t/d pilot plant of the NEDOL coal
liquefaction process, Fuel vol. 79, pp. 365371, 2000.
[22] W. Sadao, "Bulletin of the Japan Institute of Energy", vol. 78 pp.
798, 1999.
[23] L. Zhenyu, Clean Coal Technology: Direct and Indirect Coal-toLiquid Technologies, Inter Academy Council, China, 2005.
[24] L. Jim, L. Theo, T. Sam, Recent Advances in Direct Coal
Liquefaction Technology, Proceedings ACS National Meeting,
Salt Lake City, Utah, 2009.
[25] J. Winslow, E. Schmetz, Direct Coal Liquefaction Overview,
presented to National Energy Technology Laboratory, DOE, USA.
[26] M. C. Lowell, Coal Conversion Technology, Congressional
Noontime Briefing, Rayburn House Office Building, Washington,
April 24, 2008.
[27] H.W. Robert, E. D. Larson, A comparison of direct and indirect
liquefaction technologies for making fluid fuels from coal,
Journal of Energy for Sustainable Development, vol. VII, pp. 103129, 2003.
[28] X. Zhengang,
The Development Status of Clean Coal
Technology in China, 3rd International Conference on Clean Coal
Technologies Sardinia, Italyon, 15~17 May2007.
[29] D.B. Dadyburjorand Z. Liu, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of
Chemical Technology, Editor-in-Chief: S. Arza, Wiley-Inter
science, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, Fifth
Edition, 2004,
35

Combined Wind, Hydropower and Photovoltaic Systems for Generation of

Electric Power and Control of Water Resources
Kh.S.Karimov1,2, Kh.M.Akhmedov2, Muhammad Abid1 and G.N.Petrov2
1
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Pakistan.

Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan, Rudaki 33, Dushanbe, Tajikistan
khasan@giki.edu.pk, abid@giki.edu.pk
electric power. It is proposed that the utilization of water

Abstract In this paper the present day energy consumption
with the supplement of wind and solar energy will facilitate
and potentialities of utilization of wind- and hydropower
the proper and efficient management of water resources in
resources in some Central and Southern Asian Republics, in
Central Asia. In the future in Tajikistan, wind power systems
particular, in the Republic of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and
with a capacity of 30-100 MW and more will be installed,
Pakistan are presented. The maximum consumption of
providing power balance of the country in winter; hence
electric power is observed in winter time when hydropower is
saving water in reservoirs, especially in drought years. This
the minimum, but wind power is the maximum. At the same
will provide the integration of electricity generated by wind,
time water is needed mostly in summer time for irrigation
hydroelectric power and photovoltaic system in the unified
and in winter time for generation of electric power. This
energy system of the country.
results in conflicts between countries that utilize water mostly
for irrigation and those which use water for generation of
Keywords wind power, hydropower, photovoltaic, solar energy, mutual supplementary, irrigation, electric power generation, and
management of water resources.
I. INTRODUCTION
Rational utilization of hydro, wind and solar energy in
Central and Southern Asia is an important problem of
today. It is connected on one hand with an opportunity of
use of a huge renewable energy potential for the
production of electric power and on the other hand with
the necessity of the preservation and improvement of
ecology of environment by the prevention of pollution of
reservoirs, ground and air by different kinds of wastes of
non-renewable energies utilization and decrease in the
cutting down of woods [1] Around 75% population of
the countries live in the countryside and mountain
territories where there is shortage of energy resources,
but there are a lot of rivers that are the major source of
hydro power.
Countries like Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Pakistan
possess great potentialities of utilization of energy of the
sun, water and biomass. Furthermore, traditional life
style of inhabitants of villages, where practically, in each
yard there is the availability of water resources and
hydro-power origin for production of electric power.
However, till to-date these potentialities in the countries
are not used to their reasonable potential. Absence of
energy is directly affecting the population resulting in
substantial lower standard of living, in general to the
inhabitants of villages and specifically living in the
mountain areas [2-4].
In Central Asia the problem of water is one of the most
important problems of present days. Tajikistan and
Kurguzstan are situated in the flow forming zone of
rivers Amu-Darya and Sir-Darya; and Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan are in the zone of

utilization of water resources [5]. At the same time water
is needed mostly in summer time for irrigation and in
winter time for generation of electric power. It can bring
to conflicts between countries that utilize the water
mostly for irrigation and those that use water for
generation of electric power.
In utilization of renewable energy resources (RER),
developed different schemes of combined or mutual
supplementary utilization of wind-solar energy,
hydropower-wind energy, hydro-wind and solar energy
utilization were developed [6, 7]. Combined schemes
have a number of advantages as reliability of the power
supply, stability of output parameters as power, voltage,
frequency, effective management of the resources etc.
In this paper data on hydro and wind power resources of
Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Pakistan are presented. As an
example, the project for control of water resources at
mutual supplementary wind, hydropower and
photovoltaic systems of Tajikistan is discussed.
Necessity of renewable energy utilization in Tajikistan
and Kyrgyzstan will clear if we look through the nonrenewable energy resources (NRER) in Central Asian
Republics. Table 1 shows the resources of NRER of
Central Asian Republic and shows as an example that
Tajikistan has very few gas and oil [8]. There are
relatively rich reserves of the coal, but is less utilized
because of lack of good roads in the mountains and/or
modem equipment for production.
36
Table 1: Non-renewable energy resources of the Central Asian

Republics
Sr
Republic
Total
Gas
Petroleum
Coal
#
Million Tons of equivalent fuel
1
Uzbekistan
3554.2
1425.4
190.5
1938.3
2
Kyrgyzstan
1359.9
7.7
87.4
1264.8
3
Tajikistan
719.3
15.0
37.0
667.3
4
Turkmenistan
2815.3
1971.4
840.9
3.0
II. HYDRO POWER RESOURCES
Table 2 shows hydro power resources of Central Asian
countries [8]. From the point of RER, in particular,
hydropower resources, Tajikistan is rich as compared to
NRER situation (Table 1). Concerning hydropower
Tajikistan occupies the first position in Central Asia, the
second in former Soviet Union and the eighth position in
the world. Indeed hydro power is the base of centralized
power system that provides energy to industry and to the
population of urban areas. Power engineering of
Tajikistan was founded in 1936 first of all on the base of
hydro power [9]. The total power of electric station was
almost 4420MW, including 378MW of thermal electric
Country
Hydro Power Resources (TWh)
Ss
rt
#
a
Potentia Technical Economical
util
t
l
ize
d
i
1o Uzbekistan
88
27.4
15
6.8
2n Kyrgyzstan
143
73
32
9.5
3 Tajikistan
300
144
88
15.
s
8
4
5(
6h
Turkmenistan
Kazakhstan
(south)
Afghanistan
Total
24
20
5.8
20
5.8
10
-1.7
10
585
10
280.2
6
156.8
0.6
34.
4
i
c
h is only 10 % of hydro power). Hence it is obvious that
hydro power plays a dominant role in Tajikistan. At the
time of Soviet Union, a number of hydropower plants
were constructed [8] (Table 3). At present the Republic
continues construction of hydroelectric power stations of
3600MW in Rogun and 220MW (Sangtuda-2). Experts
have estimated that Tajikistan from the point of technical
potentialities and ecological criterion can fulfils
countrys needs from electric energy and can even export
part of it to Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, utilization its
hydraulic power resources only [8].
Table 2: Hydro Power Resources of Central Asian countries
Table 3: Main hydropower plants of Tajikistan
Sr. #
Details
Norak (3000 MW, height of dam is 300 m, constructed in
1
1960-1980)
Baipaza (600 MW).
2
Golovnaya (240 MW)
3
Kayarkkum (126 MW)
4
Sangtuda-1 (670 MW, constructed in 2009)
5
Sangtuda-2 (220 MW, constructing)
6
Rogun (3600 MW, height of dam is 355 m, constructing)
7
III. THE AVERAGE COST OF THE HYDROPOWER IS
ABOUT OF 2000 US$/KW. TARIFFS FOR LARGE AND
SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS ARE ALMOST 10 CENT
AND 4 CENT FOR 1 KWH RESPECTIVELY. SMALL

HYDROPOWER PLANTS HAVE ADVANTAGES DUE TO THE
SHORT TERMS OF CONSTRUCTION AND LOW COST OF
ELECTRIC ENERGY. AT THE SAME TIME THE LARGE
WATER RESERVOIRS OF THE LARGE HYDROPOWER
PLANTS CAN ACCUMULATE SUFFICIENTLY LARGE
VOLUME OF WATER THAT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE
IRRIGATION AND ELECTRICITY GENERATION IN DURING
OF LONG TIME
III.
WIND POWER POTENTIAL IN TAJIKISTAN
The gross wind power and energy potential of Tajikistan
is about 62GW and 5x104GWh approximately [10]. The
mean annual wind velocity (Vz) in some places of
Tajikistan, like to Khujand and Faizabad, is almost 5 m
s-1 (at height (Z) of 10 m over the earth surface), which
is sufficient for practical application [10]. As is known
[10] the wind velocity increases with increase of the
height:
Vz
=
V10
(Z
/
10)0.14
(1)
where V10 is velocity at Z=10 m. At present in
Tajikistan a few number of wind power systems of
power of around of 1 kW are producing electric power
for domestic application.
POTENTIAL OF WATER AND WIND ENERGY OF
PAKISTAN
The hydropower of Pakistan is about of 50GW and at
present about of 10% of that was developed [4,11,12] by
constructing large, small and micro-hydro plants. Well
developed irrigation system of Pakistan allows using the
potential of the canals network in Punjab area along with
the hydropower of rivers in northern part of the country
[4]. Pakistan has large potential for utilization of wind
energy, especially in the places that are near of coastline.
PCRET started installation of small stand-alone wind
power systems for generation of electricity in Sindh and
Balochistan provinces [4].
POTENTIAL OF WIND POWER OF KYRGYZSTAN
The average wind velocity in Kyrgyzstan is limited in the
range of 4-6 ms-1 [3]. For utilization of wind power the
area near of the town Balykchi in Issyk-Kul region is
considered as the best. At present, by collaboration with
Russian and Korean companies the project is developing
to install wind power systems with total capacity of 50
MW. Along with the traditional horizontal axis wind
power plants manufactured in China, installation of
vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) designed by A. V.
Bolotov is considered that will be fabricated by KazakhRussian company Eneksis. The power of these plants
will be in the range of from 300W to 20kW. It is
considered that VAWT has the following advantages [3]:
1.
The turbine does not depend on direction of the
wind.
2.
Wide range of power of the turbines.
3.
Possibility to use modular principle that allows
changing number of installed modules to vary output
electric power.
37
Fig.1 shows hydropower, wind power and consumption

of electric power in Tajikistan during a year. It is seen
that maximum of hydropower and minimum of wind
power are
in summer and vs. in winter time.
Consumption of electric power is the maximum in winter
time. It means utilization of wind power, especially in
winter time, will allow saving some amount of water in
Dec
Nov
Oct
Sep
Aug
Jun
May
Apr
Mar
Jul
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Feb
But for the effective and mutual supplementary use of

these kinds of energy, proper monitoring and assessment
primarily of wind power potential of Tajikistan for
sufficient practical utilization based on the preliminary
data to be collected is needed. Currently, a preliminary
assessment confirmed that there is sufficient wind
potential in several areas of the country, with much
stronger winds in the winter during the peak demand for
electricity. Preliminary calculations show that the
medium-term objectives for the installation of wind
power plants of total power of 500 MW (less than 15%
of the total installed hydropower plants in the country
today) would save annually about 1.2 cubic kilometers of
water in the Norak hydropower plant (11,4% of the total
volume of the Norak reservoir) .
Therefore by the government of the Republic of

Tajikistan and Academy of Sciences in collaboration
with government of the USA, the project is discussed for
the control of water resources of Central Asia by
combined utilization of wind and hydropower. In the
projects framework, assessment of the data will be made
on mutual supplementary wind- hydropower potentials
for effective management of the water resources of the
country and counteraction to the droughts. In practice, a
scientific and technical base will be created for the
installation of powerful wind power systems in the
regions where wind energy potential is sufficient for
practical utilization. In the case of the completion of this
project, the utilization of water for irrigation and
electricity generation will be improved significantly.
Mutual supplementary wind and hydropower project will
be proposed in order to ensure national energy security
and facilitate the management of water resources, as well
as counter drought. It is known that the cost of electricity
of wind power plants is higher than generated by
hydropower plants. However, Tajikistan has to use wind
power potential to solve the problems of dry years and
diversify its energy resources and to manage the water
resources.
Jan
IV.
COMBINED WIND, HYDROPOWER AND
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS FOR CONTROL OF
WATER RESOURCES
Currently, Tajikistan is suffering a deep energy crisis
associated primarily with a deficit of traditional energy
resources (oil and gas), which adversely affects the
industrial potential and the economy as a whole. As
mentioned earlier that Tajikistan has huge hydropower
resources. Wind energy potential is almost never used in
industrial scale, and regulation of water is inadequate for
efficient irrigation and energy utilization. Because of the
shortage of electricity in the country the dumping of
water from largest at present, Norak hydropower plant
for electricity generation was much greater in the winter,
when other countries, for example Uzbekistan, do not
need the water for irrigation. As a result, in the region, a
conflict of interests for irrigation and energy generation
is increasing, that is between the demands for water for
irrigation in the summer and energy in the winter that can
be solved by the saving of water in the reservoirs during
the summer [13]. The estimates of potential of
hydropower and wind resources of Tajikistan are
sufficient not only for the needs of the country but for
export of electric power to neighboring countries as well
[5]. Integrated and sustainable use of these resources can
meet not only own needs of the Republic, but will also
allow to export the cheap and clean energy to other
countries, to improve the environmental situation in the
region [14,15].
reservoir for irrigation in summer period. From Fig.1

seen also that at present Tajikistan can export electric
power in summer time, whereas has to import some
amount of energy in winter time or utilize the water of
reservoirs for production of electric power for its needs.
But this scenario would have negative response to
Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan due to flood of the lands in
winter and shortage of water for irrigation in summer.
P/Pmax
4.
Generator is installed on the ground that makes
easier maintenance.
Communication companies show interest for the
installation of this kind of wind power plant, especially,
in triplication scheme of the power supply as wind power
plant plus photovoltaic power plant plus internal
combustion engine that make power supply very reliable.
Months
Figure 1: Hydropower (1), wind power (2) and consumption of
electric power (3) in Tajikistan during a year in arbitrary units:
P/Pmax is ratio of power to maximum power.
Report of the EBRD (Black and Veitch Renewable

Energy Assessment) assesses the potential of countrys
wind energy of 1.0 GW. This level can be achieved when
the melting of glaciers by 2030 will have a major impact
on reducing the level of the river, and when the total
installed hydropower will reach about 10 GW. The goal
is to get 300-500 MW in the next few years is now quite
realistic in view of existing 4.4 GW of wind power
potential. As a result of the completion this project will
provide the data and the necessary scientific and
technological base, allowing in the future, in practice,
implement pilot commercial projects on construction
and commissioning of wind power systems with a
capacity of 30-100 MW and more, that will assist in
38
filling the power balance of the country in winter, saving

water in reservoirs, especially in drought years and
getting of work experience for the integration of
electricity generated by wind and hydroelectric power in
the unified energy system of the country.
A preliminary assessment allows analyzing monthly data
on the wind power potential for following areas of
Tajikistan, as Khujand, Shurabad and Muminabad. It was
found that the wind power is stronger in winter time
than in the summer and in average the wind velocity is
equal to 5-6 ms-1. Wind energy component can reach
more than 10% of the hydropower component in energy
balance of the Tajikistan. Near the city of Khujand there
are several places where the exhausted uranium mines
(tails depositaries) are situated. These places cannot be
used for agriculture or industrial or urban construction
purposes. Therefore to the hydro and wind power
projects can be added large photovoltaic (PV) plants of
total power of about 500 kW as 300 days a year in this
area are sunny. The PV stations will be grid connected
containing PV generator, DC-AC inverter and
transformer, to supply electric power to the loads only in
day time [16].
Taking into account the discussion concerned utilization
of the hydro, wind and solar energies the combined
power systems (Fig.2) can be realized in practice. The
project actually has two basic aims: generation of
electric power and proper control or regulation of water
in reservoirs of the hydropower plants.
For the realization of the project the research work will
be conducted in the following areas:
1.
Under natural conditions the efficiency of the
demonstration (low power : 100 200 W) wind power
plants with Darya and Darya-Savonius rotors along with
small propeller type wind power units will be
determined. In addition these will be used as visual aids
for training of future professionals in the field of wind
energy.
2.
Simple and reliable probes for assessment of the
magnitude and direction of winds at different altitudes
(up to 65 meters) will be designed, manufactured and
tested. These probes will be used to obtain the relevant
information in this project. On these probes the sensors
of wind speed and its direction with digital output for
data processing in a computer network will be installed.

The installation height of the probes and sensors,
respectively, for estimation of wind speed and direction
will be adjustable.
3.
Photovoltaic stations will be installed in former
uranium mines (tails depositaries) in areas near the
Khujand city.
Water
Resources
(R
i)
Water Control
Irrigation
[1].
[2].
Hydro
Power
Plant
Wind
Power
Plant
PhotoVoltaic
Generator
Domestic
Applicatio
Loads
Agriculture
Figure 2: Combined hydro, wind and solar energy systems for
generation of electric power and control of water resources.
V.
CONCLUSSIONS
1.
Depending on local or regional conditions of
renewable energy resources, in particular, hydro, wind
and solar energy can be used at combined system that
allow from one point to provide sufficient electric power
and on the other hand to control water resources for the
needs of irrigation, i.e. agriculture and domestic
application of water.
2.
Realization of the project will create the
necessary conditions for the development of basic sectors
of the economy of the concerned countries as power
engineering that will assist to the economic and social
development, primarily, in the solving of the problem of
reducing of poverty, improving the ecological situation
and avoiding of conflicts between countries.
[3].
REFERENCES
B. Sirojev. Development of electroenergetics of Tajikistan. Irfon. Dushanbe
(1984).
B.Sirojev. Energetics of the Republic of
Tajikistan and perspectives of its
development.Scientific
Journal:
Economics of Tajikistan: strategy of
development, No.1 (1999) , pp.16-28.
Solar
Energy
Wind
Power
[4].
[5].
Renewable energy in Kyrgyz Republic.

Analytical Review, Edited by K.V.Latynin,
International Science and Technological
Center, Moscow, 2010.
N.A.Zaigham, Z.A.Nayyer, Prospects of
renewable energy sources in Pakisan,
Proceedings of COMSATS Conference,
Islamabad, Pakistan, 2004 on Renewable
Energy Technologies & Sustainable
Development, 2005, pp.65-81.
Kh.S.Karimov,
R.Marupov,
Kh.M.Akhmedov,
A.M.Ashurov,
39
U.Kh.Karimov. Potential of utilization of

solar energy and hydraulic power in
Tajikistan. Proceedings of Solar Experts
Meeting, December 18-21, 1995, Islamabad,
Pakistan, pp.204-206.
[6]. China new & renewable energy. 1999 white
book. China planning press, Beijing, (2000).
[7]. R.Marupov,
Kh.Karimov,
N.Nosirov.
Renewable energy resources and sustainable
development of mountain regions.-Scientific
Journal: Economics of Tajikistan: Strategy
of development, No.1 (1999)"pp.29-32.
[8]. G.Petrov, N.Leonidova. Power supply in the
Republic of Tajikistan and its correlation
with the problem of change of climate.Proc. of Seminar on problem of change of
climate. Dushanbe, 24-25April, 200l,pp.4356 .
[9]. U.Kh.Karimov,
Kh.S.Karimov
.On
utilization of micro hydroelectric power
stations in mountain regions of Tajikistan. Geliotekhnika, No.1-4 (1998), pp.87-90.
[10]. G.N.Petrov, Kh.M.Akhmedov K.Kabutov .,
Kh.S.Karimov Overall assessment of
situations in the energy sector in the world,
and Tajikistan. - Proceedings of the
Academy of Science and the department of
phys.-math., chemical, geological and
engineering sciences, 2 (135) 2009,

pp.101-110.
[11]. P. Akhter. Renewable Energy Technology
an
Energy-Solution
for
Long-Term
Sustainable Development. Proceedings of
the Renewable Energy Technologies for
Clean Environment and Sustainable
Development , Amman ,26-29 , March ,
2002 , pp.15-25 .
[12]. Z.I.Zaidi,
I.Ahmed
and
P.Akhter.
Renewable Energy Technologies in Pakistan
A Country Report. Workshop on
Renewable
Energy
Technologies
Dissemination and Market Development,
April, 3-6, 2000, Islamabad, Pakistan,
Editors P.Akhter and A.T.Naveed ,pp.156173.
[13]. Kh.M.Akhmedov
et
al.
Mutual
supplementary hydro and wind power
utilization for control of water resources.
Private information, Dushanbe, Tajikistan,
2010.
[14]. Kh.S.Karimov, Kh.M.Akhmedov Mikrohydropower engineering. Ltd Sapphire
Company ", Dushanbe, 2010, 96 p.
[15]. G.N.Petrov,
Kh.M. Akhmedov Small
hydropower plants in Tajikistan. Ltd
Sapphire Company ", Dushanbe, 2010, 148
p.
40

Computer Simulation for Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Rotor Optimization

Ovais Mahfooz and Irfan Ullah
AbstractWind turbine design is a complex process that
includes multiple and conflicting criteria like maximizing
energy production and minimizing the cost incurred.
Often, such problems are solved using optimization
techniques. A computer simulation is essential in
analyzing the performance of a wind turbine rotor and
determining suitable values of various design variables.
The simulation will work with a design optimizer to
optimize the design. In this paper, the problem of optimal
rotor design is formulated and a computer simulation

presented to analyze the performance of a horizontal axis
wind turbine rotor of a given airfoil over a range of rotor
tip speed ratios. The MATLAB simulation takes inputs of
blade twist angle and chord solidity along the rotor radius
as well as wind speed distribution; it provides output in
the form of plots of coefficient of performance against tip
speed ratio, variation of induction factors, angle of attack
and coefficients of lift and drag with blade radial positions
. Index Terms Computer simulation, optimization, wind turbine rotor design.
IV. INTRODUCTION
HE wind turbine generates electricity by utilizing the available kinetic energy in the wind. The wind turbine rotor is the
key component which interacts with the wind and the performance of wind turbine is highly dependent upon the
aerodynamic
forces
acting on it [1, 2]. Rotor design process is complex
because improvement in the aerodynamic efficiency may
V. COMPUTER SIMULATION
lead to a design which has manufacturing complications,
Computer simulation is an effective tool that helps to
is not cost effective or violates structural constraints.
study the properties and predict the behavior of a
Therefore, the rotor design process can be formulated as
complex system. Wind turbine design is a complicated
multiobjective optimization problem with the objectives
procedure that includes multiple and contradictory
generally conflicting in nature. In addition to the
criteria and a computer simulation would be extremely
objectives, there are several other factors to be
helpful in analyzing and determining the wind turbine
considered, like the wind speed distribution at the
rotor design variables before going into prototyping and
intended site, airfoil selection, yaw errors and stall
wind tunnel testing.
conditions, which add complexity to the nature of the
The key indicators to characterize a wind turbine are
problem. Such problems are best approached using
the rated power, the torque that it would develop and the
optimization techniques. Researchers have addressed the
thrust the rotor would face due to incoming wind. The
wind turbine rotor optimization problem by either
power will provide us the energy that would be captured
treating a single objective at a time [3, 4] or formulating
by the rotor for defined wind speed(s) and thus the AEP,
it as multiobjective problem [5, 6]. In the latter case,
maximization of Annual Energy Production (AEP) and
the torque will be helpful in designing the gearbox and
minimization of Cost of Energy (COE) are usually taken
the thrust would be helpful for overall structural stability.
as the key objectives. A few authors [6, 7] have also
The rotor cannot utilize all the kinetic energy of the
included the structural integrity constraints in their
wind; the ratio of the amount that is converted into useful
models for a more comprehensive study. Optimization of
energy to the available energy is called Coefficient of
the material properties of a rotor [8] has also been
Performance (CoP) of the turbine, a term similar to the
studied using Finite Element Methods.
efficiency of a mechanical system. Theoretically, the
In this paper, details of a computer simulation
maximum energy that can be extracted is 59.3% [9]. The
developed for the optimization of a Horizontal Axis
CoP is a function of tip speed ratio (), the ratio of the
Wind Turbine are presented. The formulation of the
linear velocity of the blade tip to the wind speed which is
optimization model and the methodology to obtain an
given as
optimal rotor design is also discussed.
41
(1)
sin
Knowing the CoP of the turbine and the density and

speed of wind, we can calculate the instantaneous power
produced:
(2)
Calculation of the Annual Energy Production will

further require knowledge of wind speed variation over
the year at the installation site.
Wind turbines are either run at variable speeds to keep
the tip-speed ratio at its optimal value and thus extract
maximum power or they are run at a fixed speed for
easier control of the electrical output. Thus their
performance for all possible ratios is required to calculate
the energy produced annually (AEP). This result is
usually shown as a plot of CoP against tip-speed ratio.
A. Description of Simulation Program
This section gives detail of the computer simulation
written in Matlab in GUI format to analyze a given
design and calculate CoP versus values over a range of
rotor tip speed ratios. This simulation is based on Blade
Element Momentum (BEM) theory and empirical
formulations where BEM theory fails to predict the
phenomenon due to its inherent limitations. The
following equations [1] are used in the simulation:
(3)
(4)
tan
(5)
(6)
,
(7)
cos
(9)
1
0.143
(8)
0.0203
(10)
0.6427 0.889
(11)
(12)
sin
cos
cos
sin
(13)
cot
The blade is divided into a number of stations along its

radius, characterized by the factor r/R. Rotor design has
been specified at each station by values of blade twist
angle () and chord width (c) in the design files written
in text format. For a given value of tip-speed ratio, the
following calculations are performed at each station:
Calculate and using equations (3) and (4). (We take the number of blades as 3,
r
r
the most common value.)
Solve the system of non-linear equations (5) (10) to calculate , C , C , F, a and

l d
a. Equations (7) formally represents the experimentally-determined coefficients of
lift and drag for the given airfoil as depending on the angle of attack, .
If the computed value of axial induction factor a is greater than 0.5, the assumptions
of BEM theory are no longer valid; we then use equations (11) and (12) (instead of
9 and 10) to calculate the correct value of a.
Using these values the program calculates the CoP for

given using equation (13). The summation in equation
(13) is over the blade stations. Finally, power produced
by a turbine of swept area A at wind speed U may be
calculated using equation (2). The torque produced may
be calculated using the power and angular speed of the
rotor.
VI. OPTIMIZATION
Optimization is a process in which we seek the value
of design variables, x, that minimizes (or maximizes, as
appropriate) an objective function f(x), subject to
equality constraints h(x)=0, and inequality constraints,
g(x)0, relating the variables. In this case, we would like
to design the turbine to maximize the annual energy
production and, at the same time, minimize of the cost of
energy; therefore, it can be categorized as a multiobjective optimization problem. Constraints are imposed
on the design to ensure a structurally safe and
manufacturable design.
A. Problem Formulation
The objective function for Annual Energy Production
is best written as
kWh/year/m2
(14)
the division by R2 makes the function independent of the
size of turbine.
The function for Cost of Energy would be
&
(15)
where TC is the turbine cost, BOS is the Balance of
Station (including the costs of logistics, erection, tower
and grid connection), FCR is the fixed charge rate
(percent per year) and O&M is the operation and
42
maintenance cost (per kWh). If details of factors

included in turbine cost are not available then it may be
taken as a function of blade weight [5] because blade is
the most expensive item in a wind turbine [7]. Assuming
that the fixed costs are directly proportional to turbine
size (swept area) and that O&M charges are independent
of turbine size, the entire problem can be made
independent of turbine size.
The above objectives are subject to following
constraint, limiting the stress
, N/m2
(19)
where M is the bending moment due to blade rotation, ch

is the chord length, I is the moment of inertia, Fc is
centrifugal force due to rotation and Ah is the rotor area,
all calculated or measured at the hub.
The design variables in this formulation are the blade
chord distribution and the blade twist distribution; the
parameters include the chosen airfoil and wind speed
distribution.
If turbine costs are not considered directly
proportional to turbine size, we need to include the
turbine radius R as another design variable. In that case,
the turbine will be design for a specified power output.
TABLE I
BLADE DESIGN
Blade Radial Position

station
(r/R)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Chord solidity
(r)
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.5344
0.3839
0.2935
0.2333
0.1903
0.1580
0.1329
0.1129
0.0964
0.0828
0.0712
0.0613
0.0526
0.0451
0.0385
Blade
angle,
(d 14.5 )
13.6
12.7
11.8
10.9
9.9
9.1
8.2
7.3
6.3
5.4
4.5
3.6
2.7
1.8
Plotof'a'vsmewat
OptimalLambda
0.0000
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
mew(r/R)
Fig. 1: Variation of a along the blade
Plotofa'vsmewat
OptimalLambda
a'
The simulation was applied to the design given in

Table 1, using NACA 4412 airfoil. Fig. 6 shows the
calculated CoP versus the tip speed ratio () curve. It was
found that this design will achieve a maximum CoP of
0.53 at an optimal tip speed ratio of 6. Fig. 1 and 2 shows
the variation of axial and tangential induction factors.
The ideal value of a is 1/3 and here the values vary from
0.33 to 0.47 which means that stall conditions do not
occur over any part of the blade at this tip-speed ratio;
however, for other ratios, it is observed that a part of the
blade operated under stall conditions thus producing no
torque. Fig. 3, 4 and 5 provide the variation of co
efficient of lift and drag and angle of attack along the
blade radius at the optimal lambda respectively. The
results of this initial design will be taken as a starting
point to find the optimum design.
Several techniques [3, 5] have been used to solve
constrained multi objective optimization problems. In
this ongoing work, we propose to use non-derivative
techniques because the functions involved are not
available in explicit form and their derivatives cannot be
calculated analytically. It is therefore, intended to
employ evolutionary computation techniques including
Genetic Algorithms (GA).
0.5000
VII. RESULTS
0.4000
0.2000
0.0000
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
mew(r/R)
Fig. 2: Variation of a along the blade
43
ofAttack(deg.)
f
k (d )
VariaationofAlphaw
with
Blad
deradiaalpositio
ons
(me
ew)
Fig. 3: Co
C efficient of lift
ft along the blade at = 6
20.00
0.00
0
0.00
0.20
0
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0
m
mew(r/R)
Fig. 5: Angle of attack along the blade at

a =6
Cd
Varriationo
ofCdwiith
Blad
deradialpositio
ons
(me
ew)
0.0200
0.0000
00
0.0
0.20
0
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
mew(r/R)
Fig. 4: Co
C efficient of draag along the bladee at = 6
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
O
mulation prograam to analyzee the
In this paper, deetails of a sim
perfformance of a HAWT are presented, which
w
is basedd on
BEM
M theory. Alsso a strategy to
t optimize thhe design of rotor
is proposed
p
andd formulated. This strateggy shows how
w a
sim
mulation can be
b integrated into an optimization proccess
usinng non-derivaative technique. The simulaation is applied to
a seelected airfoil and the resultts are also preesented.
NOMENC
CLATURE
Cd
Coeffficient of drag
Cl
Coeffficient of lift
CoP
Coeffficient of rotorr performance
Pranndtl Tip-loss facctor
Fc
Centtrifugal force att hub due to blaade
rotation, N
I
ment of inertia at
a hub, m4
Mom
Bendding moment att hub due to blaade
N
rotation, N-m
Axiaal induction facttor
Outpput power, W
a'
Tanggential inductionn factor
Rotoor radius, m
Rotor area, m2
Locaal radius, m
Ah
Hub area, m2
Windd speed, m-s-1
mber of blades
Num
Anglle of attack, deg

g.
Chorrd length, m
ch
Chorrd length at hubb, m
CTr
Locaalized thrust coeefficient
Angle between relativ

ve wind velocitty and
tangential direection, deg.
Bladde twist angle, deg.

d
44
Max stress in hub, N-m-2
Tip-speed ratio
max
Local tip-speed ratio
Chord solidity
Rotor angular speed, s-1
-3
Density, kg-m
REFERENCES
[1] J. F. Manwell, J. G. McGowan and A.
L. Rogers, Wind Energy Explained,
Theory, Design and Application, John
Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2002.
[2] T. Burton, D. Sharpe, N. Jenkins and
E. Bossanyi, Wind Energy Handbook,
John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2001.
[3] M. S. Selig and V. L. CoverstoneCarroll, Application of a Genetic
Algorithm to Wind Turbine Design,
ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.,
118 (1996), pp 2228.
[4] P. Gigure, M. S. Selig and J. L.
Tangler, Blade Design Trade-Offs
Using Low-Lift Airfoils for StallRegulated HAWTs, NREL/CP-50026091, 1999, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO.
[5] E. Benini and A. Toffolo, Optimal
Design of Horizontal-Axis Wind
Turbines Using Blade-Element
Theory and Evolutionary
Computation, ASME Journal of
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Solar Energy Engineering, 124

(2002), pp 357363.
W. Xudong, W. Z. Shen,W. J. Zhu,J.
N. Srensen and C. Jin, Shape
Optimization of Wind Turbine
Blades, Wind Energy, 12 (2009) pp
781803.
P. Fuglsang and H. A. Madsen,
Optimization Method for Wind
Turbine Rotors, J. Wind. Eng. Ind.
Aerodyn.; 80 (1999), pp 191206.
M. Jureczko, M. Pawlak and A.
Mezyk, Optimization of Wind
Turbine Blades, Journal of Material
Processing Technology, 167 (2005),
pp 463471.
A. Betz, Das Maximum der
theoretisch mglichen Ausntzung
des Windes durch Windmotoren,
Zeitschrift fr dasgesamte
Turbinenwesen, 26 (1920), pp 307
309.
45

Concentrated Solar Power: An Overview

Zeeshan Najam 1, and M. Ishfaq Khan
International Islamic University, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy and Technology, PCRET, Islamabad, Pakistan
zeeshan.najam@iiu.edu.pk
ishfaq_khan111@yahoo.com
Abstract
Solar thermal power is a relatively new technology and a fine
arrangement for the provision of Electrical Energy and Clean
Energy in general .The concentrated solar offers a viable option
for the Sunny Zones of the world. The efficiency of the System
depends on a few factors like Area, Intensity of Sunlight, Type of
receiver, Hybridisation etc. Solar Thermal Systems employ lenses
or mirrors to focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area.
Electrical power is produced when the concentrated light is
impunged onto photovoltaic cell made surfaces or used to heat a
transfer fluid for a conventional power plant. In this paper we
give a brief overview of a baseline Solar Thermal Power Plant,
Technological details, Cost and Benefit analysis, a glimpse of solar
thermal power and future of solar thermal power
produce superheated steam. They represent the most

established solar thermal power technology, with 354 MWe of
plants connected to the Southern California grid since the 80s
and occupies an area of more than 2 million square metres of
parabolic trough collectors. These plants supply an annual 800
million kWh at a generation cost of about 14-17 US cents/kWh
Keywords Concentrated Solar Power, Parabolic trough,
VI. INTRODUCTION
A simple and basic model for producing Electrical Energy
from the Solar Energy is fairly simple. We use mirrors or
receivers of sunlight to concentrate the sunlight to an area
which will heat up the fluid present inside the pipes. This fluid
travels and mixes with water in a heat exchange chamber or
compartment. As a result steam or fumes are produced. The
steam in turn drives the turbine which leads to usual power
plant based electricity generation. Solar heat collected during
the day can also be stored in liquid or solid media like molten
salts, ceramics, concrete or, in the future, phase-changing salt
mixtures. At night, it can be extracted from the medium and,
thus, continues turbine operation.
Fig 1 Parabolic Trough Reflector
B. Central Receiver
It is also known as a solar tower systems .It essentially comprise of a circular
array of Large tracking plain mirrors (heliostats) to Concentrate sunlight on to a
central receiver mounted on top of a tower. The heat produced as a result of the
focusing the solar energy is transported for power generation through a choice
of transfer media. Following the success after the installation of the first 10
MWe PS-10 demonstration tower plants, in Spain, and with a further scale up
of upto 30-50 MW capacity, solar tower experts feel confident that grid
connected tower power plants can be built up to a capacity of 200 MWe solaronly units with power generation costs then Comparable to those of parabolic
troughs.
VII.
TECHNOLOGICAL DETAILS
A Solar Thermal System consists of four main elements
namely: a concentrator, a receiver, some form of transport or
storage, and power conversion. The three most promising solar
thermal technologies are the Parabolic Trough, the Central
Receiver or Solar Tower, and the Linear Fresnel.
A. Parabolic Trough Reflector
Parabolic trough reflectors utilize trough shaped mirrors to
focus sunlight on to receiver tubes through which a thermal
transfer fluid is heated to a temperature of 4000C and used to
Fig 2 Central Receiver
46
C. Linear Fresnel Reflector:

In LFR technology, an elevated ground facing linear
receiver collects the concentrated solar radiation reflected by a
group of nearly flat reflector placed on the ground.
D. Benefits of Solar Thermal Power
A major benefit of solar thermal power is that it has little or
no impact environment. There is hardly any pollution in the
form of fumes or noise during operation. Decommissioning of
the system is a relatively easy. Each square meter of reflector
surface in a solar field is enough to avoid the annual production
of 150 - 250 kilograms (kg) of carbon dioxide. Solar thermal
power can therefore make a substantial contribution towards
international commitments to reduce the steady increase in the
level of greenhouse gases and their contribution to climate
change.
THE GLOBAL SOLAR THERMAL MARKET
VIII.
New avenues are being explored for the quest of solar
thermal power In face of the every increasing demand for clean
energy. Fresh initiatives are being taken at the national and
international level to promote and support the
commercialization of the technology. Legislation has been
introduced around the world which offers attractive tariffs for
potential investors in the solar thermal sector. High Power
transmission lines from high-insulation sites, such as in
northern Africa, could draw attention of the private project
developers or European firms to finance large solar plants
whose power could be used ultimately for consumption in
Europe. These and other factors have led to significant interest
in constructing plants in the sun belt regions from privatesector project developers and turnkey contracting firms. In
addition, interest rates and capital costs have drastically fallen
worldwide, increasing the viability of capital-intensive
renewable projects.
CURRENT PROJECTS AND DEVELOPMENTS
In this section we will provide instances of specific large solar
thermal projects currently under construction or in an advanced
Stage of permitting and development around the world include:
-
Algeria: 140-150 MW ISCC plant with 25 MW solar

capacities (Trough)
Egypt: 150 MW ISCC plant with 30 MW solar capacities
(trough)
Greece: 50 MW solar capacity using steam cycle (trough)
India: 140 MW ISCC plant with 30 MW solar capacities
(trough)
Italy: 40 MW solar capacities integrated into existing
combined cycle plant (trough)
Mexico: 291 MW ISCC plant with 30 MW solar
capacities (trough)
Morocco: 220 MW ISCC plant with 30 MW solar
capacities (Trough)
Spain: over 500 MW solar capacity using steam cycle (4 x
10-20 MW solar tower and 12 x 50 MW parabolic
troughs)
USA: 50 MW solar capacities with parabolic trough in
Nevada: using steam cycle, proceeded by a 1 MW
parabolic trough demonstration plant using ORC turbine

in Arizona.
USA: 500 MW Solar Dish Park in California, preceded by
a 1 MW(40 x 25 kW) test and demo installation
IX. THE FUTURE FOR SOLAR THERMAL POWER

A future scenario predicted by Greenpeace International, the
European Solar Thermal Industry Association and IEA Solar
PACES projects what could be achieved by the year 2025
given the favorable market Conditions. [2] This prediction is
based on expected progress in solar thermal technology with
the growing number of countries which are investing in the
clean energy. Over the projected period of the scenario, solar
thermal technology will have emerged from a relatively
subsidiary position in the hierarchy of renewable energy
sources to achieve a significant status alongside the current
market leaders such as hydro and wind power. It is speculate
that from a current level of just 354 MW total installed
capacity, the rate of annual installation by 2015 will have
reached upto a whopping 970 MW, thus reaching a total
installed capacity of 6454 MW [4]. By year 2025, It is
presumed that 4 600 MW will come on steam each year. By
2025, the total installed capacity of solar thermal power around
the world will have reached well over 36,000 MW. By 2025,
solar thermal power will have achieved an annual Throughput
of almost 100 million MWh.[4] This is roughly equivalent to
the utilization of over one half of Australias electricity
Demand or the cumulative electricity consumption of Denmark
and Belgium or Israel, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Capital
investment cost in solar thermal plant will mount US$
60million in 2006 to almost US$ 16.4 billion in 2025. [6]
The Expansion in the solar thermal power industry will result
in the Creation of over 50,000 jobs worldwide. The five most
potentially prolific regions, in terms of Solar Thermal
production targets, expected by 2025, are the Mediterranean,
Middle East states and North Africa, the southern states of the
USA, and Islands of Australia. During the period up to 2025,
[7] the toxic emission into the atmosphere of a total of 395
million tonnes of carbon dioxide would be eluded, making a
vital contribution to international climate protection targets. An
extended projection is made for the potential expansion of the
solar thermal power market over another 1 1/2 decades p to
2040.[7] This implies, by year 2030, the worldwide capacity
will have touched 100,000 MW and, by 2040, a staggering
600,000 MW. The increased accessibility of plant resulting
from the greater use of proficient storage technology will also
Fig 3 Array of Solar trough collectors courtesy document on

CSP Fundamentals
increase the amount of electricity generated from a given
installed capacity. The result is that by 2040 more than 5% of
the worlds electricity demand could be satisfied by solar
thermal power [10].
47
X. POWER FROM THE SUN

The principles of solar thermal power conversion have been
around for more than a century; its commercial upgrade and
utilization, however, has only taken place since the mid 1980s
with the advent of first 30-80 MW parabolic trough power
stations, built in the California Mojave desert. The technology
has notably established its technological and economic promise
with negligible environmental impediments and a colossal
resource, the sun; it offers an opportunity to the countries in the
sun zone of the world comparable to that currently being
offered by its counterpart offshore wind farms to European and
other regions with the windiest shorelines.
. Suitable sites should receive at least 2,000 kilowatt hours
(kWh) of sunlight radiation per m2 annually, at the same time
as best site locations receive more than 2,800 KWh/m2/year.
Usual site regions, where the atmosphere and Flora does not
produce high levels of atmospheric dampness, dust and fumes,
include steppes, bush, savannas, semi-deserts and true deserts,
should be technically and ideally located within less than 40
degrees of latitude north or south. Therefore, the most
promising areas of the world include the South-Western United
States, Central and South America, North and Southern Africa,
the Mediterranean Countries of Europe, the Near and Middle
East, Iran and the desert plains of India, Pakistan, the former
Soviet Union, China and Australia .In many regions of the
world, one square kilometre of land is sufficient to generate as
much as 100-130 gigawatt hours (GWh) of solar electricity per
year using solar thermal technology. [9] This Corresponds to
the annual production of a 50 MW conventional coal- or gasfired mid-load power plants. Over the total life cycle of a solar
thermal power system, its output would be equivalent to the
energy in more than 5 million barrels of oil. However, this
huge solar power potential can only be harnessed to a limited
extent as it is curtailed by local demand and by technological
and financial constraints. If solar electricity is exported to
regions with a high demand for power considerably more of the
potential in the Sun Belt countries could be maximised to
protect the global climate. Countries such as Germany are
already seriously considering importing solar electricity from
North Africa and Southern Europe as a way of contributing to
the long-term sustainable development of their power sector.
However, priority should be given primarily to supply for
legitimate indigenous demand. [10]
Fig 4 Solar thermal Plants water heating courtesy document on CSP

Fundamentals
Fig 5 Solar trough Collectors courtesy document on CSP Fundamentals
XI. CONCLUSIONS
Solar thermal are the important candidates for providing
clean and renewable energy for future. The technology has
already been there for a while for instance since 1985 nine
Parabolic trough type solar thermal type power plants in
California have fed more than 10 billion of KWh of solar based
electricity into the southern California, It is a demonstrated and
well established technology. At present Solar thermal power
plants of capacity of 500 MW are being built worldwide. Solar
thermal plants can provide dispatch able energy in combination
with solar thermal. Solar thermal is amongst the cost effective
technologies. It is expected that with the advances in the
technology and mass production of components they will
become competitive with the fossil fuel plants. Thermal power
plants can be utilized in the desalination of water alongside the
generation of electricity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We wish to acknowledge PCRET (Pakistan Council of
Renewable Energy Technologies) and Dr S. M. Bhutta for their
support in writing this paper.
REFERENCES
Noor, N.; Muneer, S.; Concentrated Solar Power
(CSP) and its Prospects in Bangladesh,
ICDRET, 2009
http://www.reuters.com/article/companyNewsAndPR/
idUSN0522608420071105?pageNumber=2&sp=
true
P. Schramek, and D.R. Mills. Multi-tower solar array.
Euro Sun 2000, Copenhagen June 2000. See also
Later multi-tower concepts by Bright Source at
http://www.brightsourceenergy.com/dpt.htm.
D. Frier, and R. G. Cable, An Overview and
Operation Optimization of the Kramer Junction
Solar Electric
Generating System, ISES World Congress, Jerusalem
Vol. 1, pp. 241246, 1999.
R. Aringhoff. et al. AndaSol - 50MW Solar Plants
with 9 Hour Storage for Southern Spain, Proc.
11th
SolarPACES International Symposium, Zurich,
Switzerland, pp. 37-42,, 4-6 Sept, 2002
2006
ERCOT
Hourly
Load
Data
http://www.ercot.com/gridinfo/load/load_hist/ind
ex.html
48
CAISO - http://oasis.caiso.com, 2006 California

System Load.
[11] National Energy Renewable Lab TMY2 data,
available at
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/tmy2/State.h
tml
[12] Edison Electric Institute, see
http://www.eei.org/industry_issues/industry_overview
_and_statistics/industry_statistics#generation
European Solar Thermal Electricity Association
(ESTELA); URL: www.estelasolar.eu
http://opensourceinnovation.wordpress.com/2007/0
6/18/why-we-need-electric-cars-part-ii/
49

Design and Development of Direct Drive

Generators for Wind Turbines
M. NAGRIAL, J. RIZK AND A. HELLANY
School of Engineering
UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN SYDNEY
Australia
Email: m.nagrial@uws.edu.au
Abstract- This paper discusses various
options for wind generators in modern wind
turbines without any gearbox. Various
power converter configurations are also
discussed. The design of modern and
efficient variable speed generators is also
proposed. The design of a novel permanent
magnet generator is also given.
Index Terms- Wind Generators, Permanent
Magnet Generators, Reluctance Generators
I.
INTRODUCTION
The world relies heavily on fossil fuels to meet

energy requirements- such as oil; gas and coal
are providing almost 80% of global energy
demands. These energy sources will be unable
to cope with future energy requirements as
fossil fuel reserves are already on a steep
decline. Further, the use of fossil fuels in
energy production and increased use of such
energy are responsible for environmental
degradation, climate change, ecological
unbalance and human health. Because of the
awareness of global warming, researchers are
exploiting renewable energy sources that will
have less harmful effects and pollution on the
environment.
Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind,
hydro etc., have the potential to provide major
percentage of future energy requirements with
no harmful emissions and greenhouse gases
[1,2]. Among the renewable energy sources,
wind energy is most widely used because it is
economical and suitable for high power
applications [3-6]. Wind power is one of the
fastest growing renewable sources, being
exploited because of comparatively low cost
and mature technology. The annual market for
wind energy systems is increasing at the rate of
over 25 %. Many countries such as US, Spain,
China, India and Germany have installed

capacity in GW. Wind power had been used to
provide mechanical power to pump water or to
grind grains till the early twentieth century.
Wind energy has re-emerged as one of the
most important sustainable energy resources.
The wind energy is abundant and best
technology today to provide a sustainable
electrical energy supply in the world.
Wind power plants are different from
conventional power plants in that their fuel
supply is neither steady nor controllable and as
a result, they exhibit greater uncertainty and
variability in their output. Modern wind
turbines have three-bladed rotors and mounted
atop towers. Wind plants operate when the
wind blows and then power levels vary with
the
strength
of
the
wind.
The
electromechanical system of a conventional
wind power plant consists of three main parts:
turbine, gearbox and generator. The generator
is usually high-speed machine and it is
connected directly to the grid. The speed of the
generator is 1000 or 1500 rpm and this means
that a gear is needed between the turbine and
the generator as shown in Figure 1. However,
the gearbox adds to the weight, generates
noise, demands regular maintenance and
increases losses. Furthermore, there can also be
problems with materials, lubrication and
bearing seals in cold climates. The wind power
plant can be simplified by eliminating the gear
and by using a low-speed generator the rotor of
which rotates at the same speed as the rotor of
the turbine. Figure 2 shows typical wind
generator without gearbox. The number of
moving components and the noise caused
mainly by high rotational speed of the gear can
be reduced [7,8]. The advantages are also high
overall efficiency and reliability, and
diminished need for maintenance.
50
Figure 1: Wind generator with gearbox

II.
Figure 2: Wind generator without gearbox
WIND GENERATORS
Various types of generators have been

proposed and implemented over the years for
wind energy conversion [9-27]. Conventional
generators, used in present day power stations,
are exclusively synchronous generators with
DC excitation. These generators are efficient in
large power ratings, expensive and bulky and
not suited for wind power applications as these
generators are mounted on a tower.
The following types of generators have been
investigated for wind power applications.
Induction Generators (IG) [11-14]
Squirrel cage Induction Generators
(SCIG)
Wound-rotor or Doubly fed Induction
Generators (DFIG)
Induction Generators
Induction machines are widely used as industrial drives but
are being considered as possible generator for wind energy
systems [11-14]. Figure 3 shows a typical arrangement of
wind electric conversion system (WECS) with induction
generator (IG). Induction generators are well suited for
autonomous and grid-connected applications. The
induction generator operates in a narrow range above
synchronous speed, and hence operating as a constant
speed system. An induction generator would stay excited
even after the terminal voltage is disconnected provided
sufficient amount of capacitance is connected across
armature terminals and the rotation is maintained by some
external mechanical source. Induction generators, though
inexpensive but have few disadvantages:
Low efficiency
Lack of excitation
Reactive power compensation
Difficult to control
Reluctance Generators [15-19]

Synchronous reluctance Generators
(RSG)
Switched Reluctance Generators
(SRG)
Permanent Magnet Generators [20-27]
Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Generators (PMSG)
PM Assisted Reluctance Generators
(PMARG)
Figure 3: Wind Energy System with Induction

Generator
DC generators have found limited application in wind

energy owing to problems of reliability.
Figure 4: Wind Energy System with Doublyfed Induction Generator (DFIG)
The other type of induction generator is woundrotor (WRIG) or doubly-fed type, termed as
doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG). The
expression doubly-fed applies generally to
machines where electrical power can be fed or
extracted from two accessible windings [13,14].
External excitation is necessary before the
induction generator starts to work. For grid
connected systems, this is not a limitation as it
can draw reactive power from the grid. For
51
isolated power systems, external devices like

capacitors and batteries are required to provide
the excitation current to the induction motor.
Generally, the stator winding is connected to
the grid and the rotor winding is connected to
bi-directional power converter as shown in
Figure 4. Although, it has been extensively
investigated for wind energy applications, but
requires two excitation sources, one on stator
and the other on rotor. DFIG requires
sophisticated control but still inefficient due to
additional losses. The doubly-fed induction
generator (DFIG) is wound rotor induction
generator with partial-scale
frequency
converter on the rotor circuit. The converter is
to maintain the rotor frequency at the same
level as the grid. The DFIG can produce higher
output compared to standard induction
machines because of a wider operating range.
The power converter does not need to be rated
at generator capacity.
Reluctance generators
Reluctance generators are other types of

machines, being well suited for wind energy
applications [15-19]. Figure 5 shows a typical
wind power system where the generator is of
reluctance type. It is another generator, which is
well suited for low-speed prime movers such as
wind turbine [17-19]. Similar to induction
machines, reluctance machines can be made to
operate as generator if the mechanical input
power is increased. The reactive power can be
supplied from the supply mains and the
electrical power can be fed to the supply grid
and the machine will be operating as constant
speed generator unlike induction generator. The
reluctance machine can also be used as a selfexcited reluctance generator when suitable
capacitors are connected across stator terminals
to initiate self-excitation. This mode of
operation is quite attractive for operation with
variable-speed prime movers such as wind
turbines.A switched reluctance generator (SRG)
has a wound stator but has no windings on its
rotor, which is made of soft magnetic material.
The opposite poles on the stator are excited
with current at a proper time. When a pole of a
stator is aligned with a pole of a rotor, there is a
state of equilibrium and the inductance is
higher [17-19]. Thus a pair of poles of the rotor
tends to align itself with two excited poles of
the stator. When the rotor is moved from an
aligned position by a mechanical force, a torque
is produced to diminish the reluctance in the
magnetic circuit. The resulting torque produces
a back EMF in addition to the applied voltage.
There are few approaches to deal with the
control phenomena in a SRG. There are ways to
excite the SRG which is self-excited or
separately excited. Figures 6 and 7 show a self

excited circuit and externally excited circuit
that can be used in a SRG.
Permanent Magnet Generators

Permanent magnets have been extensively used
to replace the excitation winding in
synchronous machines [19-25] with the well
known advantages of simple rotor design
without field windings, slip-rings and exciter
generator, avoiding heat dissipation in the rotor
and providing higher overall efficiency. The
rotor design can be distinguished in three main
types according to the magnet position, namely
the interior , the peripheral and the claw
pole type. For wind power applications in
particular, multi-pole permanent magnet
generators have become very attractive
especially in small ratings [22]. Figure 8 shows
a typical wind power system where the
generator is of PM synchronous type. Recent
advances in power electronics enabling energy
efficient drives have aroused the interest in
using permanent magnet generators in small
and medium systems for both autonomous and
parallel operation with the electrical grid
[23,24]
Figure 5: Wind Energy System with Switched

Reluctance Generator (SRG)
10
Q2
Q7
Q3
Q5
L4
D9
L2
0mH
D8
D2
D3
L1
0mH
D4
D5
L3
0mH
D1
8
Q8
Q1
Q4
Q6
11
Figure 6: Circuit diagram for power converter

for self-excited SRG
52
D6
C1
1uF
Figure 7: Circuit diagram for power converter

for externally-excited SRG
Figure 10: PM Generator (8-polar design)

Figure 8: Wind Energy System with
PM Synchronous Generator
Permanent magnet wind generators have high power
density from magnetic torque and reluctance torque
components. A SR generator, which is made of only
magnetic core and windings, has a simple and robust
structure. A SR generator requires an external
exciting circuit and rotor position sensor. In order to
overcome disadvantages of interior permanent
magnet (IPM) and conventional reluctance
generators, a PM assisted reluctance generator
(PMARG) can be a good candidate due to its low
cost, high efficiency and reliability [26,27].
PMARG requires less quantity of permanent magnet
material and hence economical. Figure 9 shows a
cross sectional view of a PM assisted reluctance
generator. The permanent magnets are shown in the
interior of the rotor but in small quantity.
Figure 9: Cross section of PM assisted

Reluctance Generator
III.
EXPERIMENTAL MACHINE
In small and medium scale wind power

applications considered hereafter, the gearbox
can be avoided by using a multi-pole permanent
magnet generator [8-9]. In such applications
permanent magnet machines are usually
connected through a rectifier stage either to a
battery bank or to the dc bus of an inverter
producing 50 Hz power to the grid. The design
of the radial-flux machine is simple and widely
used in different types of asynchronous and
synchronous machines. The efficiency of the
PM machine can be made high and the pole
pitch small. Furthermore, the characteristics of
permanent- magnet materials are improving and
their prices are decreasing. The mechanical
design of the stator winding is very simple and
the machine is easy to manufacture. The rotor
of a present day typical wind turbine rotates at a
speed of 20200 rpm. The generator is coupled
to the turbine via a gear so that it can rotate at a
speed of 1000 or 1500_rpm. Usually, the
generator is a four- or six-pole induction
machine and it is connected directly to the grid.
The generator rotates at the same speed as the
rotor of the turbine in a gearless wind turbine.
Many types of low-speed generators have been
designed, for instance, special machines like
radial-, axial- and transverse-flux synchronous
machines, reluctance machines and linear
53
induction machine. The first commercial

directly driven generator in the power range of
some hundred kilowatts was a synchronous
machine excited by a traditional field winding.
Nowadays, the greatest interest is in PM
generators for gearless wind power plants. The
PM machines can operate with good and
reliable performance over a wide range of
speeds. The pole pitch of the PM machine can
also be made small. Furthermore, the
characteristics of permanent-magnet materials
are improving and their prices are decreasing. A
multi-pole radial-flux PM synchronous machine
is a good alternative for the design of a largescale directly driven wind turbine generator as
shown in Figure 10. Therefore, this type of
machine and advanced design of reluctance
generators are chosen for further investigation
and their performance reported
IV.
[8].
[9].
[10].
[11].
[12].
CONCLUSION
The authors have provided an overview of

various generator systems for wind energy
applications. These generators are being
investigated for both isolated and gridconnected power systems. New types of
permanent magnet, reluctance generator and
PM assisted reluctance generators are also
given. The optimum configuration of a practical
PM generator is also given.
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'09, pp. 732-737, 2009.
Goto,H., H.J. Guo and O.Ichinokura A
micro wind power generation system using
permanent magnet reluctance generator
13th European Conference on Power
Electronics and Applications, EPE '09, 2009.
55

Development of a Scheffler Fixed Focus

Concentrator for the Processing of Medicinal Plants
and Fruits
Anjum Munir#1, Oliver Hensel#2, Wolfgang Scheffler *3 and Heike Hoedt *4
#1, 2
#1
Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Kassel, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany

Department of Farm Machinery and Power, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
1
anjum223@gmail.com
agrartechnik@uni-kassel.de
Third- Fourth Company

Solar Bruecke G.v. Werdenbergstr. 6 D-89344, Germany
Abstract
With the increasing population and industrialization, there is need to
cut down the load of fossil fuels and to reduce environmental
pollution. A large part of industrial process heat lies from low to
medium temperature range which can be supplied by solar energy.
Scheffler fixed focus concentrators are successfully used for medium
temperature applications in different parts of the world. These
concentrators are taken as lateral sections of paraboloids and provide
fixed focus away from the path of incident beam radiations
throughout the year. The paper presents description and experimental
results of medicinal and fruit processing using an 8 m2 surface area
Scheffler solar concentrator installed at solar campus, university of
Kassel, Witzenhausen Germany. The research was focussed to
promote solar renewable energy in rural and remote locations. The
solar system was equipped with Pyranometer and thermocouples to
evaluate real time data which was used for performance evaluation of
the solar system during processing of different products. In the first
phase of the research, several trials were made to evaluate the
performance of the system. Within the solar radiations range of 700800 W m-2, the receiver temperatures were recorded between 300400C. The average power was found to be 1.55 kW and system
efficiency was found to be 32.34%. Different medicinal plants like
Melissa, Peppermint, Rosemary, Cumin, and Cloves buds were
successfully processed by using solar energy. Different fruit and
vegetables like Apples, Plums, cherries, tomatoes were also
processed by using solar energy. Research results have showe that
solar energy can be successfully used for the post harvest and fruit
processing at rural location.
Keywords Scheffler fixed focus concentrator, Pyranometer,
medicinal plants, solar radiations, post harvest processing
XII.
INTRODUCTION
The limited availability of fossil fuels and their
environmental impact, have led to a growing awareness of the
importance of renewable energy sources especially in the
tropical countries. The available flux of incident radiant
energy is approximately 1100 W m-2 without optical

concentrating [1]. Solar thermal energy is the second
exploited renewable source of energy after wind; however its
share of world energy production is still negligible. The solar
thermal sector has been predominantly implemented in the
residential sector; only about 0.2% of the installed solar
thermal power employs heat for industrial processes. Solar
heat has a promising future application in industrial processes;
57% of the heat demand in the global industry is at
temperatures below 400C., 30% at temperatures below
100%. In some industrial sectors, like the food industry over
the 60% of heat is required at temperatures below 250C [2].
In developing countries half of the harvested perishable
foods are lost after harvest, it is estimated that in West Africa
about 50% of perishable food commodities, including fruits,
vegetables, roots and tubers, and 30% of grains are lost after
harvest [3]. The amount of undernourished people in the
world has been increasing up to more than 1 Billion people;
most of this people live in developing countries [4].
Various industrial surveys show that up to 24 per cent of all
industrial heat, directly used in the processes, is at
temperatures from ambient to 180C [5]. At present, various
types of solar collectors are in use yet their applications are
restricted to drying and low temperature water boiling for
heating houses and swimming pools etc.
Beyond the low temperature applications, there are several
fields of application of solar thermal energy at a medium and
mediumhigh temperature level. From a number of studies on
industrial heat demand, several industrial sectors have been
identified with favourable conditions for the application of
solar energy. The most important industrial processes using
heat at a mean temperature level are: sterilizing, extraction,
pasteurizing, drying, solar cooling and air conditioning,
hydrolysing, distillation and evaporation, washing and
cleaning, and polymerization. The ranges of all these
56
processes lie between 60 and 280C [6]. Several experiments

were carried out to utilize the solar energy at medium
temperature range using vacuum tube collectors to increase
the temperature at mediumhigh temperature range. The
conventional paraboloidal concentrators converge all the beam
radiations at the focus and are selected as the bottom part of a
paraboloid. Despite the high temperature output, such types of
concentrators are rarely used for industrial applications due to
frequent changes of the focus position and inadequacy of
handling approach at the receiver. This limitation, however, is
solved by the Scheffler fixed focus concentrator which not
only provides simple and precise automatic tracking but also a
fixed focus away from the path of incident beam radiations.
For small-scale-applications in agriculture, post harvest
technology and the food industry, this is a cheaper solution.
Keeping these facts in view, the research has been initiated to
develop a solar distillation system for the processing of
medicinal and aromatic plants. Provision was also provided to
the existing solar system to process different kinds of fruits
and vegetables to improve rural development. This solar
technology can be successfully used in rural and remote
areas.
XIII.
rotation (steel pipe) of the reflector assembly was inserted into

the journals bearings to complete the reflector. The Scheffler
fixed focus concentrator was installed at solar campus,
University of Kassel, Witzenhausen, Germany to conduct
different experiments with perishable products as shown in
Figure 1.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
E. Construction of Scheffler Reflector

The Scheffler fixed focus concentrator was constructed in
the Agricultural Engineering workshop, University of Kassel,
Witzenhausen (Latitude: 51.3), Germany. The solar system
comprised of a primary reflector having 8 m2 surface area and
secondary reflector. The main components of the primary
reflector are elliptical reflector frame, a rotating support,
tracking channel, reflector stand, and daily and seasonal
tracking devices. The primary reflector is designed by
considering the lateral part of a specific paraboloid. The semimajor axis and semi-minor axis of elliptical reflector frame
were taken as 1.88 and 1.37 m respectively. Seven crossbars
were designed and used in the elliptical frame to form the
required section of a paraboloid. These crossbars were equally
distributed along minor axis with one crossbar at the center
and others were located at a distance of 0.48 m from the
preceding on both sides. These crossbars were checked with
the help of a jig specially designed for the profiles checking of
the Scheffler reflector. Aluminium profiles were fixed on the
crossbars and aluminium sheets were pasted on aluminium
profiles to give the required shape of the lateral part of the
paraboloid. The rotating support was fabricated as an integral
part of the primary reflector comprising of an axis of rotation
(constructed of a steel pipe), a tracking channel (channel bent
in semi-circular form and welded around the axis of rotation
with supports). The reflector stand was grouted vertically on
the site with its foundation firmly bolted with the steel plates
and reinforced by welding. The journal bearings assembly was
welded with the reflector frame along the line parallel to the
polar axis by setting it in north-south direction and inclination
angle (51.3) with the horizontal. At the end, the axis of
FIG. 1.A PHOTOGRAPH OF SCHEFFLER REFLECTOR
F. Daily and seasonal tracking system

Unlike the conventional paraboloid concentrators, Scheffler
reflector is a lateral part of a paraboloid. Scheffler reflector is
subjected to two axes tracking system which is termed as daily
and seasonal tracking system.
In daily tracking system, Scheffler reflector rotates along an
axis parallel to polar axis of earth with an angular velocity of
one revolution per day to counterbalance the effect of daily
earth rotation. The tracking mechanism normally comprises of
small self-tracking PV system or clock-work operated by
gravity. In clock-work system, a weight pulled the reflector
with the help of a string due to force of gravity through
tracking channel. The pendulum of clock mechanism
maintains the angular velocity of one revolution per day to
counter balance the effect of earth rotation. Performance
evaluation was carried out by both clock-work tracking
system and PV tracking system. Out of the two methods, exact
results were obtained by PV tracking system. In fact, this
system is based on the actual sensing of the sun position and
more realistic tracking approach. It comprises of two
aluminium plates to form a v-shape angle (51). Four small
57
photovoltaic panels (each having 0.5 volts, 300 mA) are

pasted on aluminium plates (two on either side) and covered
by cylindrical glass. This glass behaves like a lens and
produces concentrated line image for precise tracking. The
changing position of the sun causes a current difference in two
PV plated which actuates the DC geared motor. The structure
of primary reflector is completely balanced and need very low
power to track the sun. In this way, the primary reflector
rotates with the help of this motor by chain-sprocket
mechanism to track the sun very precisely as shown in Fig. 2.
Photovoltaic panels
(each panel
0.5 Volts, 300 m A)
Cylindrical glass object
Resultant
solar intensity
Differential
current
Two way
DC motor
aluminium profiles are prepared to the specific radius and are

fixed on the secondary reflector frame. The length of each
aluminium piece is 700 mm and width is 100 mm. These
aluminium sheets are attached on the curved steel bars to
attain the required curve. These plates have the same material
as used in primary reflector. These pieces are easy to take out
and refit after cleaning. The secondary reflector is placed on a
fixed concrete foundation bed which facilitates the accurate
position of the secondary reflector.
H. Fabrication of solar receivers for processing of
medicinal plants and fruits
For Scheffler reflectors, the receiver remains fixed while
the reflector automatically records a fixed focus at the targeted
focus. Separate receivers were fabricated for the processing of
medicinal plants and for the processing of fruits. For the
processing of medicinal plants, a stainless steel distillation
still was fabricated. The diameter of distillation still is taken
as 400 mm in order to reflect all the radiations on the bottom
of the distillation still. The top cover is of conical shape and is
made of 2 mm stainless plate and its lateral part is 4 mm thick
so that it may not distort during welding and must seat flat on
the rim packing to provide a pressure tight seal . The column
height of the still is 1210 mm which gives about 100 liter
capacity. Separate vessels were fabricated for fruits and
vegetables processing are of cylindrical shape can process up
to 40 liters.
XIV.
Anticlockwise
rotation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
I.
Sun displaced
from central
position
FIG. 2. SCHEMATIC OF PHOTOVOLTAIC DAILY TRACKING SYSTEM
The seasonal tracking device is made of telescopic clamps

mechanism and is rotated manually at half the angle of solar
declination. It also induces the desired shape of the reflector
paraboloid in order to get the fixed focus through out the year.
G. Use of secondary reflector for the receivers
In order to fulfil the standards of solar cooking and for
processing of medicinal plants and fruit, a secondary reflector
was used to further reflect the beam radiations onto the bottom
of distillation still. In this way, the heat energy is supplied
from the bottom side of the cooking vessel as in case of
conventional cooking vessel. This design is easy to operate
and handle. The beam radiations are equally scattered onto the
bottom of the distillation still and solar thermal energy is best
utilized like a conventional furnace under the still. The
geometric concentration ratio of Scheffler reflector is 100.
The secondary reflector is designed to converge all the
radiations onto the bottom of cooking vessel (400 mm
diameter). The bottom surface area (400 mm diameter) and
120 mm of bottom lateral part of the still is exposed to solar
radiations. For an 8 m2 reflector design, seven pieces of
Performance evaluation of Scheffler reflector

Several experiments were conducted to evaluate the
performance of the solar distillation system by recording focus
temperature, water & steam temperature and beam radiations.
Beam radiations were measured with the help of a
pyranometer by mounting a 20 cm black pipe on it,
perpendicular to the plane of the device. When the
pyranometer was facing the sun only direct radiation could
pass through the device. The pyranometer was mounted on the
primary reflector. Water and focus temperature were
measured by means of thermocouples.
The principal expression for the efficiency calculation of
solar distillation system is given as under [7].
System efficiency ( %) = tp
10 3 E p
Gb
ave
100
(1)
As dt
t =0
where Ep is the total heat energy during process, t is the

time during the test, Gbave is the beam radiation at time t, As is
the aperture area of the Scheffler refector.
Total heat ebnergy (Ep) is calculated by adding heat energy
in sensible heat and latent heat phase and power was
calculated by dividing this heat energy by time. Within the
solar radiations range of 700-800 W/m2, the receiver
58
temperatures were recorded between 300-400C. Fig. 1

illustrates the variation of water temperature, temperature at
focus and beam radiations on a sunny day.
800
900
800
Fluctuations
due to clouds
Beam Radiations
600
700
500
600
400
500
Temperature at Focus (F)
400
300
300
Water temperature
200
HEAT ENERGY CONSUMED AND ESSENTIAL OIL EXTRACTED DURING SOLAR

Beam Radiation (W/m2)
700
Temperature (C)
TABLE 1
1000
DISTILLATION OF DIFFERENT PLANT MATERIAL
Plant
material
Part
used
Melissa
Peppermint
Rosemary
Cumin
Cloves
Leaves
leaves
leaves
seeds
buds
Weight,
kg
Heat
energy,
kWh
Essential
oil
extracted,
ml
11.6
9.1
3.0
1.2
0.8
3.868
3.180
4.626
8.910
7.744
1.425
28.2
4.6
12.4
44
200
100
100
15
:0
0
14
:0
0
14
:3
0
13
:0
0
13
:3
0
12
:3
0
12
:0
0
11
:3
0
11
:0
0
10
:3
0
10
:0
0
09
:3
0
09
:0
0
Time (hours)
FIG. 4 VARIATION OF BEAM RADIATIONS, TEMPERATURE AT FOCUS AND

WATER TEMPERATURE WITH TIME
The average power in terms of water boiling test was

calculated to be 1.55 kW. The efficiency of solar distillation
system was calculated as 32.34 %. This efficiency figure
relates to the perfection of the reflector surface area, its
reflectance, absorbance of the outer surface of the distillation
tank exposed to radiations and insulation of the remaining
surface.
J. Utilization of Scheffler concentrator for rural and remote
area
The Scheffler reflectors are used for a number of
applications all over the world. It can be used from small scale
applications to power generation by using steam turbines. The
present study was conducted for the processing of medicinal
and aromatic plants as well as for the fruit and vegetable
processing. The purpose of this study was to use the solar
energy in rural and remote locations.
1) Processing of medicinal and aromatic plants by solar
distillation system
Processing of medicinal and aromatic plants using solar
energy provides an excellent opportunity to process fresh
herbs for pure natural essence by using optimum harvesting
time. Process heat energy consumption for different plant
materials were calculated from the sensor system installed. In
order to record data in steam generation phase, quantity of
distillate (kg) and essential oils extracted (ml) were recorded
with a regular interval of 10 minutes till end of the process.
Beam radiations, water and steam temperatures, and
temperature at focus were automatically recorded in the
computer by data logger after 10 second pre-set interval.
Different medicinal and aromatic plants (Melissa, Peppermint,
Lavender, Fennel, Rosemary, Cumin, Basil and Cloves,
Lavender etc) were processed successfully by solar distillation
system [8]. The detail of some of the plant materials is gives
in Table 1[7]
Essential
oil per
unit
plant
d.m, ml
kg-1
0.558
11.918
5.476
11.355
61.798
Table 1 shows the solar distillation experiments with

different plant materials (Melissa, Peppermint, Rosemary,
Cumin and Cloves) conducted by using different weights
having different moisture contents. The heat energy
consumed, essential oils extracted and essential oil obtained
per unit weight of dry matter (d.m) were recorded for each
experiment. The results show that different plant materials
have different amounts of oils per unit dry matter. In these
experiments, Melissa, Peppermint, and Rosemary plants were
processed by using their leaves, Cumin plant by using seeds
and Cloves plant by using buds. Under practical conditions,
these specific parts of the plant materials are used for the
extraction of essential oils. During sunny days, 4-5 batches
can be processed with 10 kg per batch. These results show that
the solar distillation system can also be used for the
processing of different parts of the medicinal and aromatic
plants. The capacity of the solar distillation system can be
enhanced by increasing the solar concentrator area and other
components of the distillation unit accordingly.
2) Processing of different fruits and vegetables
Provision was also given to the solar system for the onfarm fruit and vegetable processing. For this purpose, special
cylindrical shaped food grade vessels (40 liters capacity) were
used after modifying them according to the existing design of
solar system. The back plate of secondary reflector was
fabricated as a removable assembly which facilitates easy
replacing of distillation still by food vessels. On the
experimental farms near solar campus, a variety of fruits
(Apples, Plums, cherries, Johannesburg, tomatoes etc) were
available. Experiments were conducted for the manufacturing
of jams from Johannesburg, apples, and plums and tomato
peeling from tomato using solar energy. The sterilization
processes of the vessel and glass bottles were also carried out
with solar energy before the food processing. These products
were sealed and preserved. These food products were
successfully processed by solar energy. The purpose of these
59
trials was to introduce the farmers about the multifunctional

use of solar energy in a very simple and easy method so that
they may process their perishable products at the farm level.
CONCLUSIONS
XV.
The complete description of Scheffler fixed focus
concentrator and processing of medicinal plants and fruits
have been presented. Within the beam radiation range of 700800 W m-2, temperature available at focus was between 300
and 400 C. On a sunny day with an average beam radiation
of 863 W.m-2, the output power and system efficiency during
distillation process using Scheffler fixed focus concentrator
were calculated as 1.55 and 32.34% respectively.
Experimental results showed that the beam radiation was
targeted and evenly distributed over the entire bottom of the
distillation unit. In this way, uniform steam generation
extracted the volatile components of the plant material
effectively. The integration of stainless steel distillation still
(1206 mm column height, 400 mm diameter and 2 mm
thickness) with fixed focus Scheffler concentrator gave
satisfactory results in terms of processing of different medical
and aromatic plants.
Different medicinal plants like Melissa, peppermint, fennel
seeds, rosemary, cumin, and cloves buds etc were processed
successfully by using solar distillation. During sunny days, 45 batches can be processed with 10 kg per batch. In addition,
the Scheffler solar cooker was also used for the processing of
different fruits and vegetables. The study concludes that the
Scheffler fixed focus concentrators provide an excellent
opportunity for the processing of medicinal and aromatic
plants as well as for fruits and vegetables. This technology is
cheaper, easy to construct and can be successfully used in
rural and remote locations.
Technology to Improve Nutrition and Promote National

Developmen. International Union of Food Science &
Technology (IUFoST), 2008.
FAO. The State of Food Insecurity in the World. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome,
2009.
Garg, H.P., Prakash, J., 2006. Solar energy for industrial
process heat, in Solar energy fundamentals and
applications, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
Kalogirou, S., 2003. Potential of solar industrial process heat
applications, Applied Energy 76, 337-361
Munir, A., Hensel, O. 2010 On-farm processing of
medicinal and aromatic plants by solar distillation system.
Biosystem Engineering (Elsevier), ISSN 15375110: 106
(2010) 268
Munir, A., Hensel, O. 2007 Development of solar
distillation system for essential oils extraction from herbs,
International conference on Utilization of diversity in
land use systems: Sustainable and organic approaches to
meet human needs (Tropentag 2007) under Category
Technological Innovations in Agriculture on October 911, 2007 in Witzenhausen organized by university of
Kassel and Gottingen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is highly grateful to the institute of Agricultural
Engineering, University of Kassel, Germany and Solar
Bruecke organization, Germany for their help during the
construction work of Scheffler fixed focus concentrator.
REFERENCES
Duffie, J., Beckman, W., 2006. Solar engineering of thermal
processes, 3rd edition, John Wiley& Sons, Inc.Hoboken,
New Jersey ISBN -13 978-0-471-69867-8
Vannoni, C., Riccardo , B., and Drigo, S. 2008 .Potential for
solar heat in industrial processes. IEA-SHC Task 33/IV,
CIEMAT, Madrid.
Aworh, O.C. 2008. The role of traditional food processing
technologies in national development: the west african
experience, Chapter 3 from: Using Food Science and
60

Drying of Fruits and Vegetables Using a Flat

Plate Solar Collector with Convective Air Flow
Mansoor.K. K**, M. Hanif

Department of Agricultural Mechanization, Faculty of Crop Production Sciences, Khyber PukhtunKhwa Agricultural
University, Peshawar, Pakistan
Abstract
This paper presents the analysis of drying of different
fruits and vegetables dried by a flat plate solar collector
developed at the Department of Agricultural
Mechanization, Khyber PukhtunKhwa Agricultural
University Peshawar, Pakistan. A small flat plate solar
collector is designed and tested for its maximum
performance in terms of efficiency with different
convective flow rates. The collector assembly is
divided into two parts. The flat plate solar collector and
the drying chamber. The materials used for flat plate
solar collector are wood, steel sheet, Insulation
materials, and glass sheet as covering material. The
insulation box (0.9 x 1.8 x 0.3 meter) is made up of
wood of popular and deodar, to be fully insolated with
the help of polystyrene. The absorber is black painted
v-corrugated steel sheet. Collector has a tilt angle of
34o (Equivalent to the latitude of Peshawar). The
covering material is (0.9 x 1.8 meter) and 5mm thick
glass sheet placed at the top of the wooden box. The
collector is supported and tilted with the help of a
frame made up of iron angled arms. While the drying
1. Introduction
Drying of fruits and vegetables by traditional methods
of open air sun drying is not satisfactory, as the product
become infested with bacteria and insect and
deteriorates rapidly in the uncontrolled ambient
temperature and high relative humidity. (Ayensu
1997).Pakistan is a region where solar radiation falls all
over the year with great intensity. The intensity flux is
very high and it is studied that daily, weekly and
monthly solar intensity at Karachi and other places of
Pakistan have very much bright prospectus of solar
radiation. In Pakistan it is about 20 MJ/m2d of solar
insolation with an annual total of 7000 MJ/m2. Accept
monsoon months the solar irradiance is very
encouraging. (Ahmad. 1989). We can utilize this
energy in the form of flat plate solar collector for
drying of various fruits and vegetables. This technique
is cheap and time saving. A flat plate solar collector
with convective heat flow having an efficiency of 40 to
chamber is a (1x 0.5 x 0.3 meter) wooden box

connected to the outlet duct of the collector with the
help of polyvinylchloride pipe.
Experiments were conducted different fruits and
vegetables and different parameters like moisture lost
by the products in each hour, drying rate at each hour
of drying, humidity and temperature of the drying
chamber. It was observed that the products such as
bitter guard and onion were dried in 10 to 2 hours up to
moisture content less then 8%. These two product lost
8% to 10% moisture during each hour of drying. While
grapes and Green chili are dried in 24 to 25 hours up to
moisture content less then 8%. These two products lost
4% to 5% moisture in each hour of drying. The drying
rate of all the products dried was very much consistent.
It was observed that onion and bitter guard showed a
good drying rate of 0.03[g(H2O)/g(d.m).cm2hr] to
0.04[g(H2O)/g(d.m).cm2hr]. Grapes and Green chili
showed
a
very
slow
drying
rate
of
0.001[g(H2O)/g(d.m).cm2hr]
to
0.002[g(H2O)/g(d.m).cm2hr] .
50 % is best choice for valuable drying of fruits and
vegetables. (Morrison. 1981). Post harvest losses in
drying of various crops due to open air drying or direct
sun drying is about 25 to 30 %. These losses can be
reduced by the use of solar dryer in the form of flat
plate solar collector. Flat plate solar collector provides
favorable drying conditions to the fruits to be
dehydrated and also it can minimize the development
of moulds, bacteria and other insect attack.
(Yaciuk.1981). Flat plate solar collector with
convective heat flow improved solar drying that could
facilitate early crop harvest, long term storage of fruits
and vegetables and quality improvement. The
mechanism of drying should be studied for improved
solar drying to get valuable dried products.
(Henderson.1976). In this article the mechanism
involve in drying of various fruits and vegetables are
studied. The parameters which are studied are the
61
efficiency of the flat plate solar collector, drying rate in

each hour of drying, moisture lost in each hour of
drying, humidity and temperature data of the drying
chamber.
2.
Description of the flat plate solar collector assembly

Figure.1. shows a general view of the Flat Plate Solar
Collector assembly. The collector assembly is divided
into two parts.
1.
2.
The drying chamber

A drying chamber which is a (1.06 x 0.65 x 0.5) meter
wooden box connected to the outlet duct with the help
of polyvinyl-chloride pipe. The box is divided into
three shelves which are provided with trays for drying
the products. Each tray is made of wooden frame the
middle portion of the frame is fill up with wire gauze
made up of steel. Each tray is 0.45m wide and 0.6m
long. Each tray provides a total area of 0.25 m2 for
drying.
The flat plate solar collector

The materials used for flat plate solar collector are
wood, steel sheet, Insulation materials, and glass sheet
as covering material. The insulation box (0.9 x 1.8 x
0.3 meter) is made up of wood of popular and deodar,
to be fully insolated with the help of polystyrene. The
Nomenclatures
Area of the collector , m2
Ac
Da
Density of air , Kg/m3
Ao
Area of outlet duct, m2
Difference between inlet and outlet temperatures, oC
T
Qi
Heat input, KJ
Qo
Heat 0utput, KJ
F.R
Mass flow rate, Kg/min
Is
Incident radiation, KJ/ m2.min
M.c
Moisture content, %
Wf
Final weight of the product, g
Wt
Total weight of the product, g
Ap
Area of cross section of the product, cm2
Dr
Drying rate of the product, g(H2O)/ g(dm) cm2
Ho
Relative Humidity at outside of the drier , %
Vo
Velocity of air at outlet, m/sec
Ca
Specific heat capacity of air, KJ/Kg oC
Efficiency of the collector, %

Ho
Relative Humidity at outlet ,%
Wi
Initial weight of the product , g
Dry matter in the product, g
Dm
Diameter of the product, cm
Rp
Relative Humidity of the drying chamber, %
Hdr
Pie (constant)
absorber is black painted

v-corrugated steel
sheet. Collector has a tilt angle of 34o (Equivalent to the
latitude of Peshawar). The covering material is (0.9 x
1.8 meter) and 5mm thick glass sheet placed at the top
of the wooden box. The collector is supported and
tilted with the help of a frame made up of iron angled
arms
Figure.1. Flat plate solar collector assembly

3.
Analysis
3.
1 Collector Performance
The collector efficiency is determined at seven

different levels of air flow rates and three different
ambient temperatures of 33oC, 35oC and 37oC which
are determined by a thermometer at a shaded place near
the collector to check the collector performance. The
efficiency is determined using equation .1.
--- Efficiency equation
QoQi
Where Qi is the heat available to the

the product of collector area and solar
area which is determined by
pyranometer. The heat available to
calculated using equation.2.
--- Heat input equation
100
collector and is
intensity at unit
a mechanical
the collector is
62
Qo Is the heat output of the collector which is

determined by the product of air flow rate, specific heat
value of air and change in collectors temperature of
inlet and outlet. The heat outlet is calculated using
equation .3.
--- Heat output equation Q
FR
--- Dry matter of the products equation
3.6 Determining the drying rate of the product to be

dried
3.2 Air flow rate calculations

Drying rate is defined as the quantity of water
evaporated per gram of dry matter per unit area in unit
time. The drying rate of various fruits and vegetables is
determined to study how much moisture is lost in each
hour of drying from a unit mass of dry matter in the
product. Various products are dried at high, medium
and low mass flow rates. The drying rate is determined
for these products by using equation .8.
The air flow rate through the collector is determined by

the product of air speed at out let, density of air and
outlet ducts cross sectional area. The flow rate is
calculated by using equation.4.
--- Air flow rate equation
FR
3.3 Moisture determination in the sample

The moisture in the sample is determined after each
hour of drying. The products are dried for less then
10% moisture content to minimize mold, insects and
other bacterial attacks. The initial moisture content is
determined by oven method while the moisture after
each hour in drying is determined by taking the initial
weight and weight lost after each hour with the help of
an electric balance. The formula for determining the
moisture lost is given in equation .5.
--- Moisture lost equation
100
3.4 Determining the cross sectional area of the products

to be dried
The cross sectional area of the fruits and vegetables
and vegetables is determined with the help of a steel
tape which is graduated in centimeters and millimeters.
Radius of the drying product is determined before
drying and after each hour of drying in the drying
chamber. The area is determined using equation. 6.
--- Products cross sectional area equation
3.5 Determining the dry matter in the product

The dry matter (also known as dry weight) is a
measurement of the mass of the product when
completely dried. The dry matter of fruits and
vegetables
would
be
its solids,
i.e.
water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals,
and antioxidant. The dry matter can be calculated by
using equation .7.
--- Drying rate equation

4.
Experimental Procedure
The fruits and vegetables are cut into circular pieces
and are treated with 1% solution of potassium Meta-biSulphaid. The products are dipped for 10 minutes in
this solution. The pre treatment helps to prevent the
product from attack of moulds and bacteria. It also
helps to retain the color of the product as it reduces
oxidation of the metals present in the fruits and
vegetables.
Measure the air velocity of the air coming from
collectors outlet duct to the drying chamber by the help
of Anemometer and measure the air flow rate. Set the
flow rate to 2.85 kg/min. Note the dryer temperature
with the help of a thermometer placed in the drying
chamber. The temperature must not be less then 45oC.
The temperature of the drier should be 50oC. Also
determine the humidity in the drying chamber as well
as outside environment by the help of digital
hygrometer. The humidity must be less then 15%
inside the drier.
Then the products cross sectional area are determined
by determining the radius of the product to be dried.
The products are then placed on the trays of the drying
chamber and the trays are placed in the drying chamber
for drying the products. Now after each hour of drying
take the weight and cross sectional area of the products
to be dried to determine moisture lost and drying rate
after each hour of drying.
63
Dry the products until the moisture content reaches less

then 8%. This will helps to minimize insect, mould,
bacterial and attack of other pathogens.
5. Results and discussions

5.1 Daily Solar Radiation
Figure.2. Shows the daily solar irradiance for a complete 24 hours day cycle of 23 September. It is clear from the graph
that solar intensity is maximum at Noon that is at 12:00 pm. It is 1.0 calories per square centimeter per minute. The
solar radiation starts falling from 6:30am and it stops at 6:00 pm
Figure.2. Solar Irradiance data
Solarrridiance[cal/cm2 min]
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
24HoursofDay
5.2 Temperature data

Fig.3. shows the temperature of the drier, ambient temperature and temperature of the absorber with the time of
day. It is studied that at 12:00 pm the temperature of the drier as well as the absorber is maximum. It is due to the
fact that at noon there is maximum intensity of the solar radiation. The temperature data of the drier is recorded at
natural flow rate of air from the collector to the drier.
64
Figure.3. Solar collector temperature data
140
Tabs
Tamb
Tdr
Temperature [oC]
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
24 Hours of Day
5.3
Collector Humidity Data
Figure.4 shows the humidity data of out side environment and the drier. The drier humidity is less then 20 % for a drying
period which is good for drying perishable fruits and vegetables
Figure.4. Humidity Data of the Collector
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Ho
10
Hdr
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
24Hoursof Day
65
5.4 Performance of a Flat Plate Solar Collector

It is absorbed that efficiency of Flat Plat Solar Collector is significantly increased with increase in the air flow rate. The
average efficiency of Flat Plate Solar Collector increases from an average 21% at natural flow rate of 0.57 Kg/min to
56% at a high flow rate of 17.1 Kg/min. as shown in the Figure.5.
Figure.5. Efficiency of Flat Plate Solar Collector
Efficiency
60
50
Efficiency[%]
40
30
20
10
0
0.57
2.8
5.6
8.5
11.3
14.5
17.1
Air FlowRate[Kg/min]
5.5
Moisture lost at each hour of drying products dried by the Flat Plate Solar Collector
The moisture lost in each hour of drying is determined for grapes, bitter guard, onion and chili. Figure.6. shows
moisture lost in each hour of drying of onion. Onion took almost 12 hours to lost moisture from 87% to a safe
moisture content of 7%.
Figure.6. Moisture lost data of Onion
100
Onion
90
80
70
Moisture[%]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
11
12
Drying Time[hr]
Figure.7. shows moisture lost in each hour of drying of bitter guard. It took almost 11 hours to lost moisture from
93% to a safe moisture content of 5%.
66
Figure.7. Moisture lost data of Bitter guard
100
Bitterguard
90
80
Moisture[%]
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
11
12
Drying Time[hr]
Figure.8. shows moisture lost in each hour of drying of grapes. It took almost 25 hours to lost moisture from 82% to
a safe moisture content of 6%.
Figure.8. Moisture lost data of Grapes
90
80
Grapes
70
Moisture[%]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Drying Time[hr]
67
Figure.9. shows moisture lost in each hour of drying of chili. It took almost 25 hours to lost moisture from 82% to a
safe moisture content of 6%.
Figure.9. Moisture lost data of Green Chili

80
70
GreenChili
60
Moisture[%]
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
DryingTime[hr]
5.6
Drying rate of the products dried by the Flat Plate Solar Collector
The drying rate of different products that are dried by the Flat Plate Solar Collector was determined. Figure.10.
shows the drying rate of onion. It shows a drying rate of 0.03 g (H2O) /g(d.m).cm2.hr at first two hours of drying
which increased to 0.05 g (H2O) / g(d.m).cm2.hr after eight hours of drying.
Figure.10. Drying rate data of Onion
Onion
Drying Rate [ g (H2O)/ g (d.m) hr ]
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
1
DryingTime[hr]
10
11
12
68
Figure.11. shows the drying rate of bitter guard. It shows a drying rate of 0.026 g (H2O) /g(d.m).cm2.hr at first hours of
drying which decreased 0.021 g (H2O) / g(d.m).cm2.hr after a hours of drying. The drying rate then becomes steady and
after eight hours of drying the drying rate becomes 0.045 g (H2O) /g(d.m).cm2.hr
Figure.11. Drying rate data of Bitter guard
bitterguard
0.050
DryingRate [g(H2O)/g(d.m)hr]
0.045
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
1
10
11
12
DryingTime[hr]
Figure.12. shows the drying rate of grapes. It shows a drying rate of 0.014 g (H2O) /g(d.m).cm2.hr at first hours of
drying which increased 0.018 g (H2O) / g(d.m).cm2.hr after ten hours of drying. The drying rate after twenty three hours
of drying becomes 0.030 g (H2O) /g(d.m).cm2.hr
Figure.12. Drying rate data of Grapes
0.030
grapes
Drying Rate [ g (H2O)/ g (d.m) hr ]
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
DryingTime[hr]
69
Figure.13. shows the drying rate of green chili. It shows a drying rate of 0.003 g (H2O) /g(d.m).cm2.hr at first hours of
drying which remain 0.002 g (H2O) / g(d.m).cm2.hr after ten hours of drying. The drying rate after twenty three hours of
drying becomes 0.001 g (H2O) /g(d.m).cm2.hr
Figure.13. Drying rate data of Green Chili
DryingRtae[gH2O/gd.m.cm2.hr]
0.004
GreenChili
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
DryingTime[hr]
Energy in drying of apricots. Department of Agricultural
Machinery Engineering, Department of Food Science,
Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Bio-systems
Engineering, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran.2007.
References
[1]
Ahmad. F. Solar Radiation Studies at Karachi Pakistan. Ph.D

dissertation report. Department of Physics, University of
Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan. 1989.
[2]
Morrison. D. Agricultural Solar Design Booklet. Illinois

Department of Energy and Natural Resources. University of
Illinois, Urbana, united states. 1981.
[3] Yaciuk. G.. Food Drying. International Development Research

Center, Ottawa, Canada, ISBN 0-88936-333-1. Alberta
Department of Agriculture, Edmonton, Canada. 1981.
[4]
[5]
Henderson. S.M, R.L. Perry. Agricultural Process Engineering.

Department of Agricultural Engineering. Engineering University
of California, California, United States of America. ISBN 087055-212-0. 1976.
Mirzaee, E.S. Rafiee, A. Keyhani, Z. Emam-Djomeh.
Determining of moisture diffusivity and activation
[6] Ayensu. A. Dehydration of food crops using a solar dryer with

convective heat flow. Department of physics, University of Cape
Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. 1997.
[7]
Tonui J.K., Y. Tripanagnostopoulos. Performance

improvement of PV/T solar collectors with natural airflow
operation. Department of Physics, University of Patras, Patra
26504, Greece.2007.
[8] Zahid M, Abdul M, M. Khan, M. Asif and Amjad M, (2006).

Performance evaluation of solar dryers for drying onions in
NWFP. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, Vol. 22. No. 1. 1-5
[9]
Zahid M, M. Khan, Amjad M, M. Asif, (2005) Design and

development of a Gable type solar dryer for drying fruit and
vegetables. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, Vol. 21. No. 4. 525529
[10] Suleyman .K. Performance analysis of new design solar air

collectors for drying applications. Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey. 2006.
[11] Eisenmann. W, K. Vajen, H.Ackermann. On the correlations
between collector efficiency factor and material content of
70
parallel flow flat plate solar collectors. Philiphs University,

Marburg, Germany. 2003.
[12] Kang. M.C, Yong. H.K, Sang. H. L, Wongee. C. Numerical
analysis on the thermal performance of a roof integrated flat plate
solar collector assembly. Department on New and Renewable
Energy Research, Korea Institute of Energy Research, Daejon,
Republic of Korea. 2006.
[13] Adnan. S, Tayfun .M, Sinan.U. Determination of efficiency of flat
plate collectors using neural network approach. Department of
Mechanical Education, Faculty of Technical Education, Gazi
University, Ankara, Turkey. 2008.
[14] Ayensu. A. Dehydration of food crops using a solar dryer with
convective heat flow. Department of physics, University of Cape
Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. 1997.
[15] Ibrahim .M , K. Sopian , W.R.W. Daud . Study of the Drying
Kinetics of Lemon Grass. Solar Energy Research Institute,
University Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia.2009.
[16] Selmi.M, Mohammed.J, Al-Khawaja, Abdulhamid.M.
Validation of CFD simulation for flat plate solar energy
collector. Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Qatar, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, State of Qatar,
Qatar.2006.
[17] Fan.J, L.Jivan Shah, S.Furbo. Flow distribution in a solar
collector panel with horizontally inclined absorber strips.
Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of
Denmark, Brovej, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.2007.
[18] Ali .Liaqat. Development and Testing of Greenhouse
Type Solar Dryer. Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan. 1990.
[19] Gul. N, A.Ali, J.Muhammad, Basharatullah, M.Asif,
Sanaullah, K.Das.Studies on Drying of Onions in Solar
Dryer. Project Report. Department of Energy and
Enviroment, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Sindh
Agriculture University, Tando Jam, Sindh, Pakistan.2003.
[20] Karim .M, M.N.A. Hawlader.Development of Solar Air
Collectors for drying applications. Department of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Melbourne, Parkville,
Australia. 2003.
71

Effect of heating environment on Fluorine doped tin

oxide (F: SnO2) thin films for solar cell applications
Syeda Amber Yousaf
Department of Physics
Government College University, Lahore
Pakistan
s.amberyousaf@gmail.com
and
Salamat Ali
Department of Physics
Government College University, Lahore
Pakistan
salamatali@gcu,edu.pk
Abstract In this work a series of investigations were made, in
order to check the effect of heating environment and doping
concentration on opto-electronic and structural properties of
Fluorine doped tin oxide (F: SnO2). Soda glass was used as a
substrate onto which SnO2 with and without fluorine doping was
deposited utilizing sol-gel dip coating technique. The XRD results
confirmed the crystal structure of SnO2 and perfect substitution
of doped atoms with host atoms. Spectroscopy analysis revealed a
slight decrease in optical transmittance with increasing doping
concentration and change of environment from air to N2 while
band gap tends to increase. Electrical resistivity was calculated
using four point probe method and showed an inverse effect
comparing to optical transmittance.
Keywords-component; Fluorine Doped Tin Oxide (F:SnO2),
Opto-electronic, solar cell applications, Dip-coating Technique.
INTRODUCTION
Comprising the properties of optical transmission and
electrical conductance, transparent conducting oxides are
special kind of materials, which are essential part of solar cell
applications. A wide band gap metal oxide is selected which is
degenerated either through the introduction of native or
substitutional dopants [1]. The nature, number and atomic
arrangements of metal cations play an important part. The
other essential features on to which these unique
characteristics depend are morphology and presence of
intrinsic or intentionally introduced defects [1]. These thin
films are fabricated in controlled environment in order to
introduce defects in the form of oxygen vacancy. Each oxygen
vacancy contributes two electrons thus enhancing the
electrical conductivity. The films are n type semiconductor
material with electron concentration of the order of 1020 cm-3
[2]. But films fabricated with oxygen vacancy only are not
practically suitable as these become unstable at higher
temperatures, so in order to use it as transparent electrodes for
solar cell and other opto-electronic applications, dopant are
introduced. This dopant also increases the electrical

conductivity by providing electrons for the conduction.
For our work we have chosen SnO2 as our desired materials as
it is chemically stable and is the only transparent conducting
oxide, which have enjoyed commercialization. F, Cl, Sb, Br,
Ni and Cu are few examples that can be used as dopants for
SnO2. Among them F: SnO2 and Sb: SnO2 have been studied a
lot and employed for device applications. Sb atoms substitutes
Sn where F atoms sits in the place of Oxygen. When F sits in
the place of Oxygen, it gives one free electron which is clearly
indicated from the hybrid orbital configuration of 2s22p5 and
2s22p4 for F and O, respectively. F with ionic radius 1.36 A
can easily replace O2- with ionic radius 1.40 A, hence doping
takes place easily [3].
EXPRIMENTAL PROCESS
The films were fabricated with few modifications in the
reported method [4]
The 1x1.5 inch soda glass slides were cleaned ultrasonically at
60o C, in order to use as substrates for the deposited films.
Firstly 0.5M solution of Stannic Chloride was made in 2propanol by carefully measuring its weight in which 0.5M HF
was mixed. The final solution was stirred for 1 hr at 70C
using magnetic stirrer.
The possible Chemical Reaction is as follows:
SnCl4.5H2O + 4HF SnF4 + 4HCl + 5H2O
We prepared 5 solutions for different samples
For un-doped thin films we took only Stannic Chloride
solution and continued the process.
72
For doped thin films, we made solutions and hence samples,

with varying fluorine and tin atomic ratios ranging from 1: 60
to1:30 respectively. Results of few samples are shown here.
DIP COATING
After stirring, the solution was aged for 2 hrs. We then started
dipping of glass slides. We took two slides for each solution
and the slides were dipped 10 times each. Between every two
dipping, the slides were dried at 90C. After 10 dipping, the
two slides were treated in two different environments.
structure. All the films exhibit the preferred orientation along

(110) plane which is has also been observed by other groups
with SnO2: F grown by dip coating technique [4]. As we can
see, there are no additional peaks in doped profile, which is
the evidence of perfect substitution of doped atoms with host
atoms. It is also observed that as the doping concentration
increases, the intensity of peaks decreases and FWHM
increases. This is probably because the crystal structure starts
deteriorating at higher fluorine concentration [5].
One slide was placed in muffle furnace for heat treatment at

500C in oxygen controlled environment. The slide was
treated for 1 hr and then taken out at 300C.
The other slide was placed in tube furnace for heat treatment
at 500C in N2 environment. The slide was heat treated 1 hr
and then taken out at 300C.
When glass slides are placed for heat treatment, oxidation
takes place. Oxygen replaces fluorine. But as oxygen is being
provided at limited rate fluorine stays at some lattice sites and
we get fluorine doped tin oxide.
SnF4 + O2 SnO2: F + by products
The whole process was repeated five times for each slide to
increase the thickness of the films.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION
To find the structural, compositional and phases present in the
fabricated samples, XRD (XPert PRO PANalytical Company
Ltd, Holland) was used.
Fig.2: XRD Pattern of Samples heated in N2 where (a) un-doped SnO2(b)

F: SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:60 (c) F: SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:40 (d) F: SnO2
with atomic ratio 1:35
For samples treated in N2, XRD data shows a decrease in

intensity of peaks compared to the samples treated in air.N2
environment sufficiently decreases the oxygen content hence
creating more vacant sites which act as donor states and
deteriorate the crystal structure to a larger extent.
OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION
A Spectrophotometer model [HR2000CG-UV-NIR] was used
to obtain transmission spectrum in visible region.
Fig.1: XRD Pattern of Samples heated in air where (a) un-doped SnO2(b) F:
SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:60 (c) F: SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:40 (d) F: SnO2
with atomic ratio 1:35
Figure 1&2 XRD pattern of F: SnO2 (fluorine doped tin oxide)

thin films fabricated with different fluorine concentration in
different heating environment. The pattern is in perfect
agreement with reference pattern of SnO2.It can be seen that
all the films are crystalline and contain the SnO2 tetragonal
Fig.3: Transmission Spectrum in Visible Region for samples heated in air

where (a) un-doped SnO2(b) F: SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:60 (c) F: SnO2 with
atomic ratio 1:40 (d) F: SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:35
73
No.
Sample
Band-gap, Eg (eV)
Un-doped
3.23
1:60
3.28
1:40
3.4
1:35
3.42
Table: 1, Atomic Ratios of F in SnO2 versus Band Gap Eg for samples heated
in air
Fig.4: Transmission Spectrum in Visible Region for samples heated in N2
where (a) un-doped SnO2(b) F: SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:60 (c) F: SnO2 with
atomic ratio 1:40 (d) F: SnO2 with atomic ratio 1:35
Figure 3&4 represents the Transmittance Spectrum of samples

in the Visible Region. The graphs show a decrease in
transmittance with increasing doping concentration, which is
due to the increase in fundamental absorption as photon
striking increases with increase in career concentration [5].
The decreasing behavior of transmittance is similar for both
environment but for samples heated in N2; transmittance is
slightly low which is due to the fact that these samples have
larger no. of free careers as compared to those heated in air.
The transmission data from figure 3&4 have been used to
calculate the band gap of the given samples using equation.
(h)2 = A( h-Eg)
Where A is a constant, h is the photon energy, Eg is the
energy band gap and is absorption. The plot between
(h)2and h is shown in figure 5. By extrapolating the linear
portion of the graph to h axis, band gap have been obtained at
the intercept [4].
No.
Sample
Band-gap, Eg (eV)
Un-doped
3.2
1:60
3.25
1:40
3.31
1:35
3.38
Table: 2, Atomic Ratios of F in SnO2 versus Band Gap Eg for samples heated
in N2
Using above described method, band gap for all samples has
been calculated. Table 1&2 shows the calculated band gap
data. It is evident from the data that band gap value increases
with increase in doping concentration which can be explained
with Burstein-Moss Shift [6] i.e. due to increase in career
concentration, the absorption edge shifts to higher energy
level. For samples treated in both environments, the band gap
behavior is similar.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION
The Electrical Resistance test was done using Four Point
Probe Method.
No.
Sample
Electrical Resistivity (-m)
Un-doped
1.20
1:60
6.41X10-01
1:40
3.58X10-01
1:35
4.60X10-01
Table: 3, Atomic Ratios of F in SnO2 versus Electrical Resistivity for samples

heated in air
Fig. 5: Band gap calculation
No.
Sample
Electrical Resistivity (-m)
Un-doped
9.9X 10-1
1:60
4.77X10-1
1:40
1.76X10-1
1:35
3.39X10-1
74
Table: 4, Atomic Ratios of F in SnO2 versus Electrical Resistivity for samples

heated in N2
It can be seen here that initially with increasing doping

concentration, electrical resistance decreases due to
increase in no. of charge carriers. But as we kept on
increasing the doping concentration, a point reaches where
resistance starts increasing again. There can be two
probable reasons for this behavior. One is that at higher
concentration, Fluorine atoms incorporates at the
interstitial sites and crystal structure starts to deteriorate,
hence the mobility of the free electrons decrease and
electrical resistivity increases [4]. Another possible reason
can be that at higher concentration fluorine atoms starts
incorporating at the oxygen vacancy sites, decreases the
number of electrons and hence increases the resistivity [5].
Heating in N2environment creates more oxygen vacancies.
Each oxygen vacancy act as a donor state and contribute
two electrons for conduction and hencethe resistivity is
observantly low for samples heated in N2.
CONCLUSION
F: SnO2 thin films have successfully been fabricated using
sol-gel dip coating technique. It has been observed that
with increasing doping concentration, there is a decrease in
crystallinity, electrical resistance and optical transmission.
But at limiting doping concentration optoelectronics
properties stops being improved.
In comparative study of heating environments, the
resistivity has been sufficiently decreased for films treated
in N2 environment, because of oxygen desorption from the
surface pores and grain boundaries, resulting in creation of
vacant sites which act as donor states.
(1)
ReferenceS
[30] R. Boxman, "Tranparent Conducting Oxide Thin films: Physics, Current
Status, and Future Prospects" a keynote lecture at THIN FILMS 2008
conference held in Singapore, July 2008.
[31] T. Minami, New n-Type Transparent Conducting Oxides, MRS
Bulletin, August (2000) 38-43
[32] K. S. Ramaih, V. S. Raja, Structural and electrical properties of fluorine
doped tin oxide films prepared by spray-pyrolsis technique, Applied
Surface Science 253 (2006) 1451-1458
[33] A.N. Banerjee, S. Kundoo, P. Saha And K.K. Chattopadhyay, Synthesis
And Characterization Of Nano-Crystalline Fluorine-Doped Tin Oxide
Thin Films By Sol Gel Method, Journal Of Sol-Gel Science And
Technology 28 (2003) 105110.
[34] S. Shanthi, C. Subramanian, P. Ramsamy, Preparation and Properteis of
Sprayed Undoped and Fluorine Doped Tin Oxide Films, Material Sc.
And Eng. B57 (1999) 127-134
[35] H. Kim, R.C.y Auyeung, A. Pique, Transparent Conducting F-doped
SnO2 thin films grown by by Pulsed Laser Deposition, Thin Solid Films
516 (2008) 5052-5056
75

Enerrgy Crrisis in
n Pakiistan
An Oppportuunity for
f Reenewaable Ennergy
Atttaullah Shahh*1, Irfanullahh Jan2, Ehsannul-Haq3, Sharifullah4 and Razaullah Khan4
* 1,4
P
Project
Directoorate Allama Iqbbal Open Univeersity Islamabaad Pakistan ( pddaiou@yahoo.ccom)
2.
National centtre of Excellennce in Geologyy Peshawar-P

N
Pakistan (ij21@
@le.ac.uk)
3.
Capital Devvelopment Autthority-Islama
abad Pakistann(engr59@gm
mail.com)
4
Natioonal Agricultuure Research Council
C
Islamabad Pakistann (R.U.Khan@
@massey.ac.nzz)
Absstract Pakisstan is facing severe eneergy crisis du
ue to
unp
precedented in
ncrease in the energy cost at
a the internaational
leveel and widenin
ng gap between
n supply and demand
d
of energy at
natiional level. Th
his crisis is erooding the econ
nomic growth of the
cou
untry achieved
d during lastt five years. At the same time
Pak
kistan is locatted at very feasible
f
built for harnessin
ng the
renewable energyy like solar en
nergy, wind en
nergy and bioomass.
nce the crisis of
o energy in Paakistan has beccome an opportunity
Hen
for the renewab
ble energy. In
n this paper the possibilities of
harrnessing the soolar energy in Pakistan havee been discusssed. A
praactical case stu
udy of Allamaa Iqbal Open University
U
Pak
kistan
has been develop
ped. The studyy has revealed
d that solar can
c
be
d for financiall and environm
mental benefits at Pakistan
used
Keyywords enerrgy cost, ecoonomic growtth, Pakistan, solar
energy, wind enerrgy, biomass
p
shortagge, estimated tto be 1000 to 2000 MW duuring
The power
the 2007,
2
touchedd 3000 MW inn 2008 with further
fu
increasse to
abou
ut 5300 MW inn 2010. The seector wise pow
wer demand up
u to
2010
0 has been shoown in Table2 [4]
Tablee 2. Sector Wisse Power Conssumption and demand
d
(20055-10)
in Meega Watts
Year
Y
Dom
m
Com
A
Agric
Ind
Other
Total
200
05-06
200
06-07
200
07-08
200
08-09
200
09-10
7,1999
7,5855
8,1277
8,7833
9,5311
1,216
1,251
1,312
1,354
1,408
1,763
1,820
1,893
1,979
22,079
5,891
6,481
7,252
8,181
9,267
1,035
1,086
1,159
1,243
1,341
15,5500
16,6600
17,9900
19,6600
21,5500
Intrroduction
The three
t
major reeasons for the energy crisis internally are
Pakkistan's energyy consumptioon has nearly quadrupled in

i the
lastt 30 years [1]. The energy consumption
c
i expected to grow
is
at double
d
digit if
i the overall economy suustains the tarrgeted
GD
DP growth ratee. The overalll energy requiirement of Pakkistan
is expected
e
to be
b about 80 million tons of oil equivaalents
(MT
TOE) in 20100, up by aboutt 50% from thhe 54 MTOE of
o the
yeaar 2007[2]. Paakistans energgy requiremennts are expectted to
douuble in the nexxt few years, and by 2015, it is likely to cross
1200MTOE. Tablle 1 shows thee future projecction of energgy use
in Pakistan
P
[3].
i. En
nergy sector loosses. ii. Perssistent failure at micro leveel to
end line
l losses, iii.. failure to envvisage and pu
ush for sustainnable
energ
gy. Pakistan is mainly relying on the Non Renew
wable
(NRE
E) source of energy
e
and onnly 180 MW is
i being produuced
from
m Renewable Energy (RE) Sources, as compared to the
total energy of 20000 MW. This is certainly
y less than 1 % of
otal energy prroduction.
the to
Tabble1: Future Energy

E
Mix Plan (MTOE)
2. En
nergy crisis in Pakistan aas an opportu
unities for ussing
Reneewable Energgy ( RE).
Pakisstan is fortuunately locatted on sub--belt zone with
w
appro
oximately 3000 sunny days every year and
a even if 5%
% of
the solar
s
energy iss utilized, it ccan generate 7 Million MW
W of
electricity [5]. Buut it is ironical that this maammoth sourcce of
gy has not been harnessed in true sense.. This is comm
mon
energ
with all the deveeloping counttries, particulaarly South Asian
A
Natio
ons. Some modest
m
efforts have been made
m
by Pakiistan
Coun
ncil of Approppriate Technoology (PACRE
ET), but the large
scalee application of solar ennergy both at
a domestic and
comm
mercial levelss as alternatiive source off energy requuires
both policy and institutional inittiatives. [6]
76
2.1) Solar Heat Applications:

About 3/4th of the domestic and industrial energy use is
thermal [7] and much of this can be directly harnessed from
the Sun. The potential uses of solar heating include solar
space and water heating and fuel generation.
2.1.1) Solar space and water heating.
Water is heated in the tubes of collector panels of the plate
collector and pumped into the storage tank. The hot water can
be used for space heating and hot water for cooking and
washing. This can reduce the residential fossil fuel use by
75% [7]
significant environmental and health advantages over the later

[10]
PV solar system design must be based on the following
principles [11]
1. The packaged system must be selected on the basis of
owner needs and customer expectations such as reducing the
energy bills,
environmental benefits, desire for backup
power, initial budget limitations, and basic design parameters.
2. Suitability of the roof area, orientation and location in
handling the desired system. The PV system must be placed at
proper location where these are not obstructed by foliage,
shading etc.
2.1.2) Fuel generation:

Here solar energy is focused on a chemical reactor containing
high pressure ammonia gas, which is split into Hydrogen and
nitrogen at high temperature and the energy released from
chemical reaction is used to run a generator. The energy
produced from this method is not as cheap as hydel
generation, yet it can be used in remote rural areas, where
diesel generation is carried out at much higher cost [8]
3. Durability of the selected material to withstand the

weathering etc.
4. Design the system with a minimum of electrical line losses
due to wiring, fuses, switches, and inverters.
5. Design of the system in compliance with all applicable
building and electrical codes.
2.2) Solar Electricity:
6. Proper protection of the batteries and other equipment.
The solar energy can be converted directly into electricity

either through photovoltaic cells or indirectly by
thermodynamic process.
7. The PV system must be properly integrated with the

existing electrical distribution system.
2.2.1) Thermodynamic Conversion:
8. For roof mounted system, the roof slab must be strong

enough to take the additional loads.
Solar collectors collect the sun energy and concentrate the

heat on a large volume of fluid, which is used into electricity.
Typically parabolic mirror dish are used to focus the sun light
on the tower. For best results the tilting and rotation of the
dish is controlled to track the sun. This system can be scaled
to generate few hundreds of megawatts of energy [9]
2.2.2) Photovoltaic Conversion:
Photovoltaic (PV) solar systems convert sunlight directly into
electricity. A residential PV power system enables a
homeowner to generate some or all of their daily electrical
energy demand on their own roof, exchanging daytime excess
power for future energy needs (i.e. night-time usage). The
house remains connected to the electric utility at all times, so
any power needed above what the solar system can produce is
simply drawn from the utility. PV systems can also include
battery backup or uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
capability to operate selected circuits in the residence for
hours or days during a utility outage. This is sometimes
referred to as Solar-UPS hybrid system. Environmental
considerations of PV system may include their energy
intensive production, the use of toxic substances; their
disposal may lead to hazardous substances. However
comparison of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of PV and non
PV power production technologies show that PV system has
9. The system must be properly earthed to avoid any electric

shocks to the users.
10. After installation, the system must be checked and by the
qualified electrical engineers.
3. System design consideration for Solar PV system.
Basically there are two options for PV electrical system for
using in houses and street lighting; [12]
3.1) Grid-Interactive Only (No Battery Backup)
This type of system only operates when the utility is available.
In cases, where the utility outages are less frequent, this
system is more favorable, as the return per dollar investment
is relatively high in such cases. The system remains shut down
till the restoration of the utility. Such system is comprised of
the following components;
i.
ii.
iii.
PV array
DC-AC inverter
Meters and switches etc.
A typical grid interactive only system has been shown in Fig.1

77
Faculties
Departmentts ( Academics)
Research Centers and insstitutes
Programs offered
Courses offfered and prodduced
Students unndergraduate
Students ( Bachelor
B
and Masters)
M
Students ( M.Phil,
M
PhD)
Others ( Dipploma and Ceertificates)
Totall Students Enrrolment
FIIG1
04
35
03
135
1200
221621
363854
896
118331
704702
: GRID INTER
RACTIVE PV SYS
STEM
3.2)) Grid-Interaactive With Baattery Backup

Heere the batteryy backups are used to store the energy. In
I day
tim
me, when the solar
s
energy iss available, thhe system enerrgy is
provided directlyy from PV sysstem, where at night outagees and
loadd shedding, thhe power storred in the battteries are provvided.
Thee amount of backup
b
time depends
d
on thhe battery sizze and
subb panel load atttached. Usually all the load is not attachhed to
the PV solar sysstem and a crritical sub paanel is installeed for
esseential loads. A typical batttery backup syystem may prrovide
1 KW
K power foor 8 hours of outages. Grrid-interactivee with
batttery system coontains the folllowing additiional componeents;
Batteriees and batteriees closure

Battery charge controoller
Separatee sub panel
popu
ulations belongs to lower m
middle and po
oor class. A great
g
majo
ority of these people are pllaced in the rural
r
areas, where
accesss of educatiion cannot bbe ascertained
d through forrmal
education system.
ma Iqbal Openn University w
was thus estab
blished in 19774 at
Allam
the model
m
of UK Open
O
Universsity. The Univ
versity duringg last
30 years
y
has beenn recognized as a mega naational instituution
proviiding educatiion to 700,0000 students in science, soocial
scien
nce and hum
manities. Preseently Universsity offers abbout
1000
0 courses and 120 program
ms from elemeentary to docttoral
levells. The facultyy wise studentts enrolment and growth trrend
has been
b
given in Table3
T
and figg1 respectivelly
U:
4.2) Energy probllems at AIOU
The students of AIOU are spparsely distriibuted across the
ntry. The weeb based innformation system plays an
coun
impo
ortant role in admission, exxamination, teeaching and other
o
studeents support. The internnal Managem
ment informaation
systeem, Radio brooadcast facilitiies, printing faacilities and other
o
operaations of thee University require unin
nterrupted poower
supply. The annuual energy coost of power supply to Main
M
mpus of AIOU
U, has crosseed the figuree of Pak Ruppees
Camp
(PKR
R), 30 Millionn, as against tthe total operrational budgeet of
PKR
R 2500 Millioon for the Unniversity. With
h the additionn of
new buildings andd ICT infrastruucture, and many new projeects,
e
demannd is likely too increase @ 15% per annnum.
the energy
Hencce the energgy cost is bbecoming on
ne of the major
m
comp
ponents of annnual costs. [133]
.
Student Enro
ollment
0.8
PV interactive baattery backup system has beeen shown in Fig2.

F
0.704
0.7
0.625
0.6
0.514
0.5
0.4
0.357
0.3
335
0.4
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2003-04
2004--05
2005-06
Fig3..Studentts Enrolment ttrend and grow

wth in AIOU
( 2000--2006)
Fig:2 Grid-Interactivve With Batteryy Backup
4. Allama
A
Iqbal Open
O
University-Islamabadd- PakistanA case study for
f solar energgy applicationn.
4.1)) Introductionn:
p
a uniique opportunnity to
Opeen and Distannce Learning provides
those who cannoot afford form
mal Universityy education due
d to
a
demogrraphic
theiir socio-ecoonomic, sociio-cultural and
connditions. Pakisstan is a deveeloping counttry with per capita
c
incoome less thann US$1000 and
a majority of
o the 160 million
m
w student ennrolment of AIIOU (2006)

Tablee3: Faculty wise
t
other hand,
h
the unnavailability of smooth and
At the
unintterrupted pow
wer supply duee to frequent load
l
shedding and
poweer breakdownns (for about 3-4 hours daaily), is creaating
many
y obstacles in
i providing essential students
s
serviices,
inclu
uding creatingg data bases of new stud
dents, mailingg of
78
study material, arranging of tutorial meetings, examinations

and results. The situation is worsening further as the demand
and supply gap is likely to shoot up to 6000 MW in summer at
national level. The productivity of the organization has been
severely affected by the delays and the annual revenue per
student is declining as a result.
Soon after the energy crisis appeared at national level, the
Executive management of University and Directorate of
Projects, developed a Four prong strategy to deal with the
problem;
i.
Exploring the alternate Renewable Energy

Resources (RER).
ii. Developing Power Management System for optimal
use of the power supply.
iii. Providing immediate power supply to the important
ICT resources for ensuring smooth functioning of
core operations through UPS System (Uninterrupted
Power Supply).
iv. Using Stand by diesel generation in case other
sources of power supply are not available.
4.3) Exploring Alternate Energy Sources with focus on

Solar Energy
The favourable location of the AIOU Main Campus
Islamabad with more than 250 sunny days, a strategic project
for use of solar energy as an alternate source of energy has
been initiated, which shall be implemented in 5-7 years. The
project has been divided in five phases;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Using of Solar energy for security Street lighting of

Main Campus and Staff colony.
Block lighting and in house solar lighting.
Light equipment and Personal Computer on solar
energy sources.
Heavy equipment on solar lighting.
Solar energy sources for domestic units in staff
colony.
4.4) Phase 1: Use of Solar energy for street lighting System

at AIOU.
The existing street lighting system of the main campus AIOU
and staff colony is met from the electricity supplied by local
distribution firm known as Islamabad. Electric Supply Co
(IESCO). The distribution system has been divided into 16
control points, installed at nine different locations of the
Campus. The details of block-wise distribution have been
given in table 2 and Fig:1. Each control point is typically
connected to 7-9 lights. The lights are illuminated with 23
Watts energy savers for low energy consumption and more
reliability. The total streetlights provided at the Main Campus
are about 120 points. Hence the consumptions of the street
lights system are 23X120 = 2760 Watts. Hence about 3000
Watts (3KVA) was required to be generated from the
proposed solar system.
Design Parameters:
Pole mounted system

Panel based distributed system.
The pole mounted solar lighting system was not considered
mainly for two reasons;
i. The capital cost per pole mounted system was three times
more than the per light cost of the distributed panel system.
ii. The maintenance cost of the pole mounted system is
relatively higher.
The existing 16 sub distribution system has been installed
with controls at nine locations, hence panel based distribution
at these locations is more economical and easy to maintain.
The specification of various components of the proposed
design is as follows;
Main Panel specification:
Cell Technology: Mono Crystalline
Panel dimension (mm): 1847.5 x 1050 x 34
Front Cover: EVA
No of PV cells: 96
Cell Dimensions (mm): 125 x 125
Warranted minimum P max: 140 W
Battery Specification:
Nominal Voltage: 12 V
Capacity: 100 Ah
Dimension ( mm): 576 x 212 x 800
Maximum Charging Current: 20 A
Maximum discharge current: 50 A ( 5 sec)
2.4.1.3: Solar Charge Controller:
Charging Current maximum: 10 A
Load current: 10 A
System voltage: 12/24 V
Solar inverter:
Nominal Input voltage: 12V
Input voltage range: 10.5 16V ( 24 V Max)
Continuous power: 400 VA
Max asymmetrical load: 250 VA
The typical PV system has been given in Fig 3 and roof
mounted PV system has been shown in Fig.4
Fig 3.Tyoical components of PV solar system.
The following two options were available for use of solar

energy for street lighting.
79
The success of the solar energy application at AIOU will open

more venues for research of Environmental design program
for Engineers.
Renewable Energy research cell shall be established under the
project Directorate of AIOU.
4.5.2: Environmental benefits to the country from solar and
renewable energy. [14]
Fig.4: Roof mounted PV system. [11]

4.4.2: Procurement of the Solar PV system on the basis of
preliminary design:
On the basis of generic specification of various components of
PV system, open bids were invited from the experienced firms
and the project was awarded to the lowest bidder M/S
Solartech at the quoted price of Rs 1.200 Million (US$ 18500)
for 16 systems comprising the solar panels, solar PV cells,
batteries, charge controllers, solar inverter, change over
switches. These 16 panels shall be installed at nine locations
of the University, where the existing electrical control panels
of the street lighting system has been provided.
4.4.3: Cost Benefit Analysis of the PV solar System:
4.4.3.1: Direct Economic benefits:
Costs: System Capital Cost including provision and
installation of the PV system: US$ 18500
Benefits: The proposed system will provide about 3 KWh of
output, which shall be used for illuminating 120 solar security
lights. The average use of the lights for 8 hours and using 75%
of the total 300 available sunny days, the annual power which
will be generated by the system is
= 0.75 x 300 X3 x 9 = 6075 KWh per year.
At the average unit price of 18 cents, the annual saving in
energy costs = 0.18 x 6075 = $ 1093
Hence the payback period of the initial investment = 17 years.
In case the cost of standby diesel generation for 3 hours every
day @ $0.50 per KWh is included, during the power load
shedding, the additional benefits = 0.75 x 300 x 3 x 0.50 = $
338
The total benefits of the proposed solar system = $ 1093 + 338
= $1434. Hence the Pay Back Period of the initial investment
reduces as = 18500/1434 = 13 years.
This period can be further reduced to 10 years through better
design and large grid based solar power generation.
4.5 Non Financial benefits:
Reduction of local air pollution

Use of solar electric systems shall decreases the amount of
local air pollution. Solar rural electrification can also
decrease the amount of electricity needed from small diesel
generators.
Offsets greenhouse gases
Photovoltaic systems produce electric power with no carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions. Carbon emission offset is
calculated at approximately 6 tons of CO2 over the twentyyear life of one PV system.
Conserves energy
Solar electricity for the third World can be an effective
energy conservation program because it conserves costly
conventional power for urban areas, town market centers,
and industrial and commercial uses, leaving decentralized
PV-generated power to provide the lighting and basic
electrical needs of the majority of the developing world's
rural populations.
Reduces need for dry-cell battery disposal
Small dry-cell batteries for flashlights and radios are used
throughout the un-electrified world. Most of these batteries
are disposable lead-acid cells which are not recycled. Lead
from disposed dry-cells leaches into the ground,
contaminating the soil and water. Solar rural electrification
shall dramatically decrease the need for disposable dry-cell
batteries. Over 12 billion dry-cell batteries were sold in
1993.
The Reduction of Waste
Electricity produced from Coal in Pakistan may produce a
large volume of wastes as discussed below;
Mining: Dust from surface mining, Drainage Water
4.5.1 Benefits for the institution:
Cleaning and Drying: Liquid and Solid Waste, Dust and Coal
Fines (30 tons)
Better image of the organization (AIOU), as leader in using

the solar energy as renewable energy.
Transportation: Spillage, Dust and Fines
Better security lighting and less chances of crimes, thefts and

pilferages.
Storage: Liquid Drainage, Dust and Fines

80
Power Plant: Liquid and Solid Waste (5000 tons of liquid;

360,000 tons of solid ash), Emissions (150,000 tons of mainly
SOx, NOx, CO2, and particulates) Water, Land, Energy, and
Heat are also wasted over the entire process of converting coal
to electricity
5. Conclusion;
There are very bright prospects in Pakistan to harness the solar
energy through which the challenge the energy crisis can be
faced. However academia, researchers, policy makers,
manufactures, investors
must come forward to take the
opportunity of the crisis.
References:
1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
Gul.H. Renewable Energy Volume-1 Pakistan Council of Appropriate Technology-Pakistan pp. 160-167 ( 2006)
Khan, S, R. Need for enabling policies Part2 , Daily The News-Pakistan dated: 30.09.2007.
Economic Survey of Pakistan- 2004. Economic Division, Government of Pakistan.( 2004)
A report on power distribution and fore acting in Pakistan- Planning Commission of Pakistan-2006
Khurshedi, N. Prospects for renewable Energy in Pakistan Daily the News- Pakistan dated: 16.07.2007.
Abdullah, M. Micro hydel Plants ( MHP) Appropriate Technology Development Organization ( ATDO)-Pakistan2007
Dovers S. Sustainable Energy Systems: Path ways for Australian Energy reform. Cambridge University Press. 1994.
Gilchrist, G. The big switch: Clean Energy for 21st century Allen and Adwin ( 1994)
Kaneff, S. Solar Generator3: ANU s 400 sq-m Parabolic Concentrator Solar Progress , Vol 15(3) pp4-5 ( 1994)
Nieuwlaar, E. and Alsema, E Environmental aspects of PV power system
<www.wire1.ises.org/
wire/publication)
A Guide to Photovoltaic (PV) system design and installation- California Energy Commission Energy Technology
Development Division 1516 Ninth Street Sacramento, California USA, pp 40 ( 2001)
[12]
Reinders, A. Options for photovoltaic solar energy systems in Portable products Proceedings of TMCE 2002,Forth
International symposium April 22-26, 2002. Wuhan, P.R. China ISBN 7-5609-2682-7
[13]
Vice Chancellor Annual Report Allama Iqbal Open University-2006. ( www.aiou.edcu.pk)
[14]
"Solar is highly compatible with the values and desires of the environmentally-conscious citizen."
(http://www.aessolarenergy.com/environm
81

Energy Harvesting Using Piezoelectric Effect Through

Wind
Umber Shafiq
Abstractthis research paper targets the usage piezoelectric effect to
harvest ambient energy. There are many techniques to harvest
energy. Low cost and clean energy can be produced by deforming
piezoelectric material through the vibrations produced by mechanical
energy obtained from the environment. Wind is a great source of
vibrations needed to induce piezoelectricity. Along with many other
energy harvesting techniques being used, this paper presents a new
mechanism to utilize wind energy to produce electricity without huge
turbines and conventional wind mills. An overall circuit for obtaining
processing and storing this electric charge is also offered.
Index TermsEnergy harvesting, Kinetic energy of winds,

Piezoelectric effect, Pulsating DC.
IX.
INTRODUCTION
Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting is a new an innovative step in

the direction of wireless energy. Today great advancement
have been made in wireless data transfer, but they still suffer
extensive wiring or batteries that require replacements or
recharging periodically, in applications such as equipment
used in monitoring of remote or hazardous areas, or otherwise
in areas such as far flung areas, deserts, forests hilly areas or
in military where generally remote controlled devices are used
continuous charging of the microcells is not possible by
conventional charging methods. Here comes the need of
alternative energy generation, energy from natural source
which is essentially inexhaustible and free of pollution and
any cost.
In addition, energy harvesting can be used as an alternative
energy source to supplement a primary power source and to
enhance the reliability of the overall system and prevent
power interruptions.
X.
PIEZOELECTRICITY
The word Piezoelectricity is derived from the Greek piezo or

piezein, which means to squeeze or press. And electro an
ancient source of electric charge. Thus Piezoelectricity refers
to the production of electrical charges on the surface of the
piezo material when it undergoes pressure or strain.
Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process so that
materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect generation of
electrical charge resulting from an applied mechanical force,
also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric (the internal generation
of a mechanical force resulting from an applied electrical
field.
XI.
HISTORICAL PREVIEW
According to a historical review of the literature by Ballato

(1995 and 1996), it was Coulomb (1815) who first theorized
that electricity might be produced by pressure application. But
the actual discoverers of the "piezoelectric phenomenon" were
P. Curie and J. Curie (1880). They narrate about their finding
as:
"Those crystals having one or more axes
whose ends are unlike, that is to say,
hemihedral crystals with oblique faces, have the special
physical property of giving rise to two electrical poles of
opposite signs at the extremities of these axes when they
are subjected to a change in temperature. This is the
phenomenon known under the name of pyro-electricity",
Cady (1964).
Researches on large scale are being carried out on various

"We have found a new method for the
methods of energy harvesting. One of the most promising
techniques is mechanical energy harvesting i.e. converting development of polar electricity in these same crystals,
mechanical energy from sources such as vibration, mechanical consisting in subjecting them to variations in pressure along
stress and strain into electricity through piezoelectric materials hemihedral axes"
where deformations produced by different means is directly
converted to electric charge and can be regulated and stored
XII. COMPONENTS OF PIEZOELECTRIC ENERGY
for further usage.
HARVESTING SYSTEM
As piezo energy harvesting has been investigated only since
the late '90s, it remains an emerging technology. This research
paper proposes Piezoelectricity as an alternative Energy A Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System generally requires
source. This is a pollution free energy source to utilize the an energy source such as vibration stress strain resulting in
ambient energy being wasted.
any kind of deformation in the material and four other key
electronic components, including: (1) An Energy conversion
device such as an element that can translate the ambient
mechanical energy into equivalent electrical energy. (2) A
82
module to convert this AC voltage through rectification into

manageable (storable) DC electricity. (3) The storage module
e.g. battery of capacitor etc. (4) An End application
connected electrodes and in this way AC current will start to

flow through the system. As shown in figure 2 [2].
XIII. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The basic concept in Piezoelectricity harvesting involves a
thin layer of piezoelectric material over a surface which will
suffer vibrations, strain, pressure etc which intern cause
deformation in the piezoelectric component inducing charge
into it.
Unused power exists in various forms such as industrial
machines, human activity, vehicles, structures and
environment sources. Energy harvesting teaches us how to use
these ambient energy sources which are absolutely free of cost
and plenty in nature, by sensing, converting mechanical
energy into electrical and then storing this energy in DC form.
Fig 2. Schematics of the PEG (Piezoelectric Generator)

illustrating the movement of charge due to applied force (a)
when no force applied (b) when tensile force applied (c) when
compressive force applied .
XIV. MECHANISM
The Piezoelectric effect is pronounced by single crystalline
materials, both natural and man made like Quartz, Berlinite
(AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical
to quartz, Rochelle salt Topaz, Tourmaline group, Cane sugar,
Berlinite (AlPO ), bone, tendon, enamel, wood, silk, dentin,
4
Barium Titanate (BaTiO ), along with other composites, thin3
films and some ferroelectric materials [5]. But the majority of

the energy harvesting devices fabricated in the past work have
been made up of polymers like Poly-vinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) and ceramics (lead zirconate lead titanate, PZT) due
to there several degree enhanced piezoelectric behavior than
quartz, etc.
There are two types of Piezoelectric effects: 1) Direct
Piezoelectric effect, where electric energy is produced when
mechanical force is applied on the material. 2) Indirect
Piezoelectric effect, where the piezoelectric component
undergoes physical deformation when external voltage is
applied across it. As shown in the figure 1.
The positive atoms in the crystals do not lie in the center thus
causing dipoles in the structure. The direction of these dipoles
is towards the positive atom. The doping density P is thus a
vector quantity. The poling direction is random in the whole
Polycrystalline structure but the neighboring dipoles tend to
align themselves in the same directions creating regions called
the weiss domains. All the dipoles in a crystalline structure
can be aligned in a direction by (1) Heating the material to its
characteristic temperature called the cure temperature. This
temperature is different for different piezoelectric materials.
(2).Then the dipoles are aligned by applying a certain voltage
for some time. (3) The material is set to cool down. e.g. e.g.
generally PZT materials are heated up to 100 C and a voltage
of 90V dc is applied to it for 30min. The poles get aligned and
the material is cooled down and then used.
The poling direction is crutial in the sense that the input and
output characteristics depend on it a lot. Mostly when force is
applied perpendicular to the direction of polarization the
voltage is induced in the electrode surface perpendicular to the
direction of polarization (33 mode) and when force and
polarization are along the same axis then the voltage will be
induced in the direction parallel to the polarization direction
(31 mode). As shown below in figure 3 [1].
Fig 1. Direct Piezoelectric effect

In Energy harvesting the direct piezoelectric effect is
employed.
The Piezo electric material is a non-conductor. It has no free
electrons for conduction. In a single piezoelectric crystal
instead of free electrons there are fixed electrons in the crystal
lattice, they play a vital role in the generation of electricity
when the force is applied. When the piezoelectric ceramic
material undergoes external pressure these electrons are
displaced slightly from there position creating an imbalance in
the adjacent dipoles in the structure thus creating an electric
force. This causes the movement of free electrons in the
Fig 3. Poling direction: 33 mode and 31 mode

The piezoelectric effect shown depends upon (1) The crystal
symmetry (2) The direction of applied stress (3) Strength of
applied force (strain, pressure).The output wattage obtained
83
through a single piezoelectric crystal is in micro watts. Thus

many of these small generators are use d together in series in
different applications to generate considerable amount of
energy. All the innovation creativity and engineering now lies
in the optimum performance of these piezoelectric sensors.
The search for the best piezoelectric material and connected
PZG circuitry is going on along with the quest of
implementing them in various applications. In the coming
section a number of sources of vibrations for piezoelectricity
generation are mentioned, which are now being successfully
used, along with this I present my new idea in the field of
piezoelectric energy harvesting.
breakers because it works by the weight of a vehicle passing

over it. The vehicle pushes metal plates up and down. The
movement of the plates generates electricity and stores it
within the system.
XV. SOURCES OF MECHANICAL ENERGY FOR THE

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
E. POWER GENERATED IN GYMS:

Gyms are producing free electricity through piezoelectric
energy harvesting in Poland and many other places. Small
piezo generators are embedded in stationary cycles and in
other equipment to use human kinetic energy in motion. These
PZGs can also be placed in the resting chairs to convert the
pressure of the weight of a person in to voltage. The induced
electricity is stored in batteries to backup a power failure or to
be used to run other equipment and lights.
VII.I PREVIOUS ACHIEVEMENTS

In the section ahead I have presented some piezoelectric
energy harvesting techniques previously engineered and are
undergoing further development.
A. POWER GENERATING SIDEWALK:
Hundreds of thousands of joule of energy is lost to
environment everyday by pedestrians. This energy can be
harvested easily through arrays of piezoelectric crystals laid
underneath the sidewalks, zebra crossings, stairs, pavements,
bus stops, railway stations and other crowded areas. This
energy can then be used to power the street lights or else
stored in lithium batteries to be used in different applications
when required.
B.POWER GENERATION THROUGH SHOES:
Piezoelectric polymers can be fitted inside the shoes. The
mechanical strain produced by walking is then utilized to
produce electricity. Which is then stored in small mobile
battery sized batteries to later on charge other small devices
like, cell phones, I pods, transmitters and other portable
electronic appliances. This technology was used by DARPA
in the United States in a project called Energy Harvesting,
which includes an attempt to power battlefield equipment by
piezoelectric generators embedded in soldiers' boots.
However, these energy harvesting sources by association have
an impact on the body. DARPA's effort to harness 1-2 watts
from continuous shoe impact while walking were abandoned
due to the discomfort from the additional energy expended by
a person wearing the shoes. Kaajakari employed a low-cost,
polymer transducer, a soft, flexible material that replaces the
shoes heel shock absorber without sacrificing user
experience.
C.POWER GENERATION THROUGH ROADWAYS:
An Israeli company called Innowattech has been working with
the Israel National Roads Company and Israel's technological
institute Technion. This energy harvester involves placing tiny
piezoelectric generators below the road surface; the units are a
mere 5 cm below the surface and are activated by the weight
of cars driving above. According to research and real-world
use, the generators can capture 2000 watts per hour. The
energy is stored in roadside batteries. This kind of
arrangement can be arranged in high traffic areas and on speed
D. POWER GENERATION THROUGH DANCE FLOORS:

In Many European countries noticeably Holland has started to
generate electricity through webs of piezoelectric polymers
laid under the dance floors in their clubs. These PZGs are
powered by the enormous mechanical force produced when
large bulks of people use these dance floors. Large amount of
resultant voltage is used to power lights and stereos etc in
these clubs.
F. POWER GENERATED THROUGH MOBILE KEYPAD

AND KEYBOARDS:
Mill watts of power can be generated from vibrating materials.
In gadgets like mobile phones, television remotes, laptops and
other devices which employ key depressions for operation,
mechanical vibrations are produced while pressing the keys. If
these vibrations are successfully harvested, the resulting
energy could serve as an ancillary source of energy for
charging the batteries.
VII.II PROPOSED WORK:
With continuous increase in the demand of electricity
scientists and engineers are striving to find alternative energy
producing ways. Conventional ways like, coal, fossil fuel,
solar cells, hydro and nuclear power plants etc either prove to
be costly, pollution causing or unusable half the year (solar
cells) and by all the means insufficient to quench the demand
of power today. Wind turbines are an increasingly growing
industry for generating energy from ambient kinetic energy of
winds and are being rapidly adopted all over the world. This
supposedly nature friendly turbines kill more than 6,500 birds
and 3,000 bats annually in Washington and Oregon alone
according to a recent study in Klickitat County
in
Washington and Oregon as they sometimes cant see the
moving fan blades or are caught in the turbine[6]. Also people
living in the vicinity of these wind mill farms have shown
concerns about the continuous loud noise produced by
turbines and the low vibrations that seem to come from them.
Synthetic Straw farms is an interesting way to eliminate
such problems by eliminating the need of turbines and moving
fan blades. Through Synthetic Straw farms we can still
produce almost equal electricity than the windmills b Through
Synthetic Straw farms we can still produce almost equal
electricity than the windmills by the wind.
The basic idea is to imitate the motion of straws grown in the
fields when wind blow through it and to utilize the mechanical
84
energy obtained from vibrations produced in the structure

through wind to induce voltage. Webs of piezoelectric
polymers are embedded in the surface of these straws. As
small vessels take water and minerals from the root to each
cell of the stem in a plant, in the same fashion electrodes will
connect all the piezoelectric elements together to collect the
charge in the base of the straw. Electrodes from positive side
will combine parallel together and a main positive wire will
go to the rectifier circuitry. Same will be the case with
negative electrodes.
The figure 4 visualizes a single straw.
Straw
Fig. 5 Structure of Piezoelectric component

XVI. CIRCUITRY
The voltage produced by the piezoelectric elements is in AC.
This voltage has to be converted into DC to be stored in the
battery. This requires rectification of the AC voltage to DC
level.
Rectification may be half wave which can easily be done by
placing a single diode in series to the output. But almost half
the energy is lost through this method. So we will use full
wave rectification as shown in the figure 6 [4].
Foundation under the ground
Fig. 4 Synthetic straw, vibrations and base

The Straw Farm may be mounted on barren land or costal
areas where high winds continuously blow or in loans, roofs
of houses and especially sky scrapers which are hundreds of
feet in the high so that Straw form can utilize the maximum
kinetic energy of the winds that blow in the upper atmosphere.
These straw farms can be set on the ocean bed where they can
get mechanical energy from raging currents the same way as
sea weed do. The height of straw may vary from a few feet on
a house roof , to 15 to 20 feet on the roofs of skyscrapers to
50-60 feet on costal and barren grounds, where they can have
firm ground grip. This straw farm will require almost zero
maintenance once installed because of simple mechanical
design, and will be nature friendly and noise free. Pole can be
made from any flexible and strong material depending upon
its length, e.g. rubber, synthetic resin pipes etc. When the
wind will blow the pipes imitate real straw and bends under its
pressure. This causes strain on the embedded piezoelectric
material and voltage is induced.
Figure 5 illustrates the structure of Piezoelectricity harvesting
component being used [3].
Fig. 6 Circuit diagram of a PMPG system

Full wave rectifier bridge constitutes of diodes arrange so that
the positive and negative halves of the voltage signal are
handled by different pairs of diodes and the output of the
bridge is a pulsating DC instead of AC voltage.
Since a diode is being used in the rectifier, a p-n junction
diode or a Schottky diode can be used. The Schottky diode has
a threshold voltage which is smaller than that of a p-n junction
diode. For example, if the diode is formed on a silicon
substrate, a p-n diode may have a threshold voltage of
approximately 0.065 volts while the threshold voltage of a
Schottky diode is approximately 0.30 volts. Accordingly, the
uses of Schottky diode instead of p-n diode will reduce the
power consumption required for rectification and will
effectively increase the electrical charge available for
accumulation by the capacitor. When the electromotive force
in the piezoelectricity generation section is small, a Schottky
diode having a low rising voltage is more preferable [1].
The output of the rectifier module is in the form of pulsating
DC. If this is directly given to the battery for charging, it will
reduce the efficiency of the system hugely. Thats why the
85
pulsating DC is first smoothed to bring it to a constant DC

level.
For this purpose a simple circuitry is required. A storage
capacitor is placed in parallel to the load in the circuit. The
pulsating DC voltage coming from the source charges the
capacitor to its fullest. When the switch is closed the load
starts to get the DC pulse from the source, as soon as the
voltage starts to decrease the capacitor stats to discharge
providing voltage to the load and dose so until the source
voltage becomes equal to the capacitor voltage. In this way
the voltage is maintained at a certain level in through the load.
If a battery is present in the circuit instead of load then the
switch will get opened as soon the battery gets charged to a
certain predefined value.
[6] Tiffany Kaiser. (June, 2010). Title: Wind Farms = Bird

Killers.Available:
http://www.dailytech.com/Study+Wind+Farms++Bird+K
illers/article18641.htm
XVII. FUTURE PROSPECTS

Through this paper I wanted to share my knowledge and to
introduce a new technique to generate free electricity through
an environment friendly way. Our plan is to do further
research on the topic. and to practically implement the
presented idea. Energy from winds is an important and
inexhaustible source to produce electricity. Synthetic Straw
farm can possibly be one of the most successful methods in
energy harvesting.
XVIII. CONCLUSION
The ambient vibrational energy can be converted to electrical
energy via the MEMS piezoelectric energy harvesting device;
many of the techniques are discussed in this paper. The
Design for Synthetic Straw farm presented in this paper will
be quite effective in harvesting wind energy.
This design can also be modified to be used in many different
other applications where there is a scope for similar kind of
energy conservation.
XIX. REFERENCES
[1] Karthik Kalyanaraman, Jaykrishna Babu Power
Harvesting System in Mobile Phones and Laptops using
Piezoelectric Charge Generation Proceedings of the
World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science
2010 Vol II WCECS 2010, October 20-22, 2010, San
Francisco, USA
[2] Sunghwan Kim, Low power energy harvesting with
piezoelectric generators, (2002).
[3] Tanvi Dikshit, Dhawal Shrivastava, Abhijeet Gorey,
Ashish Gupta,
Parag Parandkar, Sumant Katiyal, Energy harvesting via
piezoelectricity, Proceedings of the 4th National
Conference; INDIACom 2010, Computing for Nation
Development, February 2526, 2010.
[4]
Y.B. Jeon, R. Sood, J.-h. Jeong, S.-G. Kim MEMS
power generator with transverse mode thin film PZT
2004.
[5] Takeuchi M, Matsuzawa S, Tairaku K, Takatsu C.
Piezoelectric generator as power supply for RFID-tags
and applications, Proc. IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium,
New York City, USA,2831 Oct. 2007, pp. 25582561.
86

ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY USE OF

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
Sadaf Noureen, Tashia Zaman, Tahira Sultana and Syeda Maria Ali
International Islamic University, H-10 Islamabad
Nimbusts@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT:
During recent approach the basic emphasis is on
electricity generation from coal. Electricity generated
from hydroelectric power plants is not enough to meet
todays demands, so its the necessity of day to seek
alternate sources. Coal is the most abundant and
versatile fossil fuel. Pakistans total coal reserves are
estimated to be around 184.5 billion tones, which also
included recently discovered deposits of low sulphur
coal at Thar. Out of these large reserves Pakistan
utilizes only 40 million tones per year. The existing
coal reserves in the country could meet the
requirements of 6 power plants of 1000 MW for next
30-50 years, but currently coal makes merely 1% of
electricity generation.
In this coherence, coal-burning power plant with zero
toxic gases/solids emissions is proposed. The
traditional coal power plant can be installed for
electricity generation and with use of different
environmentally sound technologies, so that emission
of toxic gases or solids is captured at the source and
finally used for other useful purposes.
XXI. COAL
HIGHLY
COMPRESSED
IS
ORGANIC MATTER MOSTLY LEAFY MATERIAL
FROM SWAMP VEGETATION THAT DECOMPOSED
RELATIVELY LITTLE [1].
II.
WORLD ENERGY DEMAND
Energy demand around the world is rocketing.

Since 1980, the primary energy demand
increased by more than 50%, so it is forecasted
that this growth is continued at an annual
average rate of 1.6% between 2004 and 2030 [2].
The sources of total primary energy supply are in
figure 1. 87% of total energy comes from fossil
Keywords: Coal, Environment, Gases,

Distillation, Energy
I.
INTRODUCTION TO COAL
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENERGY SOURCES

PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE ADVANCE
OF TECHNOLOGICAL CIVILIZATION [1]. STEAM
ENGINE DEVELOPED IN THE LATE 1700S SERVES
AS A BREAKTHROUGH FOR INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION [1]. AT THAT TIME, THE MAJOR
FUEL FOR STEAM ENGINE WAS FIREWOOD [1].
THEN, IT WAS SUBSTITUTED BY COAL. COAL
HAD BECOME THE DOMINANT FUEL, BY THE
END OF 1800S, AND IT REMAINED SO INTO THE
1940S [1]. IN ADDITION TO BEING USED AS
FUEL FOR STEAM ENGINES, COAL WAS WIDELY
USED FOR HEATING, COOKING AND INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES. IN 1920S, OUT OF ALL ENERGY
USED IN UNITED STATES AROUND WAS
PROVIDED BY COAL [1].
fuels [1]
As oil prices are souring. This suggests that oil
substitute fuels like coal will be needed soon
[3]. Based on current production levels, the oil
reserves of the world will last for 41 years,
and gas reserves will last another 65 years,
while the coal reserves which are total more
than a trillion tons worldwide, could last
almost 155 years [4].
87
III.
COAL ROUND THE WORLD
In more than 70 countries worldwide, the

reserves of coal are available that are
economically
recoverable
[Table
1].
According to authorities, out of all these
reserves, some 850 billion tonnes of coal is
currently recoverable, so this makes clear that
coal will be with us for many decades, if not

centuries, to come [2].
IV. Coal Quality and Resources In

Pakistan
Pakistans total coal reserves are estimated to
be around 184.5 billion tones, which also
included recently discovered deposits of low
sulphur coal at Thar [6]. Out of these large
reserves Pakistan utilizes only 40 million
tones per year. The existing coal reserves in
the country could meet the requirements of 6
power plants of 1000 MW for next 30-50
years, but currently coal makes merely 1% of
electricity generation.
In Pakistan coal is not present at one specific
site. It is present in different amounts in
different provinces of Pakistan [Fig. 2].
88
PROJECT DESCRIPTION:
WITH
THE INCREASE IN WORLD POPULATION,

THE DEMAND FOR FOSSIL FUELS ALSO
INCREASES AND THUS INCREASED DEMAND OF
FOSSIL FUELS CAUSES MORE POLLUTION. FOR
MANY YEARS, SCIENTISTS HAVE BEEN
WORKING TO MAKE COAL CLEANER TO BURN.
SCIENTISTS ARE TRYING TO REDUCE EMISSIONS
FROM POWER PLANTS MOST TYPICALLY FROM
THERMAL POWER PLANTS OR COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANTS, JUST FOR THE SAKE OF
ENVIRONMENT.
IN THAT SCENARIO WE ALSO TRIED TO PLAY

OUR PART IN CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT.
IN VIEW OF EMISSIONS THAT ARE THE MAJOR
POLLUTERS OF ENVIRONMENT, OUR PROJECT OF
USE
OF
ENVIRONMENT
FRIENDLY
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY IS BASICALLY
BASED ON TRADITIONAL COAL FIRED-POWER
PLANT.
A. TRADITIONAL POWER PLANT:

A COAL FIRED-POWER PLANT IS THE FACILITY
OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION THAT BURNS
COAL, WHICH IN TURN HEATS UP WATER THUS
CONVERTING IT INTO STEAM. THE TURBINES
ARE DRIVEN BY THE STEAM PRODUCED IN THE
PLANT. THE PULVERIZED COAL IS INJECTED
INTO THE FURNACE FOR BURNING. IT HEATS UP
THE BOILER CONTAINING WATER THUS STEAM
PRODUCES. THIS STEAM WILL TURN THE
GENERATORS TO PRODUCE ELECTRICITY. THE
ELECTRICITY THUS PRODUCED WILL ASSIST THE
COUNTRY IN MEETING ITS ENERGY NEEDS AND
TO ELIMINATE BLACKOUTS. THE CONDENSERS
CONVERT THE STEAM AGAIN INTO THE WATER
AND THUS THE WATER CAN BE USED AGAIN
AND AGAIN.
B. EMISSIONS FROM POWER PLANT:
COAL IS SUPPOSED TO BE THE MATERIAL THAT
LAUNCHED THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, BUT
NOW COAL IS NO LONGER SO POPULAR. DUE TO
THE
MUCH
CONCERN
ABOUT
THE
ENVIRONMENT IN THE RECENT DECADE, COAL
IS DECLARED AS A DIRTIEST OF ALL ENERGY
SOURCES. THE REASON FOR THE DECLARATION
OF COAL AS A DIRTIEST FUEL IS BECAUSE OF
THE FACT THAT COAL-BURNING PRODUCES
SMOKE AND FUMES, WHEN RELEASED TO THE
ENVIRONMENT CAUSES AIR POLLUTION. THUS
REDUCING CO2 EMISSIONS BECOMES NECESSITY

AND CHALLENGE OF THE DAY.
TRADITIONAL COAL FIRED-POWER PLANTS
PRODUCE ENORMOUS AMOUNTS OF BY-PRODUCTS
IN THE PROCESS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION,
INCLUDING DUST, ASH, CINDER, SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER (SPM), SOOT, CLINKER (A
HARD MASS OF ASH AND PARTIALLY FUSED COAL
THAT REMAINS AFTER COAL IS BURNED IN A FIRE
OR FURNACE), FLUORIDE, EXHAUST GASES WHICH
INCLUDE CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2), CARBON
MONOXIDE (CO), OXIDES OF NITROGEN, OXIDES
OF SULPHUR, MERCURY, SELENIUM, CADMIUM
ETC.
`THE
C. WORKING:
i.
OXY-FUEL COMBUSTION:
IN
THE TRADITIONAL POWER PLANT THE

PULVERIZED COAL IS INJECTED. THE COAL
POWDER MIXES WITH OXYGEN, WHICH HELPS THE
COAL BURN MORE EFFICIENTLY. AS COMPARED
TO AIR, WHICH CONTAINS 20.95% OXYGEN,
HIGHER TEMPERATURES CAN BE REACHED USING
PURE OXYGEN.
BURNING THE FOSSIL FUEL
(COAL) IN OXYGEN INSTEAD OF AIR RESULTS IN
AN EXHAUST GAS CONSISTED OF CONCENTRATED
CO2 AND WATER VAPOR. WATER VAPORS
PRODUCED CAN BE CONDENSED INTO WATER AND
CAN BE USED IN THE BOILER.
ii.
Capturing of Solid By-products:
The solid by-products that include clinker or the

ash settles down at the bottom and this can be
periodically removed and disposed of.
iii.
Scrubbers:
In addition to the ash and clinker, coal-burning

also produces large amounts of hazardous and
toxic gases. For capturing SO2 scrubbers can be
installed. Scrubber systems are a diverse group
of air pollution control devices that can be used
to remove some particulates or gases from
industrial exhaust streams. All the materials
produced passed through the chamber where
scrubbers are being installed. The scrubbers
installed there in the path of leaving emissions,
spray limestone slurry directly on to the
materials leaving the boiler chamber. Sulphur
present in the gases reacts with the limestone.
The carbonate (limestone) and sulfur combines
to form the mineral gypsum (Desulphurization).
89
As gypsum is a solid, it falls out of the gas to

the bottom, from where it can be easily
collected.
iv.
Electrostatic Precipitator:
Then there is a chamber containing

electrostatic precipitator. It is a large emission
control unit. Its function is to trap and remove
soot or dust particles and SPM from the
exhaust gases. Precipitators typically collect
99.9% or more of the dust from the gas
stream. With in the Precipitators the dust
particles and SPM present in the gas passing
through it are charged. Such plates or
collection devices are installed at the bottom
of the precipitator, which attract the particles
towards them from where it can be
periodically removed and disposed of.
v.
Condensation:
After the removal of dust from the exhaust

gases, all the gases must be passed on to the
condensation chamber. In this chamber the gases
will be condensed to liquid and collected in a
container.
vi.
Distillation:
All the gases must pass through the distillation

chamber, installed in the vicinity of the power
plant, where the gases will be separated out at
their boiling points from each other and then can
be used for different purposes. The remaining
gases include CO2, CO, oxides of nitrogen,
argon. The boiling point of CO2 is -57 C, CO is
191.5 C, NO2 is 21.1 C, N2O is 88.48 C
and boiling point of argon is 185.7 C.
90
CONCLUSION:
THE ABOVE MENTIONED POWER PLANT HELPS IN
REDUCING THOSE EXHAUST GASES, IF RELEASED INTO THE
ATMOSPHERE BRING DETERIORATING EFFECT, SO THESE
GASES MUST BE CAPTURED. IN ADDITION TO REDUCTION,
THE GASES PRODUCED CAN BE COLLECTED AND APPLIED
FOR USEFUL PURPOSES. OUR ENVIRONMENT WILL REMAIN
SAFE AND OUR ENERGY NEEDS WILL ALSO BE MET.
Different by-products which had been traditionally
released into the atmosphere can be made useful. For
example,
Clinker and the ash are used as road

building materials and cement additives.
Gypsum can be used to make drywall

and bowling balls.
Carbon can be used as a decorative tool

in jewelry items and in inkjet printers.
Carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide)

is also used in carbonated and fizzy drinks and
fire extinguishers.
CO is utilized as a reduction agent in

order to derive many other elements and
compounds in metallurgy. In literal terms NOx
refers to NO and NO2.
REFERENCES:
1.
WRIGHT R.T, ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, TENTH EDITION
2.
2007 SURVEY OF ENERGY RESOURCES, WORLD ENERGY COUNCIL 2007 COAL, REGENCY HOUSE
1-4 WARWICK STREET LONDON W1B 5LT UNITED KINGDOM, PP 1-12
3.
MADIGAN M., HIGH OIL PRICES MEAN INVEST IN COAL-TO-LIQUID TECHNOLOGY, MAR 08, 2007,
ARTICLEBASE
4.
LARRY F., COAL STOCKS SURGING WORLDWIDE ENERGY DEMAND TO FUEL COAL PROFITS,
PLUS 6 RUNAWAY COAL STOCKS, AN INVESTMENT U WHITE PAPER REPORT, THE INVESTMENT U
RESEARCH TEAM
5.
AHMED AND OTHERS, (1986), COAL RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN, GSP, REC. VOL. 73
ABDUL WAHEED BHUTTO, PAKISTAN'S COAL RESOURCES, 20 SEPTEMBER 2004,DAW
91

Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Power Plants

and Comparison with Other Technologies
Faisal Asfand1) and Mehboob Alam2)
1) faisal.asfand@pnra.org, mehboob.alam@pnra.org
Abstract
Environmental impact assessment is the key

issue of concern before the installation and during operation
of a power plant. In this paper the environmental impact of
nuclear power plant is studied and is compared with other
technologies. The study comprise of two sections. In the first
section the gaseous releases are considered, showing that
nuclear technology is environmental friendly because of no
releases of greenhouse gas to the environment as compared to
conventional fossil fuel power plants. In the second section
liquid and solid waste with emphases on radioactive wastes
produced in nuclear power plants are discussed. It is
illustrated that radioactive effluent and other radioactive
wastes are disposed off in a well controlled manner. The
radiation dose level in the region is calculated and it is shown
from the results that the values are in safe limits to affect the
environment. From the study and analysis it is proved that
nuclear power plants have net environmental benefits with
consideration of greenhouse gas and global warming.
INTRODUCTION
The demand of energy resources has increased both in
public and private sectors. Industrial sector and
transport sector consumes a big ratio of the natural
energy resources such as fossil fuels. Due to increase in
the population the consumption of energy resources has
drastically increased. As there are fix reserves of fossil
fuels in the earth, therefore, the fossil fuels which are
the prime source of energy are continuously depleting.
Due to the depletion and unavailability of fossil fuels
the prices of fossil fuel are continuously increasing.
The contribution of fossil fuels to global warming is
another scorching issue. There is a growing consensus
in the world that alternate energy resources should be
availed as a clean source of energy. To date, nuclear
energy is a significant alternative to fossil fuel. Nuclear
energy is economical, safe and environmental friendly.
Renewable energy recourses will also play a part in the
future energy mix, but do not replace nuclear energy
because of their limited availability, high cost and
intermittent nature.
It is clear that to overcome the energy deficiency in
Pakistan alternate energy sources should be availed and
more nuclear power plants should be built. The main
hindrance in the development of nuclear industry is the
public confidence level. Nuclear power plants are
considered objectionable because these plants produce
radioactive wastes. In this paper the environmental
impact of nuclear power plant is analyzed and it is
affirmed that the radioactive waste produce in nuclear
power plants is well controlled and within required
regulatory limits.
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION

One of the positive aspects of nuclear power plant is
that it is a source of clean energy i-e it does not
produces greenhouse gas which is the major
contributor to global warming. In nuclear power plants
the energy is produced as result of a nuclear reaction
and not a chemical reaction as it happen in
conventional fossil fuels power plants. Therefore,
greenhouse gas or other pollutants are not release in
these reactions. Also nuclear power plants do not
contribute to acid rain. Nuclear technology is a clean
source of power generation. Due to increase in the
consumption of energy, CO2 emissions are projected to
rise in future. Nuclear technology can help in reducing
greenhouse gas emission; therefore, to control and
minimize the emission of greenhouse gas, nuclear
technology should be opted. It can be seen from Table
1 that nuclear technology for electricity generation can
reduce 6 mega tons of CO2 annually.
Table: COMPARISON OF ANNUAL ESTIMATES OF

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH A 1000
MWE POWER PLANT
Figure 1 shows the amount of greenhouse gas emission
from various energy sources. It can be noted that
nuclear power plants contribute least to the greenhouse
gas emission.
* Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority, Islamabad,
Pakistan
Figure 1. Greenhouse gas emission (Source: Sokolov, IAEA, 2005)
92
RADIOACTIVE WASTE
Waste produced in nuclear power plants are broadly
characterized into radioactive and non-radioactive waste
products, which are further classified into solid, liquid and
gaseous wastes. In nuclear power plants the overall waste
produce is less in volume as compared to fossil fuel operated
thermal power plants. The environmental activist and general
public have serious reservations over the radioactive waste
produced in nuclear power plants. In this section it will be
shown that the radioactive releases from nuclear power plant
are well controlled and below the regulatory limits. Past data
of radioactive waste discharge for the nuclear power plants is
analyzed and it is shown that the radiation exposure from
these releases to the environment is well below the regulatory
limits.
Figure 2. Radiation exposure to public from all sources(mSv/year)
Fig. 2 shows the contribution of radiation emitted by all

sources including naturally-occurring and man-made. The
contribution of radiation exposure from natural radiation
sources for an average individual is 2.4millisievert (mSv) per
year. Naturally occurring Radon is the major contributor to
public radiation exposure. Radiation exposure for an average
individual due to nuclear power production including the full
nuclear fuel cycle is about 0.0002mSv/year, which is quite
less as compared to natural radiation exposure.
It has been observed that the ambient dose levels at the
boundary of nuclear power plants are generally close to the
level of natural background. These levels are far below the
world average background dose of 274nGy/hr. The ambient
dose levels calculated for a typical nuclear power plant for the
year 2007, 2008 and 2009 are 122, 109 and 115nGy/hr
respectively.
In nuclear power plants the volume of waste produce is very
less as compared to conventional fossil fuel operated power
plants. The waste that is produced in nuclear power plants are
discharged and disposed off in a controlled manner. Also
using the fuel recycling technology, the spent fuel can be
reused as fuel in nuclear reactors, thus the fuel toxicity,
activity and volume of waste can be reduced.
Radiation Protection at Nuclear Installations
To minimize the radiation exposure to workers and general
public, safety standards are implemented and effective
radiation protection is practiced at nuclear installations.

According to recently announced Nuclear Safety Policy
nuclear power plant licensee is committed to take appropriate
steps so that occupational radiation exposure to personnel
working in its nuclear facilities is maintained as low as
reasonably achievable (ALARA).
The nuclear installations have developed policies and
procedures, for the protection of workers, public and
environment from the harmful effects of radiation, in
conformance with the national regulatory requirements. It is
ensured that in all operational states radiation exposure within
the installation or due to any planned release of radioactive
material from the installation is kept below prescribed limits
and as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), and that the
measures to mitigate the radiological consequences arising
from any design basis accident are in place. In this regard all
reasonably practicable steps are taken to ensure safe plant
operation and to keep radiation doses as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA).
Radiation exposure is controlled by means of job planning,
job briefing, frequent radiation surveys, radioactive
contamination control, and regular training to keep the doses
well below the regulatory limits. In addition, a Health Physics
Coordinator is designated for radiation intensive jobs with
prime responsibility of taking part in each activity right from
planning to execution. Internal radiation dose is controlled by
providing suitable respiratory protection equipment, reducing
the airborne contamination level and bioassay sampling.
Internal uptake limits have been defined, which are followed
strictly.
A typical nuclear power plant includes an environmental
monitoring program that includes regular radiation dose rate
monitoring at plant periphery and in the city where the plant is
located. This is done by placing TLDs and high volume air
sampling system away from the plant. Environmental samples
from the vicinity of plant are collected and analyzed. The
records show that the radiation doses to the public are a small
fraction of the limiting values. Radiation exposure to the
public is kept as low as reasonably achievable by controlling
the release of radioactive effluents from the plant. This is done
by on-line monitoring of the releases, removing the Tritium
content from boiler room air, filtration of gaseous effluent
before releasing to the environment, decay and dilution of
liquid effluent before its release, collection, processing and
safe storage of solid radioactive waste, etc. As a result, the
gaseous and liquid effluent radioactive releases from the plant
are well below the Derived Release Limits.
At nuclear installations, monitoring and surveillance of doses
to radiation workers are conducted and records maintained.
For environmental monitoring, continuous air sampling and
ambient dose level monitoring are performed. Environmental
samples of air, water, soil, vegetables, fruits, milk, meat, etc.,
are collected and analyzed for estimation of radionuclide
content at frequencies prescribed in the radiological
environmental monitoring programs. On-Site and Off-Site
93
environmental monitoring points are selected at different

locations. Environmental TLD33 dosimetery is also
performed to record the cumulative dose levels on quarterly
basis.
Fig. 6 shows the Annual average ambient dose level for a

typical nuclear power plant. The calculated dose values are
well below the required regulatory limits.
Radioactive Waste Releases at Nuclear Installations

For a typical nuclear power plant the annual collective dose
during 2007, 2008 and 2009 was 481.161man-mSv,
592.280man-mSv and 232.733man-mSv respectively as
shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 4 shows average individual dose for
these years remained 0.275mSv, 0.341mSv and 0.204mSv
respectively.
Figure 6. Annual average ambient dose level at a typical nuclear power plant
TREATMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Radioactive waste produced in nuclear power plants are
well controlled and properly managed. Solid, Liquid and
gaseous wastes are separately treated and then disposed off.
Figure 3. Annual collective dose at a typical nuclear power plant
Figure 4. Average annual dose at a typical nuclear power plant
All liquid and gaseous effluents are monitored before

releasing to the environment. Liquid effluents are usually
released from a power plant into the discharge canal. Gaseous
effluents release from a typical nuclear power plant during
2007, 2008 and 2009 were 4.06TBq, 0.1TBq and 5.66TBq
respectively. On the average these releases remained less than
the release limit. Liquid effluent releases for the years 2007,
2008 and 2009 were 6.79TBq, 7.16TBq and 1.97TBq
respectively as shown in Fig. 5. These releases were far less
than annual release limit.
Treatment of gaseous wastes

Gaseous waste treatment includes pressurized storage of the
radioactive hydrogenated effluents. These are kept in hold-up
tanks for 60 days until they decay down to a value allowable
for discharge to the environment. Before discharge to the
environment the waste gases pass through the HEPA filter to
the iodine filter and then released to the plant main exhaust
stack. The discharge is continuously monitored by the gaseous
Radwaste monitoring system. The release is terminated
automatically and recycled for treatment if the radiation level
exceeds the prescribed limits. Discharge of gaseous waste is
allowed to continue if the radioactivity level less than 1 E
l0Bq / m3 while discharge is terminated if radioactivity level is
greater or equal to 1 E l0Bq / m3. Hydrogen concentration is
also monitored to avoid any explosive mixture of hydrogen.
Treatment of Liquid wastes
The liquid wastes depending upon radioactivity level and
nature of source are collected in three different and
independent collecting tanks. These liquid wasted are called
Clean Drain (350 m3/yr, 2.82E07Bq/ m3), Process Drain (2000
m3/yr, 7.4E07 - 7.4E05Bq/ m3), and Floor Drain (1000 m3/yr,
3.7E05Bq/ m3). If the radioactivity level of liquid waste
collected is less than the discharge limit (3.7E05Bq / m3)
liquid waste is directly discharged to environment, but if
radioactivity level is greater than that of discharge limit the
liquid wasted are treated by evaporators. The evaporated
water is condensed and reused by the plant as reusing water.
Floor drains collected is also analyzed for radiation, If the
radioactivity level is less than 3.7E05Bq/m3 it is discharged to
environment through main discharge line and if the
radioactivity level is greater than or equal to 3.7E05Bq/m3 it is
discharged to process drain hold-up tank.
Radwaste Complex for treatment and storage of wastes

Figure 5. Effluent releases at a typical nuclear power plant
The concentrate of evaporator is collected for the

solidification according to operating steps of Procedures for
Liquid Waste Treatment System and Radioactive Waste
94
Solidification System. An analysis report is prepared for the

nature of the concentrate before transfer of concentrate. The
analysis report also carries the references for acceptance
limits. A fully equipped truck is available for transportation of
cement to fulfill the requirements for solidification. Results of
solidification are continuously being improved by thorough
inspection of the drums after solidification. The solidified
drums are inspected for surface dose rate and 1 m distance
dose rate and their doses are recorded. If a drum is found with
dose rates for surface or 1m higher than the limits then it will
be treated for improvements. The limit for surface dose rate is
less than 2mSv/hr and for 1m is less than 0.lmSv/hr. The
solidified drums are stored before the final disposal to off-site
destination.
Treatment and storage of solid waste
The low-level solid wastes generated at the plants are store in
the storage building. The wastes include spent activated
charcoal, decontaminated large equipment & components,
spent filter cartridges, low level cartridges & contaminated
spare parts, spent HEPA filters and, miscellaneous dry wastes.
Only the miscellaneous dry soft wastes are hydraulically
compressed. All the wastes are stored with the help of electric
fork lifters in the specified rooms of storage building.
WASTE MONITORING ON-SITE
Radiation monitoring is carried out at every point of
radioactive waste collection and discharge. The effluent
radiological monitoring system is provided to sample and
analyze each plant effluent discharge path for radioactivity
prior to discharge. Activity level of a liquid effluent for
discharge through main discharge is 3.7E5Bq / m3. All the
holdup tanks for liquid and gaseous waste are monitored for
radiation. By sampling and lab analysis, the type of
radioactive material and specific radionuclide present are
determined qualitatively and quantitatively. Solid waste
generated is also monitored for radiation / contamination level
before and after packaging and storage. Radioactive
concentrate sample is also analyzed for radiation before
transferring of waste batch.
CONCLUSION
Environmental assessment of nuclear power plants shows that
the radiation exposure due to nuclear power plants is within
the required regulatory limits. Radiation exposure level at
nuclear facilities is continuously monitored to verify
compliance with radiation protection requirements. Pakistan
Nuclear Regulatory Authority performs regulatory inspections
and reviews reports of the licensees to verify compliance with
radiation protection and radiological environmental
monitoring programs. ALARA plans are implemented for
activities involving radiation exposures. It has been observed
that the doses to radiation workers remain well below the
radiation dose limits and the average dose received by an
individual remains less than a fraction of the annual dose
limit. Similarly, in the entire operating history of nuclear
installations in Pakistan the gaseous and liquid effluent
releases have been well below the derived release limits.
Radioactive wastes are managed in a well controlled manner.
Nuclear power plants do not produce greenhouse gas and
hence do not contribute to global warming. It can be
concluded that nuclear technology is a best option for clean
and safe power generation.
References
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
F. Asfand, M. Sadiq, Z. H. Shah and M. A. Nagrah, Energy Crisis and the Need to Enhance Nuclear Energy in Pakistan,
International Conference on Energy Systems Engineering, Islamabad, Pakistan, 2010.
U.S. EIA, Nuclear Power and the Environment, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuclearenvissues.html
R. Hinrichs and M. Kleinbach, Energy: Its Use and the Environment. USA: Brooks/Cole Publications, 2002.
Sources and effects of ionizing radiation, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) Report, vol. 1, 2000.
Climate change and nuclear power, IAEA Report, 2009.
95

Fuel Optimization in a Multi Chamber Incinerator

by the Moisture Control of Oily Sludge and Medical
Wastes
Imran Haider1*, Shahid Hussain2#, Sultan Khan3* and M. Taqi Mehran4**
*
Department of Chemical Engineering, NWFP University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar. Pakistan
1
imranhaider29@gmail.com
3
sultan_hayyan@hotmail.com
#
National Cleaner Production Centre Foundation (NCPC), ARL, Rawalpindi. Pakistan
2
malik512.hussain@gmail.com
**
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, Pakistan
4
taqimehran@yahoo.com
AbstractExperiments have been performed to study the effects

of %age moisture content on fuel optimization during the waste feed
combustion of oily sludge, medical waste and mix blend waste in a
50 kg/hr multi chamber incinerator installed at NCPC- ARL RWP.
Intention is to find out the optimum and in compliance with NEQs
incinerator performance at various moisture contents in the different
waste feeds. Optimum performances of the incinerator, so that
optimum operating moisture conditions, which has been used for
multi purpose waste, feeds, may be defined. Three waste feeds of
10kg batch size were used for the experimentation namely; Oily
Sludge, Medical waste and Mix blend waste (oily sludge & medical),
with the primary chamber preheating temperature 655oC for 15mins
interval monitoring. The secondary chamber temperature was set to
850oC. By the data obtained it is apparent that rising the waste
moisture content tend to increase fuel consumption specifically in
case of medical waste and hence lowering the overall combustion
efficiency. In the emissions the CO2 concentration is showing the
incineration efficiency. Higher efficiency of the system could have
been achieved by increasing the CO2 in the gases leaving the
incinerator, lower fuel usage per kg waste feed and maintain proper
operating conditions. Fuel consumption for the oily sludge with 10%
moisture content, was found to be least as compared with the same
%age of medical waste and mix blend waste. However
environmental compliance of the operation is shown by the flue gas
analysis. The results shows that using mix blend(oily sludge &
medical) waste having 12-13% moisture content would be suitable
for incineration in multi-chamber incinerator .Other makes it
possible to determine the optimum incinerator temperature control
settings and operating conditions, as well as to assure continuous,
efficient, environmentally satisfactory operation. The optimum fuel
consumption for 10kg each waste batch, 15min operation and PCC
temperature 655oC was found 2.09 m3/kg for oily sludge waste,2.52
m3/kg for medical waste and 2.23m3/kg for mix blend waste.
However the economy can be further improved by considering other
operating parameters.
Keywords Keywords: Oily sludge waste; incineration; Optimum
operating condition; moisture effects: medical waste, environmental
compliance
INTRODUCTION
Waste oily sludge (WOS) is one of the major wastes produced
by the petroleum refinery industry. Due to its content of
harmful organic compounds and heavy metals, in most cases,
oily sludge has been recognized as a hazardous waste [1]. In
recent years refinery solid waste management technology has
become more complex and the consequences of improper
techniques more severe. Investment and operating costs have
increased for complex equipment such as centrifuges, filters,
and incinerators. Along with this, the need for skills in such
areas as mechanics, chemistry, biology, heat transfer, and
materials engineering has increased. To achieve compliance
with environmental regulations at a reasonable cost, it is
incumbent upon refinery management to train process
engineers in the techniques of developing and operating solid
wastes programs [2]. Medical waste is discarded matter
generated from medical activities and has a severe environmental impact if not properly disposed [3]. Historically, much
of the medical wastes have been disposed in landfills or
burned in poorly designed and inadequately controlled waste
incinerators [4]. A number of alternative treatment
technologies have been proposed, including incineration,
autoclaving, chemical disinfections, gas disinfections and such
new technologies as microwave and irradiation [5]. However,
use of these technologies is still limited for several reasons.
For example, many of the technologies cannot handle all types
of medical waste, do not reduce the mass of the waste
significantly and do not render the waste unrecognizable
without grinding or shredding [6]. Furthermore, they rarely
achieve complete disinfection and do not destroy toxic and
hazardous chemicals in the waste stream. Of all the available
technologies, incineration has been found to be the most
effective overall for destroying the infectious and toxic
components, volume reduction and weight reduction [7].
Different hazardous wastes generated by the industry and
96
hospitals are disposed of by various treatments including

incineration, autoclaving, chemical disinfections, gas
disinfections and steam sterilization in order to save the
environment and also the resources [8]. Incineration is the
ultimate in volume reduction. It results in an ash which must
be land filled. Gases are passed out the stack where
particulates and acid vapours (CO2, SOx and HCl), if present,
are removed. Hydrocarbons present in the sludge reduce the
amount of auxiliary feed required. The chief disadvantages are
the high capital and operating costs [9]. These costs, per ton of
waste incinerated, are especially high for small incinerators
and for large incinerators, if not used to their full capacity.
Therefore in evaluating the need and economics for
incineration, three basic steps are required. First make an
accurate estimate of the amount and characteristics of the
waste to be incinerated. Then evaluate alternative disposal
methods and types of incinerators. Finally, make an economic
and environmental comparison of the alternatives.
Incineration if in compliance with environmental standards
and lucrative then it is one of the most efficient waste
management techniques [10-13].
All type of hazardous and non hazardous waste disposal is a
big problem in an all developing countries like Pakistan
.Waste incinerator installed at NCPC ARL RWP, is used for
the incineration of waste oily sludge, medical waste, oily rags,
other wastes from petroleum and food industry. This
incinerator is reported as a non- economical in terms of fuel
consumption and disposal matter. The present study is aimed
at the study of the optimization of fuel consumption in the
incineration operations. The main focus is given to the
variation of moisture content in the waste feed.
The key intention of the study is to determine the optimized
moisture content in various available wastes feed for
incineration so that optimum operating parameters for waste
decomposition along with fuel economy and in compliance
with Local Environmental Standards. The procedures adopted
in the experimentation can be pursued for the optimization
studies for other incineration systems to determine the
optimum operating parameters.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Experimental work was done on the waste incinerator
installed at NCPC-ARL Rawalpindi. The equipment as shown
in Fig: 4.1, has an incineration capacity of 50 kg/hr. The
system is a multi chamber (three chambers) thermal
destruction unit with manual control of fuel burners.
Equipment start-up and stop can be done by using the valves
set by the operator. The shutdown of the equipment would be
done after the last cycle and can be re-activated next day after
removal of ash. The details of the equipment are mentioned
below.
The Primary chamber of the unit is (1402 mm x 1493 mm
in size) to receive the waste feed for burning the waste
material in a controlled atmosphere. A burner with adjustment
dampers is provided to ignite and sustain combustion to

ensure complete decomposition of waste at high temperature.
Waste decomposition produces carbon dioxide, water vapor,
inert ashes and some other gases. A blower fan (forced draft)
is also provided for primary chamber to allow complete
combustion of sufficiently large volume of waste. Waste feed
is incinerated in the primary chamber with air that is forced
into the chamber thorough air-ports in the floor. Burning
condition of the waste feed would be observed by temperature
rises inside the chambers shown by thermocouple.
The flue gases from the primary chamber come in the
secondary combustion chamber (609 mm x 1493 mm) for
complete destruction of any partially burned gasses and
organic compounds to minimize smoke and odours. Retention
time is 2-3seconds between the temperature ranges of between
850o-1200oC. An after burner is provided to maintain high
temperature in this chamber. The third chamber (884 mm x
1494 mm) of the unit is for setting fly ash. The un-burnt
material, usually 1-2% of waste feed is remained as ashes
which can be disposed off in landfills.
FIGURE1: WASTE INCINERATOR AT NCPC ARL RWP

Natural Gas is used as a starting fuel and is being regulated
as per operation. The negative draft is maintained in the
incinerator to avoid back pressure and better operation .In this
stack design is very important. The stack of the equipments is
self supported (bolted) on chimney made-up of brick masonry
and tied with guy ropes on three sides. For the monitoring &
observation of stack gases a sampling point is provided to
insert the flue gas analyser probe. A gate valve is provided at
the bottom of the chimney to drain rainwater before operation.
The diameter of stack is 508mm. and total height from ground
level is around 21192 mm. In the operation, negative draft is
maintained in the incinerator and is monitored. Emissions
from the multi-chamber incinerator are exhaust directly from
the stack. For the measurement of temperature K-type
thermocouples are installed at 914mm above the door of
combustion chambers.
Waste feeding is done manually by the operator. After
achieving the primary combustion chamber preheating
temperature at set value i.e. 655oC, the batch of the waste is
97
weighed on the weighing scale and then put in the primary

combustion chamber through the charging door. After the
waste has been charged the operator closes the door and
regulates the natural gas flow through the adjustment
dampers. The combustion characteristics are monitored from
the flue gas analyzer which is installed on the stack for
monitoring. For complete and efficient incineration the
primary combustion temperature, secondary chamber
temperature and flue gases composition are important factors.
Waste feed used, in this experimentation, is composed of
oily sludge from refinery crude, medical waste and a mix
blend prepared (oily sludge and medical waste). The
identification of the all three type of the waste feeds according
to the nature and moisture is shown in Table: 1. The waste
feed used in the experimentation was first weighed and then
put for the charging. The moisture is generally varied from
ranging 12-20% in the waste used in the incinerator
equipment.
For these experiments, waste feed sample were prepared
having the specific waste percentage as shown in table: 1.
Four batches of each sample were prepared having 10%, 12%,
16% and 18% moisture contents. The %age of moisture was
taken as representative for the operation, however more
experimentation can be done to achieve additional results.
Table 1: WASTE feed identification
WF-1
WF-2
Moisture
(%age)
10,12,16,18
10,12,16,18
Calorific
value
32.12 MJ/kg
27.02 MJ/Kg
WF-3
10,12,16,18
29.93 MJ/kg
Waste Feed
ID
Oily Sludge
Medical Waste
Mix Blend
(Oily sludge+
Medical waste)
The composition of the waste feed type, showing the

amount of different constituents, is represented by the
ultimate analysis of waste feeds (WF-1, WF-2&WF-3) are
tabulated in the table: 2, table:3 and table :4.
TABLE 2 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF WF-1(DRY BASIS)
Sr.
Moisture
Cl
Ash
10
64.1
10.1
15.5
0.4
10
4.86
12
62.8
9.83
16.3
0.4
12
5.3
16
62
9.01
17.15
3.85
16
5.5
18
60.86
8.55
17.25
2.15
5.86
No

Sr.
Moisture
Cl
10
64.1
10.1
15.5
0.4
10
3.25
12
62.8
9.83
16.3
0.4
12
4.3
16
62
9.01
17.15
3.85
16
2.25
18
54.52
6.92
29.46
0.29
4.64
3.0
Ash
No
Ash

Sr.
Moisture
Cl
10
62.8
12.6
18.02
0.35
0.85
12
61.2
13
18.6
2.1
.95
16
60.89
13.2
17.4
2.36
1.32
18
61.95
12.5
18.02
2.63
1.05
No
4.96
4.01
4.3
3.43
Methods
Experimental procedure is shown in the Table: 5. three types
of waste feed namely WF-1, WF-2&WF-3 with different
moisture %age were studied to obtain the data. In each of the
experiments performed, the preheating temperature of primary
combustion temperature secondary combustion temperature,
stack temperature, fuel consumption and flue gas
analysis were recorded.
Incinerator operation is started with pre-heating process in
which the unit pre-fired to achieve the set temperature (around
655C) and is preheated in 45-50minutes. After that
temperature has been reached the waste, in the weighed
quantity, is charged into the incinerator. Negative draft is
maintained in the incinerator so that whenever the door is
opened for waste feed charging, there is no discharge of hot
gases from the door. Also it makes the entire destruction
without generation of smoke or odour.
After the start up of the incineration operation the flue gas
analyser probe was inserted in the sampling point at the stack
for the continuous monitoring of combustion characteristics.
The data obtained from the analyser was recorded. Residue
generated after combustion is removed manually and cleaning
conducted through ash doors.
For the measurement of temperature, K Type thermocouples
were used. Mass flow rate of the fuel (Natural gas) was
regulated by ball valve, and the value of the flow rate was
finally adjusted on the emissions showing the CO and CO2.
From the sample point at the stack, flue gases were monitored
continuously by flue gas analyser. Data obtained from the
analyser was recorded.
98
INCINERATION
WASTE
FEEDS
STARTEGY
FLUEGAS
ANALYSIS
Figure 5: oily sludge waste

FUEL
USAGE
Figure 3: Overall skcteh of experimentation
In the whole experimental work all parameters, were

measured and logged, including inside temperature of PCC
and SCC, natural gas consumption, CO and CO2 level in
the stack gas, periodically after every minute for 15
minutes cycle time, for each type of waste fed. Before
feeding the waste in the chamber the temperature of the
primary combustion chamber was maintained to 655+ and
secondary combustion chamber to 850+, while ambient air
flow rate is 1.805m3/min. The overall procedure is
tabulated in Table: 5.
Fuel consumption vs. moisture
In the experiments, 10kg batch of each waste feed
was charged to the incinerator. Natural gas consumption
against %age moisture content of selected waste feeds was
shown in table: 5.
Oily Sludge
10kg waste Oily sludge was charged with 10%, 12%, 16% and
18% moisture contents. At 655oC preheating temperature fuel
consumption was observed.
Mix Blend (Oily Sludge & Medical waste)
10kg of Mix Blend (5kgwaste Oily sludge+5kg Medical

waste) was charged with 10%, 12%, 16% and 18%
moisture contents. At 655oC preheating temperature fuel
consumption was observed.
Figure 6: mix blend waste(oily sludge +medicalwaste)

TABLE5 Experimental plan for the waste feeds
Parameters
PCC
temperature
Quantity
Moisture
Content
SCC
temperature
Figure 4: Oily sludge waste
Medical Waste
10kg Medical waste was charged with 10%, 12%, 16% and
18% moisture contents. At 655 o C preheating temperature
fuel consumption was observed.
Unit
Moisture
Exp#
Exp#
Exp#
Exp#
10
655
655
655
655
12
10
10
10
10
%age
16
10
12
16
18
18
850
850
850
850
kg/batc
h
Moisture contents vs. CO2

In this experimentation the incineration efficiency was studied
by effect of moisture contents variation on CO2 emissions.
The CO2 level in the stack gases was observed by flue gas
analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
During the experimental work on the incinerator installed
at NCPC-ARL, optimization of fuel was remained focus
on the incineration of waste oily sludge, and medical waste
and mix waste feed 5kgwaste Oily sludge+5kg Medical
waste). The result of the natural gas flow rate for the
different waste feed with variation in the moistures
contents is shown table: 6.
99
Moisture
%age
10
12
16
18
Oily Sludge
Waste(WF-1)
m3/kg
2.09
2.27
2.63
2.88
Medical
Waste(WF-1)
m3/kg
2.52
2.81
3.10
3.46
Mix Blend
Waste(WF-1)
m3/kg
2.33
2.45
2.85
3.06
FuelConsumption
m(3/kg)
The discussion on the results are primarily depends data

obtained by the primary combustion temperature and on
the flue gas analysis data received from the flue gas
analyser. The overall profile shows that in increase in
moisture content would cause increase in overall fuel
consumption. The results are on the basis of the data
obtained by varying moisture content on the various waste
feeds.
3.8
3.3
2.8
Oilysludge
waste
2.3
1.8
10
12 MoistureContent(%age
14
16
18
20 )
Figure 7: Moisture %age vs. fuel consumption
Moisture content effects on fuel usage for Oil Sludge

waste
Oily sludge waste is composed of hydrocarbons and
residue matter mud. So the decomposition of the waste oily
sludge is rapid than the medical and mix blend waste. At once
combustion starts then it take lower supplement fuel due to its
combustible nature. Four samples with 10%, 12%, 16%,18%
moisture content were incinerated at PCC temperature 655oC
for 15min.The fuel consumption for the waste oily sludge was
found increasing upon increasing the moisture contents. At
10% moisture content the consumption per kg was 2.09m3,at
12%,its was 2.27m3, at 16% it was 2.63m3 and at 18% 2.88m3
.The fuel consumption was found highest 2.885m3/kg in the
oily sludge waste sample having 18% moisture content. More
amount of fuel is required, so that first to vaporize the
moisture in the waste feed and then release of volatile gases.
Generally the oily sludge contains 12-13% moisture content
and at that moisture content %age the fuel consumption was
found about 2.274m3/kg. However the CO2 in the stack is
showing the incinerator having the combustion efficiency
better than that of the higher moisture content. To maintain
moisture content below 12% the sludge needs extra preheating
or drying to attain the moisture level. Drying at ambient
conditions require extra time where as preheating needs extra

energy.
3.3
Oilysludgewaste
FuelConsumption
m(3/kg)
FUEL CONSUMED FOR DIFFERENT WASTE FEEDS (M3/KG WASTE)
2.8
2.3
Oilysludge
waste
1.8
8
10 MoistureContent(%age)
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 8: moisture %age vs. for oily sludge waste
Moisture content effects on fuel usage for Medical waste

Medical Waste has heterogeneous properties. In
medical waste due to most of the plastic materials, the
decomposition of the organic matters completes at high
temperature. Decomposition of the medical waste (long
molecular weight chain) release heat. As a result of the energy
released there would a high temperature in the secondary
combustion chamber without use of supplement fuel.
10kg Medical waste was charged with 10%, 12%,
16% and 18% moisture contents. At 6550C preheating
temperature of primary combustion chamber, the fuel
consumption was observed. The Natural gas usage for the
medical waste was found increasing upon increasing the
moisture contents. At 10% moisture content the consumption
per kg was 2.52m3, at12% it was 2.81m3, at 16% it was
3.10m3 and at 18% 3.46m3. Generally the medical waste
contains 16-20% moisture content. The lowest fuel usage was
att10% moisture content. For 10% moisture content the
sample should be dried prior to incineration to achieve such
moisture. However the trend shown in fig: 4, that the average
optimum gas consumption, for medical waste, was observed
2.95m3 at 14% moisture content. At this moisture the CO2
level in emissions shows that combustion efficiency of the
equipments is well. Hence overall the incineration process is
feasible and in compliance with the local environmental
standards.
3.8
FuelConsumptionm(3/kg)
TABLE 6
MedicalWaste
3.3
2.8
Medical
Waste
2.3
1.8
8
10 MoistureContent(%age)
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 9: moisture %age vs. for medical waste
100
3.3
FuelConsumption
p
m(3/kg)
M
MixBlen
ndwastte
2.8
2.3
MixBlen
nd
waste
1.8
8
10 MoistureC
12
14
16 ) 18
ontent(%age)
20
Figu
ure 10: moistu
ure %age vs. foor mix blend (ooily sludge +m
medical
wasste)
At 10% moisture conntent the Naturral gas

coonsumption peer kg waste fedd was 2.23m3, at 12% it waas
2.445m3, at 16% it was 2.85m3 and at 18% it
i was 3.06m3.To
obbtain the compplete combustiion of mix feeed waste contaaining
166 % moisture the
t average fuuel consumptioon per kg wass
2.885m3 .The proofile is showinng that fuel coonsumption is
raiised due to inccrease in moissture content for
f the mix blend
waaste feed (meddical waste+ oily
o sludge waaste).For mix blend
b
waaste up to 16%
% moisture conntent is relatiively better. The
T
low
w fuel consum
mption observved at low moiisture content,, also
thee emissions arre associated with
w feed typee as explainedd
eaarlier. Thereforre, for 10 kg mix
m blend wasste with 12%
mooisture the ressults shows that fuel consum
mption is
coomparable withh the other waaste feed. Mixx waste feed caan be
used at this moiisture %age. Iff medical wasste is burnt aloone
theere is more chhance of toxic composition release in the
em
missions.
Moisture effects on CO2 emisssions at optimuum fuel usagee
The purrpose was to loocate the optim
mal combustioon
effiiciency againsst %age moistuure content off selected waste
feedds. Also the em
missions needds, to be in com
mpliance withh the
locaal environmenntal standards,, to make the incineration
i
envvironmental friendly along with
w the econoomic
connsideration. Thhe results of moisture %agge variation onn
inciineration efficciency were shhown by CO2 levels (analyssed
by using
u
flue gass analyser) aree tabulated. Foor the each traail,
dataa was recorded and tabulateed table: 7.
TABLE
E7
:CO2 AT VARIOUS
V
MOIS
STURE %AGE FO
OR DIFFERENT WASTE
W
FEEDS
S
Moisture
M
Oily Sludge
O
W
Waste
(WF-1)
Medical
Waste(WF-2)
Mix Blend
Waste(WF-33)
Carrbon dioxide (%age)

(
%age
%
10
12
16
18
122
101
72
60
202
122
87
66
211
140
99
72
The obtaiined data refleects that the effficiency of thhe

incin
nerator is decreeased with inccrease in moissture content for
f
all th
he three waste feeds types. IIn all cases thiis is due to higgher
moissture content, a part of energgy supplied firrstly evaporattes
the moisture
m
conteent in the wastte feed and theen start its
decomposition. Thhis will decreaase over all eff
fficiency.
Moreeover the moissture %age also reduces thee flame
temp
perature and afffects the rate of heat transffer. However
16% and 18% moiisture contentss the combusttion
charaacteristics shoowing increasiing the CO2 leevel. The effecct of
moissture content variation,
v
on C
CO2 concentraation in
emissions, for all the
t waste feedd types is repreesented in thee
Fig.:6.
CO2(%age)
CO2 (%age)
Moisture conteent effects on fuel

M
f usage forr Mix Blend waste
w
The com
mbustion of mix
m blend wastte fed containiing
equual amount (5kkgwaste Oily sludge+5kg Medical
M
waste)) of
oilyy sludge and medical
m
waste, decreases the hazardous
emiissions in operrational condiitions. 10kg off Mix Blend was
w
chaarged with 10%
%, 12%, 16% and 18% moiisture contentss. At
65550C preheatingg temperature fuel consumpption was
obsserved. Data of
o fuel consum
med during thee incineration of
mixx blend waste feed is shownn in Table: 6.
250
OilySludgge
Waste
200
150
100
50
0
8
12
16
Mo
oisture
20
Figurre 11: Percentaage CO2 as a ffunction of Moisture

M
conten
nt
CONC
CLUSIONS
To examiine the affect oof the operatin
ng variables on
o
the in
ncineration off refinery oily sludge, mediccal waste and mix
blend
d waste feed inn a multi cham
mber incinerattor of 50 kg/hhr
incin
neration capacity, experimenntation was caarried out. Thee
incin
neration results of various w
waste feed is sh
howing that thhe
moissture in the waaste feed has a great influen
nce on the fuell
consu
umption and CO
C 2emissionss. The key find
dings regardinng
the fuel
fu optimizatiion are as folloowing.
The emissions from thee incinerator at
a the optimum
m
fuel usage
u
are alsoo quiet in com
mpliance with the
t nation
envirronmental quaality standardss. The flue gass contains the
hazarrdous substannces within thee safe limits. The
T results
obtaiined are tabulaated in the tabble: 6 for referrence. On the
basiss of experimenntation carriedd out for vario
ous type of waaste
feed to determine the
t fuel econoomy along witth environmenntal
pliance, the feeasible operatiing parameters depending upon
u
comp
101
the values of CO2 in emissions, primary combustion chamber

preheating temperature and secondary chamber temperature,
can be concluded:
In test run for the 10kg Oily sludge waste incinerated at
preheating PCC temperature 655oC ,the incinerator operation
is feasible and economical up to 16% moisture content .Also
at this the CO2 emissions from the stack were found on higher
side showing that efficient combustion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors extend their gratitude to Department of
Chemical Engineering, NWFP University of Engineering and
Technology for their support, HCDIP ISD for analysis and
especially to NCPC-ARL Rawalpindi for use of facilities,
great encouragement and help during the whole work for
successfully completion of the project.
REFERENCES
For the medical waste burned in these tests, at preheating

PCC temperature 655oC, the optimum conditions that
resulted reasonable fuel usage was found highest at least
moisture content i.e 10% moisture along with increasing CO2
emissions from the stack. But on the basis of data the
equipment is to be operated on 14% moisture content to
optimize the overall performance.
In case of complete combustion of mix feed waste
containing (waste oily sludge and medical waste) the optimum
results ranging from 14 to 16% moisture content. These
results are quite acceptable and reasonable in case of fuel
economy. Also the efficiency is comparable for the oily
sludge waste having 18% moisture and medical waste having
12% moisture. Combustion of mix blends waste (oily sludge
together with the medical waste feed) cause the higher
CO2level in emission and also reduces the overall utilization
of supplementary fuel in the operation. At lower moisture
contents in the waste feed, minimum time and energy is
necessary for de-volatilization and thus overall efficiency of
the incinerator would be on higher side.
During normal operation, recording of primary combustion
chamber (PCC) and secondary combustion chamber
temperatures, as well as CO2, assures continuously efficient
combustion and minimum impact on the environment.
However other wastes and other settings of air supply to the
PCC (primary combustion chamber) and SCC (secondary
combustion chamber), flue gas analysis and instrumentation
would result in different optimum settings. CO2 measurements
pro-vide the means for determining and maintaining optimum
conditions.
P.E. Bonnier, G.L. Akoun, E Properties of Navy Oily Sludge, NTIS

No. ADA l64 533. HDM, 1984, USA.
Manual on Disposal of refinery waste, Volume of solid waste API.
Li, C.T. "PAH emission from the incineration of waste oily sludge
and PE plastic mixtures", Science of the Total Environment,
The, 19950929.
Guo Hui Liu. "Study on the Optimization Design of MSW
Incinerator Combustion in O2/CO2 Atmosphere", Challenges
of Power Engineering and Environment, 2007.
Lee CC, Huffman GL. Review of federal/state medical waste
management. Paper No. 91-30.9, 84th Annual Meeting and
Exhibition, Air and Waste Management Association,
Vancouver, BC, June 1621, 1991.
Borowsky AR, Fleischauer PD. Medical waste disposal, 86th
AnnualMeeting and Exhibition, Air and Waste Management
Association, Denver, CO, June 1318, 1993.
Exhibition, Air and Waste Management Association, Cincinnati,
OH, June 1924, 1994.
Yang, Y.B. "Converting moving-grate incineration from combustion
to gasification - Numerical simulation of the burning
characteristics", Waste Management, 2007.
Jangsawang, W. "Effects of operating parameters on the combustion
of medical waste in a controlled air incinerator", Energy
Conversion and Management, 200512 L.A. Karr and I. Lysyj,
Physical, Chemical and Toxicological.
Yao Bin Yang. "Numerical simulation of Municipal Solid Waste
incineration in a moving-grate furnace and the effect of waste
moisture content", Progress in Computational Fluid Dynamics
an International Journal, 2007.
S. Sankaran. "Experimental investigation on waste heat recovery by
refinery oil sludge incineration using fluidised-bed technique",
Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part a, 07/1998.
Karayildirim, T. "Characterisation of products from pyrolysis of
waste sludges", Fuel, 200607/08.
Anderson, S.R. "Multi-objective optimization of operational
variables in a waste incineration plant", Computers and
Chemical Engineering, 2005.
102

Lack of Indigenization of Renewable Energy

Technologies and its Effects on Energy
Situation in Pakistan
Ajaz Bashir Janjua, Muhammad Ashraf Butt and Liaqat Ali
AbstractPakistan is blessed with abundant renewable energy
resources. Identified potential of wind and hydro electricity is at least
twenty times more than the current total power generation of the
country. Despite availability of such a large potential, Pakistan is one
of the most power deficient countries on the globe. There are
numerous reasons for power crisis in the country, lack of
indigenization of renewable energy technologies is one of the most
prominent reasons.
For energy-production in the developing countries, the

expansion of existing energy resources and exploration of
new sources is an important exercise to be considered, in
order to ensure their future and sustain their development
initiatives. It is indeed the developing countries that have to
bear the maximum pressure of energy-scarcities.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES OF PAKISTAN
The present indigenization status of different renewable energy

technologies has been given in the paper. A critical analysis of the
efforts being made by the government and the industry to improve
the situation is also carried out and presented.
Key words Renewable Energy, Hydro-power, Wind energy,
sustainability, indigenization.
INTRODUCTION
PAKISTAN
IS AN ENERGY-DEFICIENT COUNTRY. ENERGY

PLAYS AN INCREASINGLY CRUCIAL ROLE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT AND WELL-BEING OF A NATION.
ENERGY HAS IMPACT ON LIVES, LIVELIHOODS,
GROWTH AND PROGRESS, NOT ONLY AT A
COLLECTIVE LEVEL BUT ALSO AT THE INDIVIDUAL,
GRASSROOTS LEVEL. GIVEN THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF
TODAY, THE SOURCE AND NATURE OF ENERGY, THE
SUPPLY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ITS
SUPPLY AND THE UTILIZATION NEED TO BE
ADDRESSED IN A COMPREHENSIVE AND EFFECTIVE
MANNER.
Renewable Energy resources and technologies have the

potential to provide solutions to the long-standing
problems being faced by the country's economy, the
industry, the environment and the masses in the
consumption of traditional sources of energy. It is only
through devising such solutions that the development of
nations can continue without hindrance, and so contribute
towards sustainable developmental goals. The renewable
energy sources like wind energy, solar energy, geothermal
energy, ocean energy, biomass energy and fuel cell
technology can be used to overcome energy shortage in
Pakistan.
Energy has always been a vital and indispensable input in

any economy. It functions as blood stream in production, a
fuel for transportation and power source in electricity
generation. The population of Pakistan is growing at an
alarming rate and the demand on the existing energy supplies
are also increasing; therefore it is necessary to identify
alternate/Renewable energy sources.
Since, Renewable resources of energy has been considered
non depleteable therefore attention of the policy makers and
researchers has been focused on efficient exploration of
alternative energy resources for catering a portion of total
energy requirements in the future.
Pakistan has wide spectrum of high potential of renewable
energy sources, conventional and non-conventional as well,
which have not been adequately explored, exploited or
developed. As a result, the primary energy supplies today are
not enough to meet even the present demand. Moreover, a
very large part of the rural areas does not have the
electrification facilities because they are either too remote
and/or too expensive to connect to the national grid. So,
Pakistan, like other developing countries of the region, is
facing a serious challenge of energy deficit. The
development of the renewable energy sources can play an
important role in meeting this challenge.
The Countrys energy demand had grown at an annual
consumption growth rate of 4.8% in the past five years but
now it is expected to grow at 8 to 10% per annum till the end
of current decade [2]. Therefore, need exists for a high and
sustained growth in energy supply and infrastructure capacity
103
of 7 - 8% per annum to support the steady growth in the

Countrys GDP. Hydel power being most inexpensive needs
utmost attention.
Pakistan has abundant energy resources, which need to be
harnessed through an institutionalized strategy for optimum
utilization. The Government has set out an action plan to
achieve exploration and maximum utilization of indigenous
resources like oil, gas, coal and alternative sources like hydel,
wind energy, solar energy etc. Maximum participation of the
private sector in this regard is encouraged.
Government of Pakistan is putting greater emphasis on
Renewable Energy and has set a target of 10% renewable
energy or 2700 MW in the Country's energy mix by 2015.
Pakistan, like other developing countries of the region, is
facing a serious challenge of energy deficit. Renewable
Energy resources can play an important role in bridging this
deficit. More importantly, Renewable Energy can take
electricity to remote rural areas, where power transmission
becomes too expensive. The Government of Pakistan aims
that all localities not planned to be connected with national
grid in next 20 years, be earmarked for Alternative/
Renewable Energy resources and the solar/ wind energy
related technologies be indigenized in next decade through
national/ international collaboration.
Recently the Government realizing the importance of the

renewable in the development of remote areas, has
established an organization namely Pakistan Council of
Renewable Energy Technologies to do research, development,
promotion, dissemination, policy-making, advising and
assisting government and related industries in this field.
Alternate Energy Board has been established in the country to
facilitate the deployment of the renewable energy
technologies. Like wise Heavy Mechanical Complex , state
owned company is taking part in the development of
renewable energy technologies mostly in the hydro-power
sector.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES OF PAKISTAN
Hydropower source of energy is very well known in Pakistan
and there is ever growing experience in this sector to develop the
hydropower potential indigenously in the country. The hydro
potential was estimated at about 50,000 MW out of which
about 6,464 MW has been developed over the past 50 years
through mega-hydel plants and the remaining has yet to be
exploited. The canal system has a huge hydropower potential at
numerous sites / locations. Also the northern areas of the
country are rich with hydropower resources.
The energy of water has been harnessed as early as the

antiquity through the water mill. Nowadays, this energy is
used in hydroelectric power stations to generate electricity. Its
working principle is simple: water drives turbines, which in
turn drive alternators. These alternators turn the mechanical
energy developed by the turbines into electrical energy. The
power of a hydro power plant depends on the quantum and
head of water that is available.
Hydro energy is a renewable source of energy based on the
natural rhythm of water cycle. It generates about 15% of the
power generated in Europe. About 80% of all the
hydroelectric production of the world is concentrated in four
regions: North America, Western Europe, South America and
Eastern Asia.
Table-1 to 4 show the hydro-power potential in the country
[7]. Figure-1 and 2 show the Pakistans electric power demand
(2007-2030) and year-wise hydro-power induction in the
country respectively.
TABLE-1
INSTALLED HYDROPOWER STATIONS IN PAKISTAN
Sr. No.
Name of Station
Installed capacity (MWs)
Tarbela
3478
Ghazi Barotha
1450.
Mangla
1000.
Warsak
240.0
Chashma
184.0
Rasul
22.0
Malakand
19.6
Dargai
20.0
13.8
Nandipur
10
Shadiwal
13.5
11
Chichoki Malian
13.2
12
K.Garhi & Renala
5.1
13
Chitral
1.
14
Satpara
4.86
Total
6464
TABLE-2
HYDROPOWER PROJECTS IN PRIVATE SECTOR
Name of Project
Capacity (MW)
Tentative Commissioning
New Bong Escape at
84
2010
Rajdhani at Punch
(AJK)
132
2011
Matiltan at Swat
84
2012
Malakand III(Shydo )
81
2008
Kotli
100
2011
Gulpur (AJK)
120
2012
Gabral Kalam
101
2012
104
TABLE-3
PAKISTANS HYDRO-POWER POTENTIAL
Sr.
No.
CONTRIBUTION OF HMC IN DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRO-POWER.

Power
(MW)
River/ Tributary
1.
Indus River
35760
2.
Tributaries of Indus (Northern Areas) of NWFP
5558
3.
Jhelum River
3143
4,
Kunhar River
1250
5.
Neelum River & its Tributaries
2459
6.
Poonch River
397
7.
Swat River & its Tributaries
2388
8.
Chitral River & its Tributaries
2282
9.
Schemes below 50 MW on Tributaries
1290
TOTAL =
Heavy Mechanical Complex being the largest industrial

unit in Pakistan have the most adequate facilities and
skills for the design, engineering and manufacturing of
heavy, medium and small components of all kind of
industrial plants, like cement plants, sugar plants, cranes,
boilers, heat exchangers, and also hydro-power plants.
Based on the capabilities and skills available, HMC have
completed different projects of hydro-power sector, out of
which some are mentioned in the Table-5. In general, HMC
has all the facilities required for production of a complete
Hydro Power Plant.
HMC is also in the process of indigenous development of
wind turbines to utilize the wind power energy of the country.
54, 527
TABLE-5
PRESENT INSTALLED CAPACITY IN PAKISTAN
TABLE-4
PRESENT INSTALLED CAPACITY IN PAKISTAN
Sr. No.
Type
Capacity
(MW)
%age of Total
Capacity
WAPDA Hydro
6464
32.9
Thermal (GENCOs)
6590
33.5
Thermal (IPPs)
6155
31.3
Nuclear (PAEC)
462
2.3
TOTAL:
19671
Project.
Ghazi
HPP
Barotha 290 MW Turbine spiral casing, draft tube liners,

pier nose & pit liners, 70 & 6 tons cranes, HP
vessels, misc. equipments
Turbine head covers, bottom plate & rings, wicket
Warsak
HPP
gates, trash rack, bulk head gates, sill beams, stop
Rehabilitation
logs, draft tube gates & trash rack followers, 50 & 5
Project.
tons cranes.
250 & 50 tons cranes, draft tube gates, lifting
Terbela HPP
beam, sill cleaning device.
Chashma HPP
Monorail crane with grab for under water trash cleaning.
NAPWD
Khan Pur Dam
120000
101478
Description
36 Nos. small hydro power plants of 300 KW to 1250

KW
Design, engineering & manufacturing of spill way gates
Kurram Garhi HPP 01 MW Francis turbine runner
100000
MW
Abbasia
Canal
System
Kundal Shahi HPP
(AJK)
Mahawali
Irrigation System,
Penstock for
81MW MalakandIII HPP.
Penstock for AJK,
HPP's.
Nandi-Pur HPP
72169
80000
60000
44903
35413
40000
22353
20000
17328
0
2007
2010
2013
2016
2019
2022
2025
2028
Fig. 1 Pakistans Electric Power Demand (2007-2030)

7000
Manufacturing repair & rehabilitation of 1 MW

hydro power plant
32 Nos. sluice & fixed wheel gates
01 No. 770m long Penstock with dia=4000mm and
Manifold for three turbine units.
03 Nos. Penstocks for 3.2MW Sharian HPP, 3.2MW
Rehra HPP and 3.0 MW Qadirabad HPP in AJK
Development of 04 Nos. Kaplan Turbine Runner Blades
6464
6174
6000
5000
MW
70 Nos. cross regulator & head regulator gates
5014
4730
4198
4000
3000
2902
2000
1599
1000
868
62
0
1952
1962
1972
Fig. 2 Year Wise Hydel Power Induction
1982
1992
2002
In line with the objectives set out in vision 2030 and Medium
Term Development Framework (MTDF) 2005 for the
development of local capability to design, manufacture,
install and commission hydro power plant, the Government
of Pakistan has decided to award a 16 MW hydro power
project Naltar-III to Heavy Mechanical Complex as a model
project on turn key basis.
105
Photographs of some of hydro-power plant equipments

manufactured by HMC for various power projects are shown
in Figure-2.
Average wind speed is more than 7 m/s in Gharo Wind

Corridor. Estimated wind potential in costal areas of Sindh alone
is more than 50,000 MW. Other sites in Balochistan and
Northern Areas being identified In the same geographical
environment as we have in Pakistan, India has set up the first of
its ten 55 KW plants at Gujarat in1986 whereas 700MW have
been produced in Gujarat in 2007. Total installed wind capacity
in India now exceeds 10,000 MW mark.
Following factors are hindering the utilization of wind
power in Pakistan;
1) Lack of technical expertise for wind project development
and construction.
2) Lack of local manufacturing base for wind turbines.
3) Poor transportation infrastructure leading to wind sites
(road, culvert, bridge replacement or
4) upgrades necessary).
5) Lack of heavy lift cranes.
6) Financing issues - Lenders cautious.
IV.1 FUTURE PROSPECTS OF WIND ENERGY IN PAKISTAN
1) Currently, Market is dependent upon foreign supplies
2) Local manufacturing industry has the capacity to start
manufacturing of towers and other parts of wind turbines
3) Manufacturing of complete micro-wind turbines units
has already been started
4) Interest shown by several investors in local
manufacturing of WTG
5) Transfer of Technology is being considered by leading
manufacturers and a few such proposals are under review
Year-wise planned production target of electric energy by
GOP through renewable energy source of wind power is
shown in the Figure-3.
Fig. 2 Photographs of some hydro-power plant equipments

IV. POTENTIAL OF WIND POWER
Harnessing wind power to produce electricity on a
commercial scale has become the fastest growing energy
technology [3]. Economic, political and technological forces are
now emerging to make wind power a viable source of energy.
Though apparently Pakistan has tremendous wind potential,
but at present the facilities for generating electricity from
wind are virtually nonexistent in the country. Pakistan has
around 1046 km long coastline in south, which could be utilized
for the installation of wind farms, as found in most European
countries.
Fig. 3 Year-wise planned production target of electric energy.
There is a single project is started in Gharo who's capacity is

50MW and unfortunately it generates only 2MW
106
V. POTENTIAL OF SOLAR ENERGY

Pakistan being in the sunny belt is ideally located to take
advantage of the solar energy technologies. This energy
source is widely distributed and abundantly available in the
country. During last twenty years Pakistan has shown quite
encouraging developments in photovoltaic (PV). Currently,
solar technology is being used in Pakistan for stand alone rural
telephone exchanges, repeater stations, highway emergency
telephones, cathodic protection, refrigeration for vaccine and
medicines in the hospitals etc.
The Public Health Department has installed many solar water
pumps for drinking purposes in different parts of the country.
Both the private and public sectors are playing their roles
in the popularization and up grading of photovoltaic
activities in the country. A number of companies are not only
involved in trading photovoltaic products and appliances but
also manufacturing different components of PV systems. They
are selling PV modules, batteries, regulators, invertors, as
well as practical low power gadgets for load shedding such as
photovoltaic lamps, battery chargers, garden lights etc
V.1 RESOURCES OF SOLAR ENERGY IN PAKISTAN
Pakistan has a very good overall solar-energy potential. The
average daily insulation rate amounts to approximately 5.3
kWh/m2. South-western province of Baluchistan offers excellent
conditions for harnessing solar energy. Sun shines between 8
and 8.5 hours daily, or approximately 3,000 hours per annum.
Practically Solar Power Potential is approx: 10,000 MW
throughout the country.
2) Renewable Energy Decentralized

i. Reduction of losses in transmission / distribution
ii. Regional employment
iii. Less concentrated target for illegal action
VIII.
CONSTRAINTS IN DEVELOPMENT OF RENEWABLE

ENERGY IN PAKISTAN
1) Limited financial resources for project studies and

implementation.
2) Remote location of promising potential sites and dilapidated
infrastructure.
3) Lack of trained and skilled manpower.
4) Non availability of local manufacturing facility for electromechanical equipments.
5) Lack of experienced local construction companies for
medium to large size Hydro Power Projects.
6) Less response from private investors in implementing
hydropower projects.
7) Security situation.
Recent initiatives taken by Government of Pakistan for
development of local capability to manufacture Power Plants
in the country.
Government of Pakistan has in principal decided to upgrade
Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC) facilities for manufacturing
of complete power plant machinery in the country. Accordingly
two PC-I have been submitted to the Planning Commission.
REFERENCES
[7]
VI. ECONOMICAL METHODS TO REDUCE ENERGY CRISIS

Pakistan, despite the enormous potential of its energy
resources, remains energy deficient and has to rely heavily on
imports to satisfy hardly its needs. Moreover a very large part of
the rural areas does not have the electrification facilities because
they are either too remote and or too expensive to connect to the
national grid.
To reduce present energy crisis of Pakistan & to produce
economical electricity, it is the urgent need of time to utilize
non-conventional & renewable energy resources.
VII. BENEFITS OF RENEWABLE ENERGIES
World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of

Sustainability, 2000, UNDP (United Nations Development Program),
New York O.
[8] Power and Alternative Energy Asia, www.powerasia.com.pk
[9] FBS, 1998, 50-Years of Pakistan in statistics: Federal Bureau of
Statistics(FBS), Government of Pakistan, Vol. I, p.124-137.
[10] Renewable-Energy Technologies and Sustainable Development,
Proceedings February 2005.
[11] Renewable Energy Technologies - An Energy Solution for Long-Term
Sustainable Development; Science, Technology and Development; 20
(4)2001, pp 25-35.
[12] Renewable Energy in South Asia, Status and Prospects, 2000, World
Energy Council, London.
[13] Power System Statistics, 32nd Issue, Planning (Power)

Department (NTDC), WAPDA - Jan, 2008.
[14] Pakistan Thrust Areas in Renewable Energy for Rural Development in
Proc: Inter. Conf. On Renewable Energy Technology for
Rural Development, 2003, Khatmandu, Nepal.
[15] Wind energy potential of coastal areas of Sindh & Balochistan: First
National Workshop on PREGA, Islamabad, March 5-6, 2002.
1) Renewable Energy Benefits

i. Domestic fossil fuel savings
ii. Saving of foreign currency on imported energy
iii. Environmental emissions reduction
iv. Employment generation
v. Stimulation of local manufacturing industries
107

Net Metering: Zero Electricity Bill

Aijaz Mangi*, Zahid Khan** and Inam Shah***
*aijaz.mangi@pnra.org,**zahid.khan@pnra.org,***inam.shah@pnra.org
* Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority, Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract Worldwide move towards renewable
energy sources, environmental concerns and decentralization of the power sector have made net
metering an attractive option for power generation at
small scale.
This paper discusses the net metering, economical
issues of renewable sources in Pakistan, technical
aspects, installation suitability according to varying
terrain, existing utility rules and formulation of
legislation for net metering making it economically
attractive.
Keywords: Net metering, renewable energy sources,
bi-directional energy meter, solar panels, and wind
turbine.
Table 1.
Gross
Generation
(KWh)
Gross
Consumption
(KWh)
Net
consumption
(KWh)
Bill
Hour
one
2
Hour
Two
2
Hour
Three
2
Total
6
+1
-1
Rs.
+4.20
Rs.
-4.20
Rs.0
INTRODUCTION
CALCULATION EXAMPLE
As shown in Table 1, during the first hour, the bidirectional meter spins neither forward nor backward.
During the second hour, the meter spins forward,
registering the consumption of 1 kWh. During the third
hour, however, the same meter spins backward,
effectively "netting out" the 1 kWh consumed. so the net
consumption at the meter is zero, hence zero amount will
be charged from the consumer.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Major source of energy since industrial revolution (1850)
is fossil fuels, and it is expected that by 2850 fossil fuel
age will be ended, world is contemplating seriously for
the renewable energy sources on the large scale basis, as
Nevarra in Spain is meeting 70% of energy needs from
wind and solar energy. As up to 2009 energy production
from the wind energy in the world is 157,899 MW, where
Europe Union is producing 74,767 MW, USA is
producing 35,159 MWe and India is producing,
80,000 74,767
EU
70,000
USA
60,000
MWe
Price of energy is increasing in Pakistan at galloping

pace; renewable energy sources will best serve as an
important alternative to fossil fuels in future and will play
crucial role in coping with the energy crunch and abating
the energy cost.
Net metering is legal agreement aimed at facilitating and
encouraging the use of renewable energy sources.
Net metering allows the customer to compensate the
electricity generation over an entire billing time. This
technique uses bi-directional energy meter, it spins
backwards when the consumer is exporting power to grid
and spins forward when power is being imported. The
consumer will be charged for the energy consumed. If
energy consumption and generation equals at the energy
meter, zero amounts will be charged and in case of extra
generation, consumer will be paid accordingly.Net
metering program encourages private investment in
renewable energy sources, stimulate local economic
growth, diversify energy resources and improve the
environment.
CHINA
50,000
INDIA
35,159
40,000
25000
30,000
20,000
8000
10,000
0
EU
USA
CHINA
COUNTRY
INDIA
Fig. 1 Electrical Energy Production from Renewable

Energy resources in different countries
108
8000MW of electricity using wind energy. China has

identified wind power as a key growth component of the
country's economy. China is the second largest producer
of wind power, after the States. it is producing 25000
MW, Researchers from Harvard and Tsinghua University
have found that China could meet all of their electricity
demands from wind power through 2030[20].
As far as solar energy is concerned Germany has installed
234 MW capacity of the Solar power plants, ,China and
Canada are receiving 80 MW from and Spain 60
MWe.Installed capacity in india for the solar power is
2.12 MW so far, but some projects have been proposed,
and a 35,000 km area of the Thar Desert has been set
aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700
to 2,100 gigawatts. In July 2009, India unveiled a US$19
billion plan, to produce 20 GW of solar power by 2020[20]
250
234
MWe
200
GERMANY
CANDA
CHINA
SPAIN
INDIA
150
100
80
80
60
50
2.12
0
COUNTRY
Figure 2.Solar Energy production in different countries of the world
Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for

Pakistan. In rural areas, producing electricity from
renewable sources (wind turbines can be more viable
option) at large scale can offer a effective alternative for
the local consumption and surroundings and extra
generated energy can be exported to other parts by
selecting feasible point of connection.
Pakistan has high wind speeds near major centres. Near
Islamabad e.g.Kalar Kahar the wind speed is anywhere
from 6.2 to 7.4 meter per second (between 13.8 and 16.5
miles per hour). In coastal areas of the sindh e.g.Badin,
Thatta the range is between 6.2 and 6.9 meter per second
(between 13.8 and 15.4 miles per hour).
Given this surplus potential, Pakistan can offer much
cheaper power to neighboring countries if wind energy is
exploited properly.
Pakistan has abundance of renewable energy sources;
According to study conducted by the Pakistan
metrological department gross wind power potential in
coastal areas of the sindh is 43000 MW and potential
areas cover 9700 Sq.KM.
Feasibility study for the installation of 18 MW Model

wind power project was prepared, Estimated Total cost is
about Rs. 850 million and the payback period is 7-8
years. The levelised cost of power generation is estimated
as Rs. 2.9/Kwh.
Solar energy can be utilized for the generation of the
electricity. If 25% of Baluchistan is covered with solar
panels with an efficiency of 20%, enough electricity
would be generated to cover all of Pakistans demand.
Though initial cost of the solar panels is not that much
cheaper, as according to one of the private company in
Pakistan working on solar panels, installation cost of the
one watt is Rs. 60/- per Watt, per Hour basis.
Therefore cost of the One KW of solar energy would be
Rs. 60/ per Watt x 1000W = Rs. 60,000 x 4 Hours
Backup = Rs. 240,000/=,but this cost can be made
affordable to everyone if local resources are properly
utilized, as for the manufacturing of the solar cells Quartz
and silica are used. Quartz is available in abundance in
the northern areas of our country. People of the northern
areas are raising walls of their houses utilising this raw
material in place of bricks and other material silica is
available in rivers and many other places.
Pakistan generates about 19,500 MW of electricity;
Wapda provides about 11,363 MW, or 58 per cent of this.
The remaining power is supplied by the KESC, PAEC
(nuclear) and IPPs. Electricity demand is expected to
grow by eight per cent a year during the period 2005
2015, requiring an annual installation capacity of about
2000 MW for the next 10 years.
Net metering is an effective tool to abridge the hiatus
between consumption and generation by enticing the
general public for active participation. Laws facilitating
the domestic consumer will play pivotal role to invest in
the renewable energy sources.
NET METERING PRACTICES
Texas was one of the first states in the USA to recognize
the right of electricity customers to connect small
generation to the electric distribution system to receive
compensation for the electricity for exporting energy to
grid. [18]
Table 2 quotes examples of the different states of the
USA where net metering is in practices. [19]
Table 2.
State
Eligible customers
Texas
Washington
Arkansas
All customer
All customer classes
Residential
Commercial
Residential
California
Colorado
Georgia
Limit on the
system
size(Kw)
50
25
25
100
1000
10
10
109
Indiana
New Hampshire
New jersey
New Mexico
New York
Virginia
commercial
All customer
All customer
Residential and
small commercial
Residential only
Residential
Commercial
100
1000/month
25
100
10
10
10
25
REGULATIONS
Currently there are no laws about net metering in
Pakistan and they are needed to be developed. Some
suggestions are here, to be incorporated in the legislature
to enhance the diversification of energy sources, and
stimulate economic growth. As there may be approved
standard interconnection tariff for net metering, it maybe
uniform and affordable for all consumers; net metering
maybe encouraged for the solar and wind sources as
Pakistan exhibits great potential for them. All utility
customer classes (residential, commercial, agricultural,
and industrial) shall be eligible to net meter, but domestic
consumers specially in rural areas may be encouraged by
offering him/her special leverages. Electric energy to be
netted monthly and Renewable energy producer receive
the same tariff for selling the energy on which he is
buying from the utility and credit amount does not expire
even the lapse of the month, i.e. Customers to receive
monetary credit for all excess kWh generation. Utilities
may not charge a net-metered customer additional fees.
Utility shall ensure that all consumer complaints are
properly registered and accurately recorded.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
General arrangement for connecting with the network is
given in figure 1.The Point of Interconnection (POI) or
lockable disconnect (LD) is defined as the terminals of
the network Isolating Switch on the Customer's facility
side. The technical specifications and location of the
POI/LD should be defined by the utility. Protection and
operations schemes suggested by the utility should
address the both scenarios i.e. during importing and
exporting power.
Disconnecting device according to voltage and current
requirements are used to disconnect if abnormal
fluctuations are experienced. Automatic synchronizing
check devices are used as well as manual devices are also
available. However for the protection, national electrical
safety codes are needed to be developed to accentuate the
safety measures and delineate the design criteria for the
net metering arrangement.
In the absence of the national codes, international codes
and standards can be used.
Utility shall be made bound to implement suitable,

necessary, and appropriate rules, regulations and working
practices, as outlined(or be asked to formulate) in its
Codes or applicable documents, to ensure the safety of its
staff and members of the public. This shall also include
suitable courses for familiarity and understanding of the
rules, regulations, practices, and training to use any
special equipment that may be required for such purposes
including basic first aid training.
Government of Pakistan may consider to formulate
flexible and investment attractive laws to encourage the
establishment of consortium between the renewable
energy system manufacturers and investors. The
consortiums design, install, monitor, and maintain the
project. Financing arrangement between the consortium
and consumer may be decided with mutual consensus e.g.
40:60 ratio or 50:50 ratio etc. This will result in the easy
installations of the systems as both will be in win-win
situation as less burden will be borne by either and profit
will be received to both . Law may describes the terms
and conditions for the payback schedule for the amount.
Such consortium maybe exempted from the tax for
specified period. This kind of law will be helpful for the
energy mix.
Figure 3 Interconnection arrangements between consumer and

network
IEEE -1547 provides requirements and criteria for

interconnection of distributed resources with electric
power systems. This standard focuses on the technical
specifications and testing of the interconnection.
It provides requirements relevant to the performance,
operation, testing, safety considerations, and maintenance
of the interconnection. Usage of this standard will ensure
safety and reliability at the large extent.
110
CONCLUSION
Net metering programs are effective tool for encouraging
direct public investment in small-scale renewable energy
sources for abridging the gap between the generation and
consumption. Government, utilities and investors should
consider broader implementation of net metering as a
mechanism for promoting the commercialization of clean,
renewable and sustainable energy technologies.
The programs enhance economic incentives to the
owners of small renewable energy systems and encourage
private investment in renewable energy technologies
without requiring public funding. They are easy to
implement and require no constant regulatory interaction
or supervision after they are in place.
The attractiveness of net metering is high electricity
selling rate; this may provide a boost for investment in
the renewable energy.
[16] www.energy.ca.gov California public utility code

section 2827.
[17] www.iesco.com.pk official website of the Islamabad
electric supply corporation
[18] Steven M.Wiese, CSGServices, Inc., John
E.Hoffner, PE, CSGServices, Inc Erin Scott,
CSGServices, Inc, Interconnection and Net Metering of
small Renewable Energy in Texas.
[19] Thomas J.Starrs, Kelso Starrs & Associates, LLC,
Summary of state Net metering Program
[20] www.wikipedia.org
REFERENCES
[1] T.Forsyth, P.Tu, and J.Gilbert: Economics of Grid
connected small wind turbines in the domestic market.
[2] Yi-hue Wan, H-James Green: Current Experience

with net metering.
[3] Yi-hue Wan: Net metering programs
[4] Peter Dondi, Deia Bayoumi, Christoph
Haederli,Danny Julian, Marco Suter:Network integration
of distributed Power generation
[5] Thomas J. Starrs: Net metering-New opportunities for
home power.
[6] Laghari Javaid Dr.: Power vision for Pakistan
[7] B H khan: Non-Conventional Energy Resources
[8] www.pakmet.com.pk: Official website of Pakistan
metrological Department
[9] www.opfblog.com Overseas Pakistani Friends
[10] www.nepra.org.pk Official website of National
Electric Power Regulatory Authority.
[11] www.aedb.org official website of alternative Energy
development board Pakistan.
[12] IEEE std 1547: Standard for interconnectig
distributed resources with electric power system.
[13] www.wyoenergy.com: Energy Education, Recycle,
Conservation, Appliances Website
[14] www.ropingthewind.org: Small wind guide
[15] www.eere.energy.gov:Official Website of U.S.
Department of Energy
111

Novel hydrogen Production by Laser Induced electrical Signals During

Plasma Electrolysis of NaOH Mixed Water.
Muhammad Shahid, Noraih Bidin, Yacoob Mat Daud and Muhammad Inayat Ullah
1-3
.Department of Physics
Universiti Technologi Malaysia
Johor Bahru Malaysia
4.
Department of Computer science
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar
Pakistan
Email.bluefiber08@gmail.com
Corresponding author:Noriah Bidin
Abstract
Utilization of hydrogen energy has

many attractive features, including
energy renewability, flexibility, and
zero green house gas emissions. In this
current research the production and the
enhancement of hydrogen from the
NaOH mixed water have been
investigated under the action of diode
pumped solid state laser with second
harmonic of wavelength 532nm. The
efficiency of the hydrogen and oxygen
yields was found to be greater than the
normal Faradic efficiency. The
parametric dependence of the yields as
a function of laser irradiation time,
Laser focusing effect and other
parameters
of
the
electrolysis
fundamentals were carefully studied.
Key words: Photo catalysis; Electrolysis of
water; Hydrogen; Laser interaction; Electrical
signals; Oxygen.
1. Introduction
Hydrogen gas can be easily
obtained by the electrolysis. However,
direct decomposition of water is very
difficult in normal condition. The
pyrolysis reaction occurs at high
temperatures above 3700Co [1].
Anomalous
hydrogen
generation
during plasma electrolysis was already
reported [2-5].
Water in the liquid state has the
extremely high absorption coefficient
at a wavelength of 2.9 m [5]. The
effect of generation of an electric
signal, when IR-laser radiation having
the power density below the plasma
formation threshold interacts with a
water surface, was discovered by
[6].The electrical signals induced by
lasers were already reported by [7,8].
A lot of research has been done on
photo catalytic hydrogen production.
The photo catalytic splitting of water
using semiconductors has been widely
studied. Many scientists produce
hydrogen from water by using different
photo catalysts in water and reported
hydrogen by the interaction of lasers
[9-13]. In addition to this photolysis of
water has been studied using UV light
[14].Solar energy has been used to
obtained Hydrogen from water by
photo catalytic process [15].But these
methods are not economical and the
yields of hydrogen is not to an extent.
Among of many researchers used
different product analysis techniques
112
such as SEM (Scanning electron

micrograph), EDX (Energy dispersive
X-Ray), XRD (X-Ray diffraction),
AES (Auger electron Spectroscopy),
XPS and TOF-SIMS etc and reported
hydrogen in reaction product analysis
[16-19].But the above all methods are
in research stage .
Our work on lasers has revealed
the important parameters which played
a critical role in the enhancement of
hydrogen from water by laser. Most of
the research work basis on photo
catalysis has carried out by flash
lamps. A very little work is done by
lasers [20]. Since laser light has special
properties
like
monochromatic,
coherent, intense and polarize, so it
was of great interest to use the laser
beams as an excitation source in water.
The second parameter is that the most
of the work has done on light water,
distilled water and heavy water; we
have used drinking water for
production of hydrogen. We have used
NaOH electrolyte. The diode pumped
solid state laser having a green light of
wave length 532 nm was used as an
irradiation source. We investigated the
different parameters of the laser by
monitoring the rate of evolved gases
i.e. hydrogen and oxygen. We
inspected the dependence of hydrogen
and oxygen yields as a laser exposure
time, the effect of laser beam power
and the laser focusing effect.
2. Experimental Setup
A schematic diagram of the
hydrogen reactor is shown in Figure
2.The reactor contained a glass made
hydrogen fuel cell having dimension
10 inch X 10 inch. Fuel cell contained
a window for irradiation of laser, an
inlet for water and electrolyte, two
outlets for hydrogen and oxygen
gasses, an inlet for temperature probe
and a D.C power supply model ED-
345B.Two electrodes steel and

Aluminum were adjusted in the fuel
cell. A CCD camera and a computer
triggered with fuel cell for grabbing, a
multimeter and gas flow meter are
arranged with the fuel cell. The diode
pumped solid state laser with second
harmonics DPSS LYDPG-1 model
DPG-2000 having green light of
wavelength 532 nm was placed near
the fuel cell for irradiation during
electrolysis of water. Tipical DPSS
laser spectrum is shown in figure 1.The
drinking water 40 ml mixed with
10mL NaOH. In order to start the
electrolysis current was applied by D.C
source through steal and aluminum
electrodes. The laser beam from diode
pumped laser is incident on water
through window of the fuel cell. The
hydrogen and oxygen produced were
measured by gas flow meter. The laser
beam power was measured by a power
meter model Nova Z01500.The
temperature of the water was measured
by a Temperature probe i.e.
thermocouple
thermometer
and
mercury thermometer. The current was
measured with the help of multimeter.
The entire experimental run time was
90 minutes. The data was recorded
after every minute of the run.
Figure1: DPSS laser spectrum
113
H
2
O
2
PC
C
o
DPSS Laser
CCD
Camera
A
Power
Supply
Power
meter
DC
Figure2: Schematic diagram of hydrogen reactor
Figure 3. Oscillograms of electrical signal Peaks [7]
(ii)
(iii)
Effect of Temperature
Laser focusing effect
2. 1 Reaction Mechanism
1
e H 2 + O2
H 2 O + h electrolyt
2
The energy deposited to the water
----------- (1)
E = VIt + h
--------------- (2)
The criteria for splitting water is
E Ed
And
E = Ed + K H + K O
------------- (3)
3.1 Effect of laser exposure time

The Figure 4 represents the relationship between
the laser exposure time and the efficiency of
hydrogen and oxygen yields. It was observed that
the efficiency of yields increased rapidly after one
minute of the run and reached at 95%.After that
efficiency slightly decreased 90% and maintained
this value throughout the run of experiment. This
efficiency found to be greater than normal faradic
efficiency.
Where E is the total energy deposited to the water,

h is the laser energy, V is the applied D.C voltage,
I is the D.C current, t is the current rising time ,Ed is
the bond dissociation energy of water, KH is the
kinetic energy of hydrogen and KO is the kinetic
energy of oxygen.
100
E ffic ie n c y o f y ie ld s ( % )
90
3. Result and discussion
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
In order to investigate the role of electrolyte as a

photo catalyst for water splitting under the influence
of laser, various experiments were performed. It has
been observed that various important factors
affected the yield of hydrogen and oxygen.
(i)
Effect of laser exposure time
10
0
0
10
12
time(min)
Figure 4. A graph of laser exposure time versus efficiency of

yields
114
less. The non linear behavior of the curve in the

figure 5 shows the moment of the focus point due to
stirring of the water.
The other important factor which affected the

product yields was Laser power. It has been
detected that hydrogen and oxygen yields increased
with increase in laser input power.
Initially when the laser power was less than 1 watt
the yields increased linearly. When the laser power
reached at 1 watt a sudden increase was seen in the
yields. It was due to the big electrical signal
generated by the laser. This electrical signal peak
had enough energy to overcome the bond
dissociation energy of water.
0.000497
0.000496
0.000495
0.000494
0.000493
0.000492
0.000491
0
4
hydrogen and Oxygen yields(cc)
0.000498
H y d r o g e n y ie ld ( c c )
3.2 Effect of Laser power
3.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
distance from focus(cm)
3
2.5
Figure 5. Hydrogen yield versus distance from the laser focus.

Hydrogen
Oxygen
1.5
1
Conclusions
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
Laser power(watt)
Figure 4. A graph of laser power versus hydrogen and oxygen yields
3.4 Laser focusing effect

It was revealed that the laser focusing effect also
affected the yields. The experimental facts showed
that when the hydrogen reactor was near the focus
of the laser beam, the yield of hydrogen was found
to be large. As long as the distance from the focus
was increased the production observed to be less.
Figure 6 represents this effect. The maximum yield
was observed at 10 cm distance from the focus
where as minimum yield was observed at 60 cm
from the focal point. It was due to the fact that
when reactor was near the focus the intensity of
beam was large, so at that point powers per unit
area became large, so yield of hydrogen also
became large. Similarly when the distance form the
focus was increased power per unit area also
decreased, so hydrogen yield also observed to be
The experimental results revealed that, The

diode pumped solid state laser with second
harmonics having a green light of wave length
532nm was highly efficient in photo splitting of
water into hydrogen and oxygen during electrolysis
of drinking water. The laser focusing effect has
enhanced the hydrogen production during plasma
electrolysis of water. The relevant data and results
of the experiment exhibited that the production of
hydrogen can be increased by using the electrolyte
as a photo catalyst during plasma electrolysis of
water. The effect of laser focusing on the geometry
and the surface corrosion of electrodes was also an
important .This effect is our next future goal.
115
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Ushirozawa, Analysis By Time-OfFlight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy For Nuclear
Products In Hydrogen Penetration Through Palladium,
ICCF10, (2003).
[19] V.Violante, E. Castagna, C. Sibilia, S. Paoloni, F. Sarto,
Analysis Of Ni-Hydride Thin Film After Surface
Plasmons Generation By Laser Technique, ICCF 10,
(2003).
[20] Kia zeng, dongka zhang "Recent progress in alkaline
water electrolysis for hydrogen production and
applications"progress in energy and combustion science
(2009).
116

Optimization and Application of Hybrid Sustainable

Energy Systems
M. Nagrial, K. Mitchell, J. Rizk
Power Conversion and Intelligent Motion Control Research Group
University of Western Sydney
Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC
AUSTRALIA
Email: m.nagrial@uws.edu.au
Abstract- This paper shows that to achieve grid level of
reliability with wind solar and storage units alone is
impossibly expensive so practical designs have always
incorporated standby generation of some sort or other.
This paper describes a simulation technique that
enables a cost minimal, balanced hybrid system design.
Index Terms- Hybrid Energy Systems, Sustainable
Energy Systems, Renewable Energy
I. INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy systems are still much more expensive
than traditional grid connected power, except in remote
areas. Thus it is important that designs be optimised to
achieve the least delivered energy cost over a lifetime of
20 years or so. Many researchers
have discussed
optimisation of renewable energy systems involving wind,
solar, storage and standby engine components [1-12]. The
optimisation process is achieved by developing probability
density functions (pdfs) for the load, solar and wind
outputs. Whilst mathematically correct, the drawback in
these earlier works was the requirement to have precise
hourly records of wind and solar outputs at a site near
where the system was to be installed. Such records rarely
exist at many sites, although more general records, based
on daily data are available. In this work, a different
approach involving simulation has been adopted to solve
these difficulties.
A renewable energy system (RES) model has been set up
that uses actual wind, solar and load data available over a
3-year period. The advantage of the modelling approach is
that the impact of varying the main design parameters such
as wind, solar and storage capacity on system availability
can be readily determined and for a given performance
outcome, the mix of wind, solar and storage capacities that
gives the optimum cost can also be determined
experimentally. A further advantage is that the inherent
relationships between system loading and wind and solar
outputs are not compromised.
The main disadvantage of the simulation approach is that
ideally, many simulation runs should be performed to
ensure that the top 1% of the tails of the distributions

would be adequately covered, as it is these tails that
determine system reliability.
II. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM MODEL

The RES model used contained wind, solar, energy
storage, AC-DC conversion, and local (AC) load
components. The wind energy conversion system and the
solar panels provided the renewable energy inputs and
batteries the energy storage. The modelling covered standalone conditions, with and without back up generation.
The model, named Renewable System Simulator, is set
up on an Excel spreadsheet with embedded Visual Basic
macros. The model takes load, wind and solar data, and
hourly load patterns. The model is set up to do three
separate 28-day simulation runs in each system study, this
being geared to available data. However, there is nothing
inherent in the software that would prevent multiple runs
of arbitrary length being analysed.
In this study, three simulation runs were chosen as this
allows the main seasonal variations to be modelled in the
system in a single study in Sydney, as the regions annual
wind/solar patterns seem to best fit a three-season, rather
than the traditional four-season year. Readily available
meteorological data is used. Wind or especially solar
insolation data is rarely available in hourly levels, so
pseudo-hourly data has had to be constructed for the
analysis.
A.Wind Data
Weather data was obtained from the Australian Bureau of
Meteorology in a standard format, which included total
bright sunshine hours, and eight sets of 3-hourly average
wind speeds and directions. In the model, the 3-hour wind
data was approximated to one-hour data by assuming it
remained constant for the full 3 hours. Average 3-hourly
wind speeds for the western Sydney area for the study
period are shown in figure 1.
From the wind speed data, wind turbine output is
calculated from the turbine speed-power characteristic, i.e.
117
Vw < Vcutin: Pwr = 0

Vcutin Vw < Vrated : Pwr =
C. Equations
The empirical formula used to generate the pseudo-hourly
solar distributions from the BSS Hours data is listed
below.
It is a reasonable assumption to take the beam or direct
radiation as a proxy for bright sunshine.
P _ rated[(Vw Vcutin) /(Vrated Vcutin)].
Vrated Vw < Vshut down : Pwr = P _ rated

Vw Vshut down : Pwr = 0
(1)
where
Power = the power output of the wind turbine,
Vw = the wind speed, assumed constant for the
hour,
P_rated = the nominal rated power of the turbine,
V cutin = the cut-in speed of the turbine,
V rated = the rated speed of the turbine,
V shut-down = the shut-down speed of the turbine.
hours * 1.1* Noon_panel_radiation
Oct
Diff_daily_energy = Month_peak_equivalent
hours * 0.2* Noon_radiation
Panel_factor = Panel peak output at 1,000 W/m2
(in kW)
20.00
Jan
15.00
0.00
3-6 6-9 9-12 1215
1518
1821
2124
<1
Hours
45
5.00
July
Oct
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
23
10.00
April
12
-1
3
25.00
10
-1
1
30.00
0-3
Month_peak_equivalent
89
July
67
April
Beam_daily_energy
Percentiles
Avg 3-Hr Speed, km/hr
Jan
= Panel_factor * [BSS_hours *
Total_energy j
Beam_daily_energy/Total_day_hours
+
Diff_hours
*
Diff_daily_energy
/
Total_day_hours]
Energy i,j = Average i * (Total_energy j / Average total)
(2).
Where,
"Bright" Sun Hours
Figure 1: Average 3-Hourly Wind Speeds
B. Solar Data
Detailed hourly solar data for the period of
interest was not available. The most common
form of data is the so-called bright sunshine
hours, the daily total of hours each day during
which the sun is strong enough to burn a trace on
a standard Campbell-Stokes recorder.
While this sort of data can give a good idea of total daily
energy, it is of less direct help to model hourly variations.
However, average beam and diffuse solar radiation levels
by month for a horizontal plane was available for Sydney
in one location. This data was used to develop a
correlation between Daily BSS Hours and hourly
distributions and an empirical relationship was developed,
to create average hourly distributions from the BSS data.
Distributions of total daily bright sunshine hours (BSS)
by season, for the western Sydney area over the study
period are shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: Distribution of Daily Bright Sunshine

Hours
D. Load Data
The load of course varies considerably from user to user.
However, given that the objective is to model typical user
load, data averaged from zone substations in the area
was used. The latter supply typically 10,000-15,000
residential customers (or equivalent) each. A pseudo
single customer daily load cycle can be obtained from this
whole substation, by a pro-rata reduction of total
substation hourly load to the average daily per customer
energy consumption in NSW. Thus, the average load
cycle per customer multiplied by total customers was
equated to the total substation load. Two standard daily
load cycles were adopted: one for summer and the second,
for winter/spring. These were again based on average data
for the zone substations. The substation chosen for the
simulations was in the Glenmore Park area, near Penrith in
western Sydney, where an automatic weather station with
publicly available wind and bright sunshine hours data is
nearby. To derive hourly loading on a day-by-day basis,
118
total zone substation hourly energy was pro-rated based on

the standard load cycles and average daily energy,
according to eqn. 3:
Load i,j = Average i * (Total j / Average total)
(3),
where = the energy (hourly load) for
Load i,j
hour i on day j
= the average load cycle load at
Average i
hour i for that season
= the actual total energy for
Total j
day j
Average total
= the average daily total energy
for that season.
III. SIMULATION
A. No Standby Plant
The first study assumed full renewable energy autonomy,
with no standby at all. Main system parameters (wind,
solar and battery storage capacity) were varied to
determine impact on system availability. The model did
not calculate availability directly, but instead calculates the
minimum BSOC in any 28-day simulation run, this being
an effective proxy. A minimum permissible BSOC of
30% was set.
Battery Min SOC
The worst season will depend on the net effect of wind

and solar inputs and load, and of course, will be very
location specific. In the Sydney area, load is highest in
winter and summer and lowest in spring and autumn; solar
outputs are least in winter and highest in spring/early
summer, as are wind outputs. Thus spring is the season
with greatest excesses of renewable inputs over load,
whilst winter has the least inputs compared to load and is
thus the worst season. In winter, the minimum BSOC
was reached after several days without standby plant. This
was an event wherein a sequence of several days of low
sun and wind output occurs, followed by days of higher
outputs.
Wind, solar and load data was obtained for the period
1997-2000 in the Penrith area of Western Sydney.
B a t t e ry = 2 4
B a t t e ry = 4 8
B a t t e ry = 7 2
B a t t e ry = 9 6
battery storage capacities are summaries in figure 3. The

curves are based on the simulation for spring data, under
full autonomy (i.e. no standby).
The rapidly diminishing benefit of increased wind/solar
module ratings and storage capacity is evident, with a
natural limit of about 90% minimum BSOC displayed
by the kneeing of the curves in figure 4. This relates to
solar and wind capacities of 2kW (or approximately 2 x
peak load) and a storage capacity of 50kWh, or
approximately 2.5 average daily energy. This point
however gives system reliability (strictly speaking,
availability) well below grid reliability standards. Thus
any practical RES must have standby plant to be at all cost
optimal. As a comment on seasonality, with the same
model, for simulation runs on summer and spring data
resulted in the minimum BSOC is about 85%.
It is also interesting to note that (at least in the Sydney
region), the energy input from a solar panel with the same
nominal peak rating as a wind turbine will produce about
50% more energy. The results for optimum sizing are
shown in table 1, for the simulation run for spring in the
Full Autonomy study.
Table 1: Optimum Sizing Spring (no Backup Plant)
Wind (W)
2000
2000
2000
Solar (W)
1500
2000
2500
Battery (kWh)
120
48
48
Min BSOC %
66.56
66.72
76.03
Cost ($)
38,630
35,612
40,235
In the case of the system modelled, with average daily
energy usage of 17 kWh and average daily peak of 1.5
kW, the optimum costs for a satisfactory (minimum BSOC
> 60%) performance for spring was with peak ratings of
1500 W and 2000 W in the solar and wind modules,
respectively and an energy storage of 72 kWh (about 4
days). To be completely autonomous through winter
required peak ratings of 3000 W in both the solar and wind
modules, respectively and energy storage of 192 kWh.
System cost was $76,000 at an average energy cost of
$0.70 per kWh over 20 years. The increase is quite
remarkable and highlights the cost issue of attempting to
design fully autonomous systems.
B. With Standby Plant
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
S o l a r C a p a c i ty - W
Figure 3: Minimum BSOC for Various Combinations of

Wind, Solar and Storage Capacities
The results of the modelling under varying wind, solar and
The second study was a repeat of the first but this time it
was assumed standby plant was available. Standby avoids
system unavailability (aside from component failures), but
can result in wastage of the renewable energy resource, if
the standby plant is switched in to recharge batteries only
to be immediately followed by excess wind or solar inputs
(see spilt energy, sect 3.3).
With stand-by plant, energy input occurs when BSOC falls
below a permissible minimum. The immediate design
impact is to allow smaller wind/solar capacities and energy
storage. The stand-by engine in these studies was rated at
2000W. The same simulation as before was used, thus the
119
same weather load data applied; the only difference

between the two simulations being the presence of the
standby plant. With the same system, the minimum BSOC
for simulation runs in summer and spring data was about
85%. The results are identical whether with standby or no
standby, the reason being that there is so much available
renewable energy in spring and summer that standby plant
is never required in those seasons.
Including the cost of the standby plant and fuel, the
optimum cost is obtained when allowing some standby
operation at most times during winter. The optimum
sizing, using a fuel cost of $0.30 per kWh was with
capacities of 500 W, 1000 W and 24 kWh for the wind,
solar and energy storage modules. This is considerably
smaller than with no standby plant allowing for an overall
cost reduction. The effect is shown in table 2, where the
lowest system cost was $40,000 at an average energy cost
of $0.39 per kWh over 20 years.
Table 2: Optimum Sizing with Back-up Plant
Wind (W)
1000
500
500
Solar (W)
1000
1000
500
Battery (kWh)
24
24
24
Min BSOC %
30
30
30
Cost ($)
40,000
39,400
41,700
This reinforces the fact that for a practical system, some
standby power must be included to meet needs of a realsized house in all seasons in a mid latitude climate.
C. Standby Plant with a Predictive Controller

The model allows the use of both standard set point and
predictive controllers as regards switching of stand-by
plant. This is related to the phenomenon of spilt energy.
Stand-by engines are best run continuously at full throttle
once switched on, for engine life and fuel efficiency
maximisation. With a set-point controller under this
regime, the battery would be allowed to charge up to 100%
state of charge (or some other predetermined value). If a
day with high solar/wind inputs should follow a stand-by
charging run, the renewable energy input is wasted, as the
batteries are already at 100% BSOC, and is spilt. This of
course represents wasted money and excess expensive
imported standby energy. The mechanism is shown in
figure 4.
Load, BSOC
For high load days, or low solar/wind input days, the

battery will not receive enough energy and will
progressively discharge over days. In these cases the
stand-by plant will come in on-line (SB), which shows
the case where a day of low inputs is followed by a day of
high inputs. The plant will normally be run at full power
until the battery reaches full BSOC and the stand-by plant
will cut out. If a day of relatively high renewable energy
input should follow, this free energy will be wasted, as
the battery storage is already full. The cross-hatching
shows the resulting spilt energy.
It was found that reduction of the cut out point from 100%
to about 85% BSOC reduced spilt and standby energy, as
more energy buffer is available. Reducing the cut-out
point below this figure does not assist any further however,
and in the case of a much lower cut-out point (e.g. < 70%),
stand-by energy begins to increase, as more switching of
the standby plant is required. One method to further
reduce the standby and spilt energy is to replace a simple
set-point controller with an intelligent one that attempts
to predict incoming wind and solar energy.
A number of papers have been written on this subject, e.g.
Wichert et al [3] wherein solar input was predicted, based
on clear sunny conditions, and various short-term windforecasting algorithms have been developed. The latter
require considerable computing power whereas what is
desired for small standalone systems is a simple, cheap
controller. The predictive controller modelled in this
study uses seasonal average daily load, solar and wind
energy flows to pre-determine what amount of renewable
energy could be expected at any hour of the day for
average conditions. This energy is subtracted from 100%
to determine a recommended cut out BSOC point below
100%.
The method of determining the expected renewable inputs
at any time of day is shown in figure 5. The maximum
amount of input energy to allow for is the maximum
positive net energy that will occur at any hour ahead
during the next 24 hours.
Load
B
Spilt Energy
BSOC
SB
L
W
MN
Noon
Low inputs
MN
S
Noon MN
High inputs
Figure 4: Daily Energy Flows Low Net Inputs
MN
A
Noon
L
NE
W
Hour
MN
Figure 5: Determination of Expected Inputs

This can be net input, e.g. shaded area A on the net
energy curve NE when looking head from hour i (B-B),
120
or a net load, when at other times. When at hour i, the

maximum expected over the next few hours is positive, so
the battery charging cut-out BSOC will be discounted from
100% by this amount of energy (A), to avoid spilling.
REFERENCES
[1].
The algorithm is, at hour i:

(3.6)
(Expected input) i = Max {24 1i (Net load) i}
(Cut-out SOC %) i = 100 Factor * (Expected input) i
(3.7)
The variable Factor allows for high input days where
energy will exceed averages. Such variation will be driven
by the net energy probability distribution, which is the
convolution of the load, wind and solar energy
distributions. The optimum value of Factor has been
found to be 25% by experiment rather than by theoretical
means. The predictive routine is compared to a set-point
controller for the same load, wind and solar data. Savings
of up to 15% can be observed, depending on days of
storage, as shown in table 3. Savings decrease as storage
capacity increases, owing to the larger buffer and
disappears after about 3 days storage.
[2].
[3].
[4].
[5].
[6].
[7].
Table 3 System Imported Energy, kW (28 days)

Storage
Set-point
100%
Predictive
% Savings
1 day 1.5 days

249
223
2 days
199
3 days
187
206
17
188
5.5
186
0.5
197
12
[8].
[9].
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present
study. The system minimum BSOC and hence availability
generally increases with increasing wind/solar capacity
and energy storage. A certain minimum wind/solar output
are needed to satisfy long-term average load, regardless of
storage. A certain minimum storage is needed to satisfy
short-term output deficiencies, regardless of capacities,
because near-zero output days (windless, cloudy) do occur,
usually as a sequence. The system behaviour is related to
wind/solar/load probability distributions and is very
location specific. Increasing energy storage or wind/solar
device outputs above the natural levels does little to
improve system availability, suggesting that there are
natural limits to system availability. The long tails of the
PDFs mean that very high levels of availability are
uneconomic and therefore stand-by plant will always be
imperative in a sensible design. A Predictive controller
in RESs can reduce the amount of split energy and
hence standby power drawn by about 15%.
[10].
[11].
[12].
Borowy S. B. and Z M Salameh, Methodology for

Optimally Sizing the Combination of a Battery Bank and
PV Array in a Hybrid Wind/PV System, IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol 11, No 2, (June
1996)
Abouzahr and R. Ramakumar Loss of Power Supply
Probability of Stand-alone Wind Electric Conversion
Systems, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol
5, No 3, (Sep 1990)
Wichert B. ; W. Lawrance and T. Friese First
Experiences with a Novel Predictive Control Strategy for
PV-Diesel Hybrid Energy Systems, Solar99 (1999)
Mitchell K. Optimisation of the applications of
Sustainable Energy Systems Ph.D. Thesis,
UWS
2005
Mitchell K., Nagrial M, Rizk J, 2005, Simulation and
optimisation of renewable energy systems, International
Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, vol 27, pp
177-188,
Bialasiewicz J.T. and E. Muljadi; Analysis of
Renewable-Energy Systems Using RPM-SIM Simulator
IEEE Trans. On Industrial Electronics, Volume 53, No.
4, pp.:1137 1143, June 2006
Deshmukh, M.K. and S.S. Deshmukh Modeling of
Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 12, Issue 1,
January 2008, pp. 235-249
Li-qun Liu, Zhi-xin Wang The development and
application practice of wind-solar energy hybrid
generation systems in China Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, Volume 13, Issues 6-7, AugustSeptember 2009, Pages 1504-1512
Jos
L.
Bernal-Agustn,
Rodolfo
Dufo-Lpez
Simulation and optimization of stand-alone hybrid
renewable energy systems Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, Volume 13, Issue 8, October 2009,
Pages 2111-2118
Nain H. Afgan, Maria G. Carvalho Sustainability
assessment of a hybrid energy system Energy Policy,
Volume 36, Issue 8, August 2008, Pages 2903-2910
Pragya Nema, R.K. Nema, Saroj Rangnekar A current
and future state of art development of hybrid energy
system using wind and PV-solar: A review Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 13, Issue 8,
October 2009, Pages 2096-2103
Jose
L.
Bernal-Agustin,
Rodolfo
Dufo-Lopez
Simulation and optimization of stand-alone hybrid
renewable energy systems Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, Volume 13, Issue 8, October 2009,
Pages 2111-2118
121

Performance of HTV SiR as Outdoor Insulation at

High Altitudes
Muhammad Amin and Nazir Muhammad,
Department of Electrical Engineering
Wah Engineering College, Wah Cantt Pakistan
prof_amin01@yahoo.com
Abstract The Polymeric Insulators are
becoming popular in Electrical power systems as
outdoor insulation because of many advantages
over old ceramic insulators, but being partially
organic in nature are degraded by environmental
effects, so their age has to be estimated in any
environment before use. In order to see their
application in Pakistan the effect of UV
Radiations and pressure on HTV-SIR used as
outdoor insulation was studied by performing an
experiments by applying UV radiations and
pressure in a cubical box 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm
and a transparent vacuum chamber of 18 cm
diameter and 20 cm length. The degraded samples
were analyzed using sophisticated material testing
techniques like Visual observations, ATR_FTIR,
SEM and Hydrophobicity.. At lower pressure the
degradation of the samples increases. The
material tested was HTV-SIR containing silica
and ATH in the form of plate only and HTV
SiR Rod without ATH and without filler surface
treatment. The material HTV-SiR containing
silica and ATH was found to be superior at low
pressures and in polluted environment.
Keywords Degradation, Polymeric Insulators,
UV- radiation, FTIR, Hydrophobicity

XVI.
INTRODUCTION
The research in this paper particularly focuses on
performance prediction of polymeric insulators in the
mountainous areas. This is a pioneering work and first of
its kind ever conducted to relate aging of polymeric
insulator at highaltitude low-pressure conditions. The
typical combination of stress present in such areas is
strong UV light and low pressure [1]. The colder
environment at a higher altitude makes the effect of heat
on aging as irrelevant. Accordingly, in this study lowpressure and low temperature was maintained along with
a combination of UV light intensities representing day
and night conditions. The material investigated was

HTV-SiR with Silica & ATH. In this way a study was
carried out to investigate the effect of atmosphere on
insulators installed on transmission lines at high-altitude
in mountainous regions.
Variation of atmospheric pressure in Pakistan is from
55.3 cm of Hg at an altitude of 2590 m to 74.6 cm of Hg
at an altitude of 152 m [2, 3].
The intensity of UV Radiation increases 4% for every
1000 feet increase in height [4, 5].
From this we conclude that UV radiation intensity at
height of 2590 meter will be 30.8 % more than its
intensity on the earth in a region. In Pakistan the average
UV intensity in winter is 1.175 mW/cm2 & 1.875
mW/cm2 in summer [6, 7]. So the UV intensity at height
of 2590 meter will be 1.53 mW/cm2 in winter and 2.45
2
mW/cm2 in summer. An intensity of 4.9 mW/cm was

used, twice than actual for simulating a worst condition.
Temperature decreases 5.5oC for every 1000 meters and
pressure falls to 75% at height of 2500 meter to its value
near the surface of earth. [8]. The average winter
temperature in Pakistan is 20oC and 40oC in summer so
these values will be 15.5oC for winter and 35.6oC for
summer at height of 2590 meter. The average
temperature at 2590 m of 25.6oC was used
XVII.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT
The study was conducted using a transparent glass

vacuum chamber of 18 cm diameter 20 cm height and a
cubical box of 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm. The UV
radiations were applied by fitting UV lamps on three
sides of cubical box. The Experimental setup is shown in
Fig. 1(a) & (b).
122
Degradation of a Sample as a Function of

Electric Stress
% Change in Absorption
Fig. 1(a) Experimental setup.
0
-2
30
35
40
45
50
55
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
Electric Stress(mm/kV)
Fig. 2 Degradation of sample as a function of electric stress.

It is clear from Fig.2 that the samples have shown large
degradation at stresses of 35 mm / kV and 50 mm / kV, while
at 40 mm / kV and 45 mm / kV, almost no degradation
occurred. This indicates that there might be an optimum value
of electric stress for a specific material under specific
environmental conditions. For the material under investigation
it is between 40 - 45 mm / kV. It seems that electric stress and
UV radiation has negative degradation while low pressure has
positive
degradation.
Similar
moisture-temperature
equivalence exists on physical aging of polymers [14].
The FTIR results of fifth sample are shown in Table 2
Fig. 1(b) Experimental Set up

(Effect of
varying electric stress, UV radiation and clear
sunshine at a pressure of 50 cm of Hg.)
The first four samples (plates) were placed in a vacuum

chamber which was placed inside the cubical box. The fifth
sample was placed in another vacuum chamber which was
placed in a clear sunshine as shown in Table 3.
Table 1 . (Effect of varying electric stress, UV radiations and
clear sunshine at a pressure of 50 cm of Hg)
No.
of
sa
mp
les
Size
of
sam
ple
(cm2
)
Elec
tric
stre
ss
(m
m/k
V)
4x4
35
4x4
40
4x4
45
4x4
50
4x4
Dur
atio
n
(day
s)
Press
ure
(cm
of
Hg)
Tempera
ture
inside
vacuum
chamber
(oC)
UV
radiat
ion
intensi
ty
(mW/
cm2)
50
25.5
3.75
60
125
Some of the FTIR results are shown in Fig. 2.
Sunshin
e
Table 2 Degradation of 5th Sample at a pressure of 50 cm Hg.

Sample exposure
(days)
Absorption
ratio
Change in absorption
ratio
(%)
Original (0)
0.92
70
0.92
95
0.92
-0.58
125
0.92
It is clear from Table 2 that the samples have shown no

degradation which implies that the low pressure of 50 cm of
Hg has no effect on material degradation. The four samples
under energized conditions have shown some degradation
which seems to be due to electric stress.
The results of hydrophobicity of the samples were measured
after 60 days. These were kept in vacuum chamber at a
pressure of 50 cm of Hg, temperature of 26C and UV
radiation of 3.75 mW/cm2. The hydrophobicity was found by
liquid drop method and the results are shown in Fig. 3
123
degradation occurred at 40 mm/kV and 45 mm/kV, the contact

angles are found in accordance with the FTIR results.
The hydrophobicity of sample 5 is shown in Fig. 4. The STRI
hydrophobicity classification was used to determine the
surface hydrophobicity of samples [11, 15].
The sample has shown no degradation and is obviously in
class HC1.
Angle 60.670
Angle 59.160
Original (Contact Angle 120.085 0 )
Angle 64.650
Angle 67.830
(a) 35 mm/kV (Contact Angle 113.760 )
Fig. 4 Hydrophobicity of sample 5 after 125 day.

The results of FTIR and hydrophobicity classification match
with each other.
SEM used was a high vaccum SEM (SEM JSM 6460
Resolution 3Nm, Magnification 300,000 times, JEOL Japan).
Angle 60.790
Angle 60.750
(b) 40 mm/kV (Contact Angle 119.23)
Angle 65.750
Angle 60.660
(c) 45 mm/kV (Contact Angle 116.795 0)
SEM micrographs of samples at different magnifications,

200x (1cm =100 m), 500x
(1 cm = 50 m) and 800x
(1cm = 20 m) are shown in Fig. 5 for samples at 35 mm /
kV, 40 mm / kV and 45 mm / kV. It is clear that the surface
has become rough but no crack was observed. However, the
surface morphology (shape, size and the arrangement of the
particles on surface of the sample) appears to change with
stress. It was also noted that surface becomes rough and the
filler dispersion more non-homogeneous with the increase in
stress. The surface integration is increasing with more lumped
particles with the increase in stress. Although the surface
roughness as compared to virgin is increased, but this increase
is not so much as to adversely affect the hydrophobicity.
Angle 61.310
Angle 67.890
(d) 50 mm/kV (Contact Angle 115.40
Fig. 3 Contact Angles of samples
As shown by the FTIR results, the maximum degradation
occurred at 35 mm/kV and 50 mm/kV and almost no
124
supported by the corresponding changes in either leakage

current or FTIR- peak heights. In another study by Raji
Sundararajan et al in which higher leakage current activity
was supporting the SEM results while FTIR study results and
STRI hydrophobicity classification were on the contrary[19].
Co-relation of simple slab with actual Insulators
200x
500x
(a) original
800x
For all the experiments conducted in this work, simple plates

were used because of the size of the vacuum chamber. The
author has conducted large number of experiments in the field
and laboratory in which plate, rod and actual insulators were
used. In all the experiments conducted, it was found that
maximum degradation occurs in plate, then the rod and finally
insulator degrades minimum [20]. So we conclude that under
the simulated conditions, the performance of insulator will be
better than the plate.
CONCLUSIONS
200x
200x
500x
(b) 35 mm/kV
500x
(c) 40 mm/kV
800x
The effect of UV radiation at low atmospheric pressure of 50
cm of Hg is a bit more than at 72.2 cm of Hg. However, from
the results it may be concluded that low pressure of 50 cm of
Hg has no appreciable effect on the degradation of HTV SiR
with Silica and ATH. It appears therefore, that from aging
perspective, this material may be quite suitable for highaltitude applications.
800x
Effect of low pressure on degradation of HTV without

silicone and without filler surface treatment is quite
pronounced. The maximum degradation of a plate (-15.4 % )
occurred in a week. The effect of low pressure in the presence
of electric stress is slightly higher
(-15.7 %).
REFERENCES
200x
500x
(d) 45 mm/kV
800x
Fig. 5 SEM photos

As compared to the original, as the stress increases from 35
mm/kV to 45 mm/kV, the roughness increase which does not
match with the results of FTIR, leading thereby to the
conclusion that roughness may increase without actual
degradation. Such types of apparently contradicting results
have been reported by other researchers studying silicone
rubber [18, 19] where significant morphology changes were
observed by x-ray diffraction (XRD) but the same was not
[1] T. Kawamura, M. Ishii, M. Akbar and K. Nagai, Pressure

dependence of DC breakdown of contaminated
insulator, IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation,
Vol. EI-17, No.1, February 1982.
[2]
Pakistan
Meteorological
Department
http://www.met.gov.pk/
[3]
M.A.R Manjula Fernando Performance of nonceramic insulators in tropical environments Thesis
Ph.D, Department of Electrical Power Engineering,
Chalmers University of Technology, Gotenborg,
Sweden 1999.
[4] Ohio State University fact sheet on food, agriculture and
bio engineering
http://ohioline.osu.edu/cd-fact/0199.html
[5] UV index forecast bulletin. Hong Kong Observatory.
www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/uvfcst/uvfcst.htm
[6]
http://www.csgnetwork.com/uvindexcalc.html
125
[7] http://www.epa.gov/sunwise/uvindex.html
[8]
Introduction to Mountain Regions, online report

presented by: Dr Kristie L Ebi, Mr B Mukhopaday,
India Metrological Department, on behalf of the World
Meteorological Organization.
Burnham, Jeff, Guideline for visual identification of

damaged
polymer
insulators,
Transmission
department, Juno Beach, November 1998.
[10] Guideline for visual identification of deterioration and
damages on suspension composite insulators, STRI
Guide 5, 2003.
[11] J.W. Chang and R.S. Gorur, The role of backbone chain
rotation in the hydrophobicity recovery of polymeric
materials for outdoor insulation, Proc. IEEE Int.
conference on conduction and breakdown in solid
dielectric, pp. 270-275, 1992.
[12] Muhammad Amin and Muhammad Akbar, Affect of
UV-radiations on heavily polluted / unpolluted
polymeric insulators Proceedings of 2nd IEEE
International Conference on Emerging Technologies,
(ICET), Peshawar, Pakistan, November 13-14, 2006.
[13] Bernstorf, R. Allen; Niedermier, Randall k.; Winkler,
David S.: Polymer Compounds Used in high voltage
insulators, EU 1407-HR1, Hubbell Power Systems,
Ohio Brass Company, pp. 8-10.
[14] Huiwen Hu and C. T.Sun, Moisture- Temperature
Equivalence in Physical Aging of polymeric
[15]
[16]
[9]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
composites 42nd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC

structures , structural dynamics , and materials
conference and exhibit ( Seattle, A 16-19 April 2001).
pp 1-7.
Hydrophobicity Classification, STRI Guide 92/1.
E. Sherif and C. Andreasson , Results from long term
tests with long rod composite insulators exposed to
natural pollution.(Publisher: - NordIS 84, paper No.
10, 1984.)
Matsuoka R; Naito, K.; Irie, T.; Kondo, K.; In:
Evaluation methods of polymer insulators under
contaminated conditions
Transmission and
Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia
Pacific. IEEE/PES, Volume 3, 6-10 Oct. 2002
Page(s):2197 2202.
H. M. Schnieder, W. W. Guidi, J.T Burrnham, R. S.
Gorur and J. F. Hall, Accelerated aging and flashover
tests on 138 kV non-ceramic line post insulator IEEE
Trans, Power Del, Vol, 8, pp. 325-336, 1993.
Raji Sundararajan , Esaki Soundarajan , Areef
Muhammad and Jason Graves,Multi stress accelerated
aging of polymeric housed surge arresters under
simulated coastal Florida conditions,
IEEE
Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation,
Vol . 13, No. 1, pp. 211-226, February 2006.
Muhammad Amin, Aging Investigation of Polymeric
Insulators PhD thesis, UET, Taxila Pakistan May
2007.
126

Production of Biodiesel from Melia Azedarach Seed Oil: A NonEdible Feedstock for Biodiesel
Taslim Akhtar, Muhammad Ilyas Tariq and Shahid Iqbal Ranaa
Department of Chemistry, University of Sargodha
E-mail: taslim_chemist@yahoo.com
E-mail: tariqmi2000@yahoo.com
E-mail: ranashahid313@gmail.com
Abstract
Biodiesel (BD) is a first-generation biofuel that has emerged as a renewable alternative diesel fuel, obtained by the
transesterification of vegetable oils and animals fats, using a short-chain alcohol and a catalyst that may be an acid, a base or an
enzyme. BD can be used in the existing compression-ignition engines without any further modification. Presently, most of the
BD production is being carried out using edible vegetable oil which has put a strain on the food supply and, hence, has led it
into a competition with the food industry. It has also resulted in a rise in the prices of such feed stocks. Hence, search for the
newer and non-edible feed stocks is becoming increasingly important. The objective of the present work is to explore the utility
of Melia azedarach seed oil, a non-edible feedstock, for the preparation of BD. The oil was extracted by using n-hexane as a
solvent and a oil content of 32% was obtained. As a result of transesterification using sodium hydroxide and methanol, 80%
conversion of the oil into BD was obtained. Fatty acid profile of the oil and the BD were found to be almost the same. Different
fuel properties of the BD prepared were studied including viscosity, iodine number, acid number, cold point and cetane number,
and the values obtained are 4.7, 112, 0.45mg KOH/g, < -10oC and 45, respectively. Although the oxidation stability is less than
the required standard value by EN 14214, but it can be enhanced by introducing some additives into the final product. Other
properties were found to be in agreement with the required specifications for BD by EN 14214, hence Melia azedarach seed oil
is a suitable non-edible feedstock for the production of BD.
Key words: Biodiesel, Transesterification, Melia azedarach, Vegetable oil

I.
INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel (BD) is a first-generation biofuel that has emerged as a renewable alternative diesel fuel, obtained from vegetable
oils and animal fats. Chemically, BD is obtained by the transesterification of oils and fats by using a short-chain alcohol and a
catalyst that may be an acid, a base or an enzyme, as shown in fig. 1 [1].
BD has been found to be a simple and suitable alternative of the conventional diesel fuel in the light the research
carried out in last three decades that can be used in the existing compression-ignition engines without any further modification
[2]. BD is an environment-friendly fuel that bears a number of advantages over the fossil-based diesel fuel. Firstly, it is a
renewable fuel as it is produced from renewable source. Secondly, it possesses a higher oxygen content and lower sulphur
content than that of petroleum diesel, as a result of which it shows reduced emission of different pollutants like particulate
matter, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide etc. In addition to this, it is non-toxic as well as biodegradable [3]. Fuel properties of
BD, on the other hand are similar and in some cases better than those of petroleum diesel, e.g., density, viscosity, cetane
number, flash point etc. A rapid increase in the production of BD has been seen in last few years due to the concerns like overriding use of the diesel fuel, followed by its depletion [4] and a corresponding increase in the prices of petroleum products.
Various kinds of feed stocks have been utilized for the synthesis of BD so far like vegetable oils (for example soybean,
canola/rapeseed, sunflower, corn, jatropha, palm etc.), animal fats (for example lard, fish oil etc.) and yellow grease. According
to an estimate, the cost of BD production gets its major share from the cost of its feedstock, with the rest of it being dependent
on the synthesis and refining procedures adopted [3].
127
Fig.1. Transesterification of vegetable oil into mono- alkyl esters

(biodiesel)
The cost of the feedstock, on the other hand, depends upon its abundance and availability.
At present, most of the BD production is being carried out using edible vegetable oil which has put a strain on the food
supply/economy and, hence, has led it into a competition with the food industry. An obvious result of this situation is a rise in
the prices of such feed stocks/oil sources [5,6].
Keeping this situation in mind as well as the demand for the rapid and excessive BD production in order to confront the
increasing energy crisis, search for the newer and non-edible feed stocks is becoming increasingly important [4]. Finding such
feed stocks would help to overcome the production cost of BD as well as to lessen the strain on the food-value oilseed-crops
especially for the oil-importing countries like Pakistan, where the domestic oil production is already far less than that of the
required level.
Various studies have been carried out in this regard for evaluating the use of different non-edible oils for the
production of biodiesel like castor oil, jatropha oil, linseed oil, neem oil, pongamia oil, rice bran oil and many others [1].
Melia azedarach L., commonly known as chinaberry, bakain or umbrella tree, is an ornamental tree that belongs to
meliaceae family [7-10]. It is seen commonly growing on the roadsides, near dwellings, open areas, marginal lands etc. both on
dry as well as alkaline soil and is able to grow easily in the disturbed areas [11]. Although it grows wild and abundant in the
sub-himalayan tract but is also cultivated for both medicinal and ornamental purpose in Pakistan as well as India [9,12]. Like
those of neem tree, various parts of the chinaberry tree, like leaves, flowers, fruits and bark, are reputed to have therapeutic
value [9], as they are used for curing different skin disorders that include ulcerative wounds, syphilitic ulcers, leprosy, eczema,
scrofula etc. [10,12]. Although neem, that is also a member of the same family, has often been studied as a feedstock for
producing biodiesel [1], Melia azedarach has not been given attention in this regard.
The objective of the present work is to explore the utility of Melia azedarach oil, a non-edible feedstock, for the
preparation of BD, and to determine important fuel properties of Melia azedarach methyl esters.
II.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
A. Materials and Reagents

M. azedarach seeds were collected from the lawns of the University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan. n-hexane and
methanol were purchased from LAB-SCAN Analytical sciences (Dublin, Ireland), sodium and potassium hydroxides, sodium
thiosulphate and anhydrous magnesium sulphate were procured from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) while glyceryl tripalmitate,
glyceryl tristearate, glyceryl trioleate and glyceryl trilaurate (all 99%) were purchased from Fluka (Steinheim, Germany). The
solvents that were of analytical grade were used without further purification.
B. Extraction of the oil
The M. azedarach seeds were cleaned, dried and crushed manually to separate the seed kernals. Oil was extracted using a
soxhlet apparatus by employing n-hexane as a solvent (10hr). The hexane extract was then filtered and solvent was evaporated
using a rotary evaporator. The M. azedarach seed oil was then degummed by using deionized water. This oil was then used for
further processing.
C. Biodiesel production
Freshly obtained oil was heated up to 60oC in a round bottom flask and specific amount of methanol and sodium hydroxide
was added in it and it was refluxed for 1hr, along with stirring at 600rpm. After this the resulting mixture was allowed to stand
for a few minutes in a separating funnel in order to separate two layers. The upper layer was that of BD and lower of glycerin.
BD was separated from the lower layer and washed thrice with deionized water in order to purify it from the residual
components and was then dried over magnesium sulphate and then in oven. This was then used for further characterization.
D. Determination of the general properties
Different properties of the BD including density, kinematic viscosity, acid number, cloud point, flash point and cetane
number were determined by using the standard ASTM methods D445, D664, D2500, D93 and D130, respectively.
128
E. Fatty acid profile of oil and BD

The fatty acid profile of the M. azedarach oil and the BD sample was established by the help of a Shimadzu gas
chromatograph, model 17-A, fitted with a flame ionization detector (FID) and a polar capillary column SP-2330 (Supelco, Inc.,
Bellefonte, PA, USA.). The temperature of column was ramped from 180oC-220 oC, at a uniform rate of 5 oC/min., while the
temperature of the injector and detector were maintained at 230 oC and 240 oC, respectively. Sample volume was kept 1.0L that
was injected in a split mode. All the quantitative measurements were made by Chromatography Station for Windows (CSW32)
software. The fatty acid composition was given as a relative percentage of the total peak area.
III.
The oil content of the M. azedarach seeds was found to be about 32%, extracted using n-hexane as solvent, which is in
accordance with that of Shahina et al [ 9]. About 80% conversion of the oil into
TABLE 1
PROPERTIES OF THE BIODIESEL PRODUCED
Property
Biodiesel
Density, 15oC (g/cm3)
EN 14214 limits
0.88
0.860-0.900
Viscosity, 40 oC(cSt)
4.7
3.5-5.0
Acid Value (mg KOH/g)

Iodine Number
0.45
<0.5
112
Oxidation Stability, 110oC(h)
<120
4.8
>6
< -10oC
Cloud Point (oC)
45
Cetane Number
>51
methyl esters was obtained as a result of tranesterification with sodium hydroxide and methanol which shows that nearly
80g of the oil is converted into methyl esters that is BD. Different properties were determined for the characterization of M.
azedarach methyl esters (MAME), and their comparison was made with EN 14214, that establishes the requirements of
biodiesel quality, for its usage in the diesel engines [13].
Cetane number is concerned with the ignition of the BD such that a low value of cetane number shows that the
combustion of the fuel is incomplete. For MAME, the value of cetane number was found to be 52 that is well agreed with its
standard value according to ASTM and EU specifications.
Iodine number determines the level of unsaturation in the fuel that indicate its oxidation stability as well. For MAME,
the iodine number was evaluated to be 104, that is within the upper limit by EN 14214. Similarly, the value of acid number is in
agreement with its required value according to EN14214. T his shows that the BD produced has a low free fatty acid content.
Fatty acid profile of the M. azedarach seed oil as well as the BD produced with it was found to be nearly the same, as
shown in table 2. This indicates that transesterification does not affect the composition of the M. azedarach seed oil and hence
no hydrogenation or isomerization is resulted from it. As shown in the table, the content of mono-unsaturated fatty acid is more
than 69% that shown it to be susceptible to oxidation, but at the same time
TABLE 2
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION (%) OF M. Azedarach SEED OIL
AND ITS BD (MAME)
Fatty acid
M. Azedarach seed oil
MAME
Palmitic acid (C 16:0)
9.54
9.5
Stearic acid (C 18:0)
4.35
4.32
Oliec acid (C18:1)

Linoliec acid (C 18:2)
69.55
69.52
16.53
16.11
129
gives it a suitable value of viscosity as well as required low temperature properties.

IV.
Conclusions
The oil content of M. azedarach seeds makes it a suitable source of BD feedstock, that is also confirmed by the
properties of BD produced from it. Although, higher level of unsaturation makes it susceptible to oxidation, but the problem
can be overcome by mixing some additives into the BD obtained from it [14]. M. azedarach is an oil producing tree whose fruit
goes waste, as it has no other use, being unsuitable for human consumption [10]. Production of BD will help to its disposal in an
economical way.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authers are grateful to PCSIR Laboratories Complex, Lahore, for completion of the characterization studies and
HEC for providing financial support for this project.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
S. P. Singh and D. Singh, Biodiesel production through the use of different sources and characterization of oils and
their esters as the substitute of diesel: a review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 14, pp.200-216,
2010.
D. Ayhan, Biodiesel: a realistic fuel alternative for diesel engine, London: Springer; 2008.
P. T. Vasudevan, B. Fu, Environmentally sustainable biofuels: Advances in biodiesel production, Waste Biomass
Valorization, vol.1, 2010, pp.4763
A. A. Refaat, Different techniques for the production of biodiesel from waste vegetable oil, Int. J. Environ. Sci.
Tech., vol. 7 (1), 2010, pp.183-213
D. Pimentel, et al, Food versus biofuels: Environmental and economic costs,
Hum. Eco., vol. 37 (1), 2009, pp. 1-12.
S. Srinivasan, The food v fuel debate: a nuanced view of incentive structures, Renew. Energ., vol. 34 (4), 2009, pp.
950-954.
Indian Medicinal plants, (An illustrated Dictionary), Springer-Verlog, 2007
Z. Rehman, S. Ahmd, S. Qureshi, Y. Rehman, Pakistan J. of Pharmaceutical Sciences, vol. 4(2), 1991, pp.153-158
S. Zaka, N. Shakir, Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res, vol. 23(1-2), 1980, pp.75-76
Chopra I. C., Indigenous Drugs of India,U. N. Dhar and Sons (Pvt) Ltd, 1958, pp.363
Fact sheet ST-406, A series of Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extention Service,
Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences, University of Florida. Publication date: Oct. 1994
S. R. Baquer, Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Pakistan, Printas, Karachi, Pkistan, 1989, pp. 279-80.
UNE-EN 14214, Automotive fuels, fatty acid methyl esters for diesel engines, 2003, Requirements and test
methods.
E. Sendzikiene, V. Makareviciene, P. Janulis,
Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel Fuel Produced from Fatty Wastes, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, Vol. 14,
3, 2005, pp.335-339
130

Production of Electricity using Methane Generated from Landfill Site

at Mehmood Booti, Lahore, Pakistan
Adeela Mahjabeen
Environmental Science Department, Kinnaird College for Women
Lahore, Pakistan.
adeelamahjabeen@gmail.com
Abstract The present study was conducted to find out the
potential of municipal solid waste of Lahore to generate
electricity from the methane gas produced during anaerobic
decomposition of rapidly decomposable organic waste fraction
separated from the MSW i.e., food and yard waste. The
objectives of the study were to determine the composition of
waste in order to find out the emission of methane from its
decomposition and to calculate the amount of electricity that can
be generated using this methane. The study was conducted with a
multi-method approach, including direct field observation,
questionnaire-based surveys, and document surveys. The
findings of the study highlight that municipal solid waste of
Lahore, is composed of 28.3% recycleable waste (paper,
tetrapack, textiles, wood and straw, plastic and polythene, glass
and metal, rubber and leather), 32.7% inert material (bricks,
stones and miscellaneous wastes) and 39.4% rapidly
decomposeable organic matter named as compostables (food and
yard wastes). Gas produced during the anaerobic decomposition
of food and yard waste comprises of 51.54% methane and
48.46% carbon dioxide gas. Further calculations reveal that 24
MW electricity could be produced from methane emitted from
Mehmood Booti landfill site. More extensive research and
application of the research work can be very useful to humans as
well as to the environment.
Keywords Electricity, Landfill, Methane, Municipal Solid
Waste, Semi Anaerobic Decomposition.
XVIII. INTRODUCTION
The rapid urbanization and industrialization has brought
about many changes in the quantity and quality of the
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generated. As a result, the
management of the MSW needs to be done up, to
accommodate the changes in the quantity and quality to
ensure the longevity of the environment. Inhabitants of the
city need to realize the importance of recycling and reuse,
whereas the city management should rethink the management
style from solely dumping to the recovery of energy from the
waste by incinerating [1].
Municipal solid waste contains significant portions of
organic materials that produce a variety of gaseous products
collectively known as landfill gas. Out of which methane is
the major gas, when dumped, compacted, and covered in
landfills. Anaerobic bacteria thrive in the oxygen-free
environment, resulting in the decomposition of the organic
materials such as cellulose and proteins, and produce
primarily methane and carbon dioxide gases [2]. Carbon
dioxide is likely to leach out of the landfill because it is
soluble in water. Methane, on the other hand, which is less
soluble in water and lighter than air, is likely to migrate out of

the landfill [3].
Landfill gas largely methane is a by-product of
decomposition of municipal solid wastes in landfills [4]. It is
produced when organic materials such as yard waste,
household waste, food waste, and wastes from fruits and
vegetables markets are decomposed by bacteria under semianaerobic conditions (i.e., in the presence of limited supply of
oxygen) [5]. The following table shows the typical
constituents of landfill gas.
TABLE I|
TYPICAL CONSTITUENTS AND COMPOUNDS IN LANDFILL GAS
COMPONENT
PERCENT (DRY VOLUME

BASIS)*
METHANE
CARBON DIOXIDE
NITROGEN
OXYGEN
AMMONIA
SULFIDES, DISULFIDES,
MERCAPTANS,ETC.
HYDROGEN
CARBON MONOXIDE
TRACE CONSTITUENTS
40-60%
40-60%
2-5%
0.1-1.0%
0.1-1.0%
0-0.2%
0-0.2%
0-0.2%
0.01-0.6%
Exact percentage distribution will vary with the age of the landfill.
Landfills provide ideal conditions for methanogenesis, with

lots of organic material present in anaerobic conditions. The
colossal amounts of wastes that are buried in landfill sites can
mean that methane is produced for years even after the site is
closed, due to the waste slowly decaying under the ground [6].
The decomposition is a complex process and requires
certain conditions. Environmental factors that affect the
decomposition include moisture content of the waste, nutrient
concentration,
the
presence
and
distribution
of
microorganisms, the particle size of the waste, water flux, pH,
and temperature. Because of the complex set of conditions
that must occur before landfill gas is generated, waste may be
in place for a year or more before anaerobic decomposition
begins and landfill gas is generated. Refuse in a landfill may
produce landfill gas for 20 to 30 years, with an average of 25
years. On the other hand, aerobic decomposition results in
CO2 and water. Uncontrolled dumps, where waste is exposed
to air, may be subject to aerobic decomposition [2].
131
Methane
M
produuction varies ggreatly from landfill
l
to lanndfill
depending on sitee-specific chaaracteristics such
s
as waste in
placee, waste com
mposition, moiisture contentt, landfill dessign,
operaating practicees, and climaate. Unless caaptured by a gas
recov
very system, methane
m
geneerated by the landfill
l
is emiitted
when
n it migratess through thee landfill co
over. During this
proceess, the soil oxidizes apprroximately teen percent off the
meth
hane generatedd, and the rem
maining 90 percent
p
is emiitted
[5].
FIG. 1 LANDFILL GASS PRODUCTION PA

ATTERN
A shown in Fig. 1, duringg the first phase organic wastes

As
w
deccompose in thhe presence off oxygen. Puttrescible (vegeetable
andd food wastes)) materials deegrade most reeadily, follow
wed by
papper, wood, natural textiles, and rubbeers. This phaase is
chaaracterized byy rising carbon dioxide concentrations
c
s and
risinng waste tempperatures. Thiis phase lasts only a few daays or
weeeks in well-rrun proper landfills.
l
Lanndfills where only
aeroobic decomp
mposition takkes place create
c
a wholly
w
unaacceptable im
mpact on the environment and are the most
unaacceptable typpe of landfill operation.
o
I most landfiills, oxygen iss rapidly depleted during seecond
In
phaase. Anaerobicc bacterial sysstems take over. This phasee may
lastt up to several months at well-run
w
sites. During this period
p
carbbon dioxide concentrations rise to over 70%
7
by volum
me and
carbboxylic acid concentrations
c
s also continuee to increase.
A oxygen deepletion continnues during the
As
t third phasse and
the redox potenttial (Eh) of innterstitial wateers drops to below
b
connditions become suitablee for
appproximately -200mV,
metthanogenic acctivity to devvelop. Over thhe period of a few
weeeks methane concentrationns begin to riise and carbooxylic
acidds decline. Thhis is due to the acetic accid in the leacchates
beinng utilized byy the methanoggens to producce methane, carbon
dioxxide, and watter. In additioon, landfill tem
mperatures ussually
beccome stabilizeed in the mesoophilic range (i.e., up to 40C).
4
Thee methane geenerated must be properly managed to avoid
off--site migrationn.
T fourth phhase representts the most sttable period in
The
i the
deccomposition off waste in conntrolled landfills. It is believved to
persist for at least 15 to 20 yeears in tempeerate climatic areas
m
andd carbon diioxide
andd is charactterized by methane
conncentrations of
o around 65 and 35% reespectively. Lower
L
carbboxylic acid concentrations
c
s in leachates are also obserrved.
W
Waste
decompposition to coompletion in a landfill is noot yet
studdied till the very
v
end. Hoowever, evidennce from verry old
sitees suggests thaat once the avvailable cellullose is used up
u the
metthanogenic microbial
m
activiity, methane and
a carbon diioxide
conncentrations grradually declinne [7].
L
Landfill
emissions are colllected througgh either actiive or
passive collectioon systems. Disposal or treatment of
o the
mplished by the combustion or
colllected gases can be accom
purrification of thhe landfill gas [2].
FIG. 2 LANDFILL GAS CAPTURE, PR

ROCESSING, TREA
ATMENT AND USE
OVERV
VIEW
By
y using emisssions of metthane (a pow
werful greenhoouse
gas) as fuel throuugh the development of laandfill gas eneergy
projeects, (as show
wn in Fig. 2) businesses, states, eneergy
proviiders, and com
mmunities cann protect the environment and
build
d a sustainablle future on oone hand and
d produce elecctric
poweer so much neeeded throughoout the world on the other hand
h
[3]. The recoveryy and use off methane frrom landfills can
signiificantly reduuce the overrall emissionss of greenhoouse
gasess.
Laandfills are thhe largest anthhropogenic so
ource of methhane
in th
he U.S. Therre are a varieety of ways that utilities can
reducce overall em
missions of meethane from landfills.
l
Lanndfill
meth
hane can be coollected by devveloping gas recovery
r
systeems.
Colleected methanee can be used for on-site power generatioon or
pipellined to a nearrby existing ggenerating stattion to be useed as
a fueel for nearby industrial purrposes, or enrriched and solld to
gas pipelines.
p
Cappture and use of landfill meethane as fuell for
electricity generattion are donee through thee developmennt of
ms at the landffill [5].
well fields and colllection system
he World Connservation Unnion (IUCN), in
i a recent repport,
Th
quoteed the Worlld Banks asssessments on
o environmeental
degraadation and pointed out that waste managementt in
Pakisstan is extrem
mely weak. Domestic waste
w
is generrally
dump
ped in open areas,
a
creating numerous problems
p
suchh as
drain
n blockages annd deadly consumption by domestic
d
anim
mals.
Glob
bally, the report said althouggh Pakistans total contribuution
to gllobal greenhouse emissionss is less than
n one percent,, the
impaact of climatee change on the countrys population and
132
economy is much more. The adverse impacts of climate

change are already apparent in the form of increased glacial
melt, prolonged droughts, unusual temperature fluctuations
and precipitation variability. The effects of these phenomena
on food production, water supply, biodiversity, natural
ecosystem and human health threaten the integrity of the
countrys primarily natural resource-based economy [8].
Solid Waste Management (SWM) is a key issue for all
local governments of major cities of Pakistan. As per the
figures collected from SWM sources, around 6,000 tons solid
waste is generated daily in Lahore. Out of it, 35 per cent waste
remains on the roads due to various reasons, including a poor
lifting capacity of the SWM, lack of proper training of the
staff for lifting garbage and absenteeism. Besides, SWM
workers are not properly trained to lift solid waste and
garbage from the city and one can also see the garbage being
burned in and out of skips. Scavengers, beggars and addicts
also search and spread the garbage. [9]
Lahore loses over Rs 500 million rupees every year to
Afghan scavengers picking up garbage from streets and
garbage dumps. About 15,000 Afghan scavengers lift
recyclable waste worth Rs 1.5 million every day. These
scavengers roam around on bicycles mostly in affluent
localities that generate more recyclable materials and throw
these materials alongwith their garbage. [10]
In Lahore the major portion of municipal solid waste,
almost about 1500 tons per day, is dumped at Mehmood Booti
dumping site. The site is located at Mehmood Booti at Bund
road, in Shalimar town, in Lahore district. It occupies an area
of approximately 633 kanals (source: CDGL, official data),
out of which approximately half i.e. 300 kanals is given on
lease of twenty five years since 31st March 2006 to a private
organization called Saif Group to install and operate a wind
row composting facility for 25 year lease. Other half is owned
by CDGL to receive and dump major portion of MSW of
Lahore.
The Punjab Environmental Protection Department (EPD)
conducted a survey in the areas adjacent to the landfill site of
Mehmood Booti, which showed that almost every third person
in a family was suffering from respiratory, abdominal,
stomach or other diseases [9].
The landfill methane generation projects provide an
attractive option for industry and business to locate adjacent to
the landfill and utilize on-site electrical generation and
directly use methane for heating and gas processes rather than
making it a source of air pollution. These opportunities can
help reduce operating costs and reduce overall demand for
utility generated electricity much deficient in our country [1].
Also, methane is a much cleaner resource to use for
electrical generation than coal and other fossil fuels. In
addition, the added electricity being placed into the countrys
power supply reduces the amount of energy that must be
generated from fossil fuel sources to meet electrical demands.
The result is a positive environmental impact on multiple
levels that also helps to diversify the energy supply on
recurring basis for years to come [11].
XIX.
In the present study a multimethod approach including
direct field observation, questionnaire based surveys,
interviews and document survey was used.
Background information about the problem was collected
through document surveys to assess the situation worldwide
and especially in Pakistan. Study area was selected due to its
usage for solid waste disposal from many years and
representative of the composition of MSW produced in
Lahore district. Reconnaissance survey was carried out to
assess its suitability for the current research. Field visits and
Interviews with technical personnel at the site were conducted
throughout the year during the months of Dec 2007 and Nov
2008 at the site. Physical sampling data about the landfill was
collected from the management of Mehmood Booti Landfill
and Lahore Compost Pvt. Ltd. with the help of interviews and
questionnaire based surveys. Moreover, mass balance and
engineering calculations were done for emission estimation. In
the light of the data, statistical calculations and analysis were
done for methane emissions based on solid waste dumped at
the site and possible electricity generation from methane.
Some basic techniques of GIS were also used to create
maps of study area using arc map version 9.0.
XX.
The results of the study are classified into two categories,
i.e. qualitative and quantitative results.
A. Qualitative Results
The following information was highlighted during
qualitative analysis:
The current scenario of municipal solid waste dumping
practices were described in short.
Flow charts of proposed process by the researcher was
given.
Maps were developed by the researcher to highlight the
location of study area and its characteristics.
3) Operations currently occurring at Mehmood Booti
dumping site as observed by the reseactherg: As the truck
enters into the site, firstly it is weighed to determine the
amount of MSW in the truck. Trucks coming from identified
areas having high organic content in their wastes such as
Wahga, Aziz Bhati, Shalimar, Data Ganj Baksh and Gulberg
towns, are sent to Lahore compost facility and others to the
dumping site owned by CDGL adjacent to it. After receiving
at compost facility, solid waste passes through the composting
process to be converted into compost called Zameen Dost
Khaad. The rest of the solid waste is just dropped at any place
within the premises of CDGL owned Mehmood Booti
dumping site without any placement plan. It is neither
properly shredded nor compacted as for a proper landfill site it
should be. The site has no liner installed beneath it and there
is no mechanism to collect and dispose off leachate coming
out of waste. The leachate either just seeps into the sand
beneath it or oozes out of the heaps of MSW and collects in
the form of small ponds all around the heaps. The site is ugly
133
to see and there are strong odours coming out of constantly

decomposing solid waste, leachate and gases being produced
due to the decomposition. Scavengers, usually small kids or
old age persons just roam about here and there in the site to
collect PET bottles, glass, metal, rubber and other recyclable
materials. They handle the waste just bare handedly and
without any sort of masks or coverings which lead to their
direct contact with toxic compounds and lethal germs. Dogs,
rats and other rodents and insects are also found there in
abundance feeding on MSW, which are another source of
carrying disease causing germs and chemicals and transferring
them to other animals and humans, thus polluting the whole
food chain.
4) Proposed scenario at Mehmood Booti dumping site as

described by the reseactherg: The proposed procedure in this
research work entails anaerobic treatment of MSW (food and
yard waste) to produce organic manure through anaerobic
composting and electricity through methane collection and
combustion in gas turbine. This will result in;
Effective utilization of waste materials for producing
both electricity and organic manure.
The project can bring an overall reduction in
anthropogenic green house gases and can contribute
significantly to reduce the impact of global warming
and thus contribute towards sustainable development.
MSW
Mehmood Booti Dumping Site
Truck Weighing
Waste
Separation
Inert materials
Landfilled at
site
Recyclables
Compostables
(yard and food wastes)
Decomposition in
anaerobic digestor
wells
Landfill gas
CO2
Stripping
Sold to
Market
Compost
(Biodegraded
material)
Packing
facility
CH4
Compressor
Gas turbine
FIG. 3 LOCATION OF STUDY AREA IN LAHORE
Dumping of MSW at this site started in around early 1990s

and since then this site is in use. Now due to ever-increasing
population of Lahore and consequently increasing amounts of
solid wastes coming at this site, it can serve only for some
years to come. CDGL officials have planned its closing year
to be 2015. It is the high time to develop an engineered proper
sanitary landfill site to avoid irreversible damage to our
environment in future. Similarly, side by side this site should
be managed and controlled at least to avoid leachate and
methane gas generation problems to increase to an irrepairable
extent of damage.
Market
Generator
Electricity
Grid station
FIG. 4 FLOW CHART OF PROPOSED SCENARIO
B. Quantitative Results
1) Physical Composition of MSW coming to Mehmood Booti,
Lahore: The physical composition of MSW received at
134
Mehmood Booti dumping site is concisely shown in the

following table.
TABLE II
PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT OF MSW COMING TO MEHMOOD BOOTI DUMPING
SITE (DEC 07 NOV 08)
Combined
Paremeters
Recycleable/
Reuseable
(kg)
Compostable
(kg)
Inert
Material (kg)
Parameters
Paper kg
Tetra Pack kg
Textiles kg
Wood & Straw kg
Plastic & Polythene kg
Glass & Metal kg
Rubber & Leather kg
Yard Waste kg
Food Waste kg
Bricks & Stones kg
Misc. kg
% age
by
Weight
0.2
0.3
5.4
0.6
21.5
0.1
0.2
15.8
23.6
4.8
27.9
% age by
Weight of
Combined
Parameters
28.3
39.4
32.7
The above table shows the percentage of each component of

municipal solid waste in percentage by weight. Compostables
that are 39.4 percent of the waste are proposed to be
anaerobically decomposed in the especially developed
landfills to produce methane gas.
Samples for this study were obtained from the MSW coming
to Mehmood Booti landfill. Sampling was carried out
throughout the year, The selection of the source of MSW was
predetermined randomly to accommodate for all type of
sources (i.e. high, medium and low residential households).
Identified truckloads were weighed at the incoming
weighbridge and directed to a pre cleaned flat surface where
segregation of the waste to its components was carried out.
The municipal workers carried out the sorting of the MSW
while with the help of the management of Lahore Compost
Pvt. Ltd. the researcher supervised them. The sampling and
sorting protocol adopted by this study is the spot sampling
method, which is recommended by Corbit. [12] The method
requires for the samples to be taken from a few trucks (about
4-8 trucks from the same source) where an amount of waste
(about 3050 kg) is to be taken and the total amount collected
will form a sample size of about 200 kg, which is then sorted.
Segregated waste components were weighed and data
compiled.
Chemical composition of MSW coming to Mehmood Booti
Lahore: The chemical composition of food and yard wastes
(compostables) are estimated in this research work, These
wastes are suggested to be anaerobically decomposed to
produce stabilized organic humus (compost) and gases, i. e.,
methane and carbondioxide. The are repidly decomposeable
and secondly, they are high in organic content and can
produce greater amount of methane during anaerobic
decomposition.
Lacking the ultimate analysis of MSW of Lahore with respect

to percent Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur and
ash, the values are taken from ref [13].
TABLE III
THE PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR ELEMENTS COMPOSING THE FOOD
AND YARD WASTES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE OF LAHORE.
Com
pone
nt
Food
Wast
es
Yard
Wast
es
Total
Wet
wei
ght,
lb
9.0
Dry
wei
ght,
lb
2.7
1.30
0.17
1.02
0.07
0.01
0.14
11.1
4.4
2.10
0.26
1.67
0.15
0.01
0.20
20.1
7.1
3.40
0.43
2.69
0.22
0.02
0.34
Composition, lb
O
N
S
Ash
TABLE IV
THE MOLAR COMPOSITION OF ELEMENTS NEGLECTING THE ASH
C
H
O
N
S
12.01
1.01
16.00
14.01
32.06
Lb/mole
Total moles = total mass of components in lb/ molecular mass
0.283
0.425
0.168
0.015
0.000
Rapidly
0
7
1
7
6
Decomposeabl
e
TABLE V
THE MOLE RATIOS OF ELEMENTS NEGLECTING SULPHUR
Component
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Molar Ratio (Nitrogen = 1 )

18.025 taken as 18
27.114 taken as 27
10.707 taken as 11
1.0
*Molar Ratio = Total moles of the components/ Total moles of Nitrogen

The Chemical formula of food and yard waste developed
without Sulphur is C18H27O11N
A specified chemical formula is developed for this
particular study. Estimation of the amount of gas that can be
derived from these constituents of MSW with the help of
balanced chemical equation developed here;
4C18H27O11N + 26H2O
1733.84 +468.52
37CH4 + 35CO2 + 4NH3

593.85 + 1540.35 + 68.16
Volume of Methane gas produced is 54.281 ft3 and that of

carbon dioxide gas is 51.074 ft3 at STP.
The resulting gas mixture will contain 51.54% methane and
48.46 % carbon dioxide gas.
Total theoretical amount of gas generated per unit dry
weight of organic matter destroyed is 14.85 ft3/lb, having 7.65
ft3/lb methane and 7.2 ft3/lb carbon dioxide gas.
The landfill gas generation values computed here represent
the maximum amount of gas that could be produced under
optimum conditions from the degradation of biodegradable
volatile solids BVS in the organic fraction of MSW. The
actual quantities of gas generated will be lesser because not all
135
of the biodegradable organic matter is available for

decomposition.
3). Calculated production of Electricity: According to
CDGL official source, incoming MSW to Mehmood Booti
dumping site is 468,000,000 kg/yr. 40% of it comprises of
food and yard waste which primarily is to be used for
anaerobic composting and methane gas generation. So, 40%
of total incoming waste will be 187,200,000 kg/yr or
4118,400,000 lb/yr
According to the calculations done, 7.65 ft3 of methane gas
can be generated by 1 lb of waste. So, 4118,400,000 lbs will
generate 3150,576,000 ft3 methane in 1 year. As the landfill
gas collected and purified will still contain some impurities,
almost 95% of it will be methane gas after purification and
carbon dioxide separation. Now, it can be said that
2993,047,200 ft3 methane gas (95% of 3150,576,000) can be
produced in 1 year. So, 8200129.315 ft3 methane gas, can be
produced in 1 day.
2993,047,200 ft3 x .028 = 838,053,216 m3 As the density of
methane is 0.717 kg/m3 , thus 838,053,216 x 0.717 =
60,088,415.59 kg methane can be generated each year through
anaerobic landfilling of food and yard waste.
The energy density of methane, i.e. its heating value, is
approximately 55.50 megajoules per kilogram. Since one
kilowatt-hour is 3.6 MJ, so the energy density of methane is
15.416 kWh/kg. The typical thermodynamic efficiency of
methane gas turbine power plants taken in this research is
about 20%, so of the 15.416 kWh of energy per kilogram of
methane, 20% of that, 3.0832 kWh/kg can successfully be
turned into electricity; the rest is waste heat. So the power
plants obtain approximately 3.0832 kWh per kilogram of
burned methane gas
If 1 kg of methane gas can produce 3.0832 kWh of energy,
then 60,088,415.59 kg of methane gas will produce,
approximately, 185,264,602.9 kWh or 185,264.6029 MWh
in 1 year.
There are 330 working days in a year. (the rest out of 365
are excluded as for repair and maintenance). So, 561.4078
MW-h electricity can be produced per day. Which is
equivalent to 24 MW.
XXI.
CONCLUSIONS
The study has been successful in highlighting the average
composition and calculated production of electricity from the
MSW which is being dumped into the Mehnood Booti
dumping site. The current study although focused only on data
collected from the dumpling site of Mehmood Booti in
Lahore, can be applied to other dumping sites of various cities
of the country as well and can prove to be very beneficial for
the basic calculations of methane emissions and electricity
production from organic wastes.
At present almost 60% of municipal solid waste of Lahore

is dumped at Mehmood Booti dumping site. The huge
quantity of waste disposed unscientifically should be dumped
in scientifically developed sanitary landfill sites to avoid
environmental degradation and human health damages. The
leachate produced from it and the gases emiting from it are a
source of constant pollution and deterioration of the soil,
water and air of Lahore.
Anaerobic decomposition of this waste can bring out
firstly, full baked, properly decomposed and scientific
compost and secondly landfill gas. Landfill gas
comprises of two major gases i, e,, Carbon dioxide and
Methane gas. Their percentage composition at
Mehmood Booti dumping site is 48.46% and 51.54%
respectively. This 51.54% methane can be proceesed to
be used as energy source, which will eventually produce
electricity, much needed in our country at present.
39.4% of the total waste generated can be anaerobically
composted, 28.3% recycled and reused and 32.7%
landfilled, thus reducing the burden of waste to be
landfilled.
One pound of waste according to engineering
calculations can generate, 7.65 ft3 of methane gas.
According to CDGL official source, incoming MSW to
Mehmood Booti dumping site is 4.68 tons/yr.
More specifically, 1.872 tons/yr of compostable waste
is produced which can be anaerobically decomposed to
produce both compost and landfill gas.
0.06 kg methane can be generated in 1 year. It will
produce, approximately, 185,264.6029 MWh in 1 year.
Thus 24 MW of electricity can be produced from the
Mehmood Booti dumping site with anaerobic
decomposition of organic part of 4.68 tons of municipal
solid waste of Lahore.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author offers sincere gratitude to her advisor Dr.
Muhammad Hanif for his continuous encouragement
and expert guidance.
The author wish to pay her best regards to her mother
for her supportive and caring attitude. She also like to
thank her brothers Qamar and Badar for providing
technical support and guidance whenever needed.
The author offers sincere thanks to Dr. Atta, Mr.
Sheharyar and Mr. Jalil Ahmed of Lahore Compost
Pvt. Ltd. for adjusting their schedules to incorporate her
frequent visits. In addition Mr. Maqsood Butt at
Mehmood Booti dumping site facilitated the author to
survey the dumping site. A note of thanks is also due to
Mr. Asif Iqbal for his help in providing data from City
District Government Lahore.
136
REFERENCES
S. K. Sivapalan, M. Y. M. Noor, S. Abd Halim, S. Kamaruzzaman, and A. R. Rakmi, Comprehensive Characteristics of the Municipal
Solid Waste generated in Kuala Lumpur, Proceedings of the regional symposium on environment and natural resources, Malaysia,
2002.
(2005) National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) Emission Estimation Technique (EET) manual for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills,
Department of the Environment and Heritage, Version 1.2, Australian Government. [Online]. Available:
http://www.npi.gov.au/publications/emission-estimation-technique/pubs/landfills.pdf (2005), Retrieved on October 13, 2008.
(2008) Landfill Gas, U. S. Energy Information Administration, Independent Statistics and Analysis. [Online]. Available:
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/landfillgas/landfillgas.html
(2008) Landfill methane outreach program, U. S. Environmental protection agency. [Online]. Available:
http://www.epa.gov/landfill/index.htm\
(2008) Landfill methane energy recovery, Background, Power Partners Resource Guide. [Online]. Available;
http://uspowerpartners.org/Topics/SECTION6Topic-LandfillMethane.htm
D. Reay, (2008) Sources of Methane-Landfill, Methane; Sources, Sinks and Science, Greenhouse Gas. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ghgonline.org/methanelandfill.htm
P. Rushbrook, and M. Pugh, Solid waste landfills in lower and middle income countries; A technical guide to planning, design and
operation, World Band technical paper, The World Bank, Washington D. C., Rep. 426, 1999.
(2007) Air Pollution causes more than 22,000 deaths annually, Daily Times, Pakistan. [Online]. Available:
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C06%5C12%5Cstory_12-6-2007_pg7_10
CDGL contributes to environmental pollution, The News International, http://www.thenews.com.pk/print1.asp?id=101466 (2008),
Retrieved on August 31, 2008
N. Ali, (2005) City losing over Rs. 500m a year to scavengers, Daily Times Pakistan. [Online]. Available:
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2005%5C11%5C19%5Cstory_19-11-2005_pg7_16
(2006) Landfill Methane Gas Powering the future, NC Green Power, Spring Newsletter, North Carolina. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ncgreenpower.org/media/newsletters/2006/newsletter_spring2006_page2.html
R. A. Corbit, Standard Handbook of Environmental Engineering, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1998.
G. Tchobanoglous, H. Theisen, S. Vigil, Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering, principles and
management issues, International student ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Singapore, 1993
137

Protection Performance and Operational Statistical Analysis for

Karachi Grid
Junaid A.Qureshi, Andaleeb Gufran
NED University of Engg. and Technology
Karachi, Pakistan
jaqned@ieee.org, andaleebg@neduet.edu.pk
AbstractPower system protection is of extreme
importance for the reliability and safety of any power
system. Karachi Electric Supply Company (KESC) is the
sole power supply utility of Karachi, which is the largest
industrial and most densely populated city of Pakistan.
In this paper, we propose to give an overview of the
transmission network of KESC. This would include a review
of the network and voltage levels being used for
transmission. The geographical area covered, major causes
of power loss, fault conditions, respective applied protection
schemes being used by KESC for primary and back up
protection and the relays installed are discussed. The main
factors considered for the selection of breakers and relays
under local network conditions are also listed. A comparison
of KESC protection philosophy with the applied protection
in Quetta Electric Supply Company (QESCO) for the
similar zones and faults is presented at the end.
INTRODUCTION
Karachi Electric Supply Company (KESC) is the sole
vertically integrated power company of Karachi. It is the
only utility in Pakistan that covers generation,
transmission and distribution under its wings. It covers an
area of around 6000 square km and supplies power to all
sectors including residential, industrial, commercial and
agriculture [1]. On the other hand Quetta Electric Supply
Company (QESCO) deals with transmission and
distribution only. Karachi is one of the main industrial
cities of Pakistan so power system reliability has a direct
impact on the economy of Pakistan. In turn, system
reliability of every system is dependent on the protection
scheme and components being used [2] [3]. Existing
systems are reviewed for the improvement in the
performance of system, so KESC power system is to be
reviewed before introducing any modifications in the
existing system [4]. For this purpose, the overview of
KESC network has been described and major causes of
power losses have also been discussed in Section II.
Protection involves many components for the
protection of transmission network but relays play the
key role to identify the fault and respond immediately.
There are various parameters considered before selection
of appropriate relays. Voltage level of the transmission
and sub-transmission scale is one of the important factors.
In this paper, KESC is being analyzed based on various
transmission voltage levels thus, Maripur, Baldia and
Vinder grid stations are discussed in this section as
examples along with specifications and tripping records.
Waqar A. Qureshi
University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand
w.qureshi@auckland.ac.nz
and
Protection schemes used by KESC and QESCO have

been compared for different fault conditions. Protections
Schemes, relay types have also been presented in Section
III. Trips and faults data indicates the system reliability
and has been briefly discussed based on monthly
frequency in Section IV.
In this paper, an overview of KESC network along
with its protection philosophies and practices have also
been presented in Section V. Some tripping data has also
been analyzed. This paper provides the understanding of
the network and protection of Karachi city and creates
basis towards improvements and modifications for
enhanced reliability and security of supply for KESC.
OVERVIEW OF KESC NETWORK
KESC network is ring type network that interconnects
all generating station to a bus bar. The grid is interconnected with the NTDC grid system through two
double circuit 220 KV transmission lines. KESC network
comprises of three voltage levels in transmission i.e. 220
kV (extra high voltage), 132KV (high voltage) and 66KV
at some levels. At distribution level, KESC voltage levels
are 11KV (medium voltage) for industries and large users
of electricity and 220/380 V AC for low voltage
residential or commercial customers. The total demand of
electricity is about 2462 MW, while KESC has the
installed capacity of 1955MW in 2009[5].
The major causes of power loss in KESC is the use of
Aluminum wires instead of copper at some places, cable
insulation failure due to over loads and long usages of
cables, joints in line which cause increase in resistance
and theft [6]. Some specifications of the KESC network
are shown in Table-I.
KESC has total 60 grid stations. These gird stations
have been divided into four regions i.e. North, East, West
and South. Each region comprise of almost 15 grid
stations in it.
TABLE II. KESC NETWORK SPECIFICATIONS
Trans. Lines
220
KV
132 KV
Overhead
132 KV
Underground
66 KV
Overhead
No. of
Circuits
Length in km
18
65
22
321
602
113
149
138
PROTECTION PHILOSPHIES
Protection is employed on all levels of voltage but
method and relays used differ on the basis of voltage
levels and the cost and importance of the equipment to be
protected. KESC has a complete hierarchy of protection
from generation to distribution. Network protection is
achieved with the help of control panels at grid stations.
Protection components and protection schemes are
different at all grid stations. In order to explain the
protection at different levels of voltage, 220kV (Maripur
& Baldia), 132 kV (Maripur & Baldia) and 66 kV
(Vinder) voltages are being considered here. Protection
coordination is designed in similar fashion across all grid
stations. Maripur and Vinder grid station are treated as
model grid stations. In these grid stations, relays are used
to continuously check for any abnormal condition that
might arise within the system [7].
Relay configurations are revised to prevent both;
unnecessary tripping and missed trips, because if a
required trip is missed it is forwarded upstream and could
cause cascaded tripping and blackouts. KESC is in the
middle of upgrading protection equipment in order to
improve system reliability. Electromechanical and static
relays are now being replaced by numerical relays. The
main protection of transmission line is carried out by
distance relays [8]
a) 220kV Grid Protection
Two distance relays i.e. Main I and Main II are used
for the protection of 220 kV circuits. Main II is used as a
backup in this scheme. Maripur and Baldia town Grid
stations have been selected to explain protection
philosophies at 220KV transmission level.
I. Maripur Grid Station
Specification of components at Maripur grid station
has been shown in Table II.
TABLE III.
PROTECTION COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS

OF
Maripur-Baldia I
shown in Table III.

Trip record of six months (Jan 2010-June 2010) for the
Baldia 220KV circuits is shown in Table IV. There have
been some trips on the Baldia 220KV line during the
same period. Faults were not timely cleared at lower
levels and propagated to higher stream of 220 kV.
b) 132 kV Grid Protection
Only one distance relay i.e. Main I is used for the
protection of 220KV circuits. Maripur and Baldia town
grid stations have been selected for demonstration of
protection on 132KV transmission level.
I. Maripur Grid Station
At Maripur town grid station, there are 2 transmission
lines Maripur-Haroonabad I & II. They all have same
protection schemes and relays. Specification of
component at Maripur grid station for 132 kV voltage
level is shown in Table-5. Trip record of six months (Jan
2010-June 2010) for the Maripur 132 kV grid is shown in
TABLE III. PROTECTION COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS OF
220 KV BALDIA GRID
Name Of Line
C.T Ratio
(P.C)
C.T Ratio
(M.C)
P.T Ratio
Panel
Main I
Main II
220 KV MARIPUR GRID

Name Of Line
performance have been satisfactory during mentioned

period thus, none of the fault could reach to 220 kV grid
level.
II. Baldia Grid Station
Specification of component at Baldia grid station is
C.T Ratio (P.C)

C.T Ratio (M.C)
P.T Ratio
Panel
Main I
Main II
1250/1
1250/1
220KV/100
Siemens
Siemens 7SA522
Siemens 7SA612
Maripur-Baldia II,
Maripur- Lalazar I &II
1250/1
1250/1
220KV/100
Siemens
Siemens 7SA522
Siemens 7SA612
Fault Locator
Line Diff.
Over Current
Breaker Fail.
Sync Check
Auto Reclosers
NIL
NIL
Siemens 7SJ6021
Siemens 7VK61
NIL
Siemens 7VK61
NIL
NIL
Siemens 7SJ6021
Siemens 7VK61
NIL
Siemens 7VK61
Line Diff.
Baldia To
Maripur I &II
2500/1
Baldia-NKI &
Baldia-KDA
2500/1
2500/1
2500/1
220kv/100
SIEMENS
Siemens 7SA522
220kv/100
ASEA
ASEA RAZFE RK613
Siemens 7SA612
ASEA
RAZOA
RK614
NIL
ASEA
RXIDF2HRK651
ASEA RAICA XR330
ASEA RASC RK862
NIL
7SJ6021
Over Current
7VK61
7VK61
Breaker Fail.
Sync Check
Auto
Reclosers
7VK61
ASEA
RK851
RAAAM
Table-6.
II. Baldia Grid Station

At Baldia town grid station, there are 8 transmission lines and
There are no trips at 220 kV Maripur grid station

during January 2010 to June 2010. All faults have been
cleared downstream. Protection coordination and
TABLE IV. TRIP RECORD OF BALDIA 220 KV GRID

Month
BaldiaMaripur-I
Jan 10
Feb 10
Mar 10
Apr 10
May 10
Jun 10
5
3
1
1
3
1
BaldiaMaripurII
0
1
1
1
1
1
BaldiaNKI
BaldiaKDA
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
trips
5
4
139
3
2
4
2
TABLE VI. TRIP RECORD OF 132KV MARIPUR GRID

TABLE V. PROTECTION COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS OF
MARIPUR 132 KV GRID
NAME OF LINE
Maripur-Haroonabad I &
Maripur-Haroonabad II
Jan 10
Haroonabad
Circuit 1
1
Haroonabad
Circuit 2
0
Total Trips
Feb 10
C.T Ratio (P.C)
1600/1
Mar 10
C.T Ratio (M.C)

P.T Ratio
Panel
Main I
Fault Locator
Line Diff.
1600/1
132KV/100
SEIMENS
SEIMENS 7SA52
NIL
NIL
Apr 10
May 10
Jun 10
Over Current
SEIMENS 7SJ6021
all have same protection sche mes and relays. Lines are from
Baldia, Valika, Tapa l, Orange, Hub, SGT I & II and KANUPP I
& II. Specification of component at Maripur 132 kV grid station
is shown in Table VII and Trip
record of six months (Jan 2010June 2010) for the Baldia 132KV lin
es is shown in Table-VIII.
c)
Month
66 kV GridProtection
KANUPP I
KANUPP II
Total trips
Description
SGT II
Protection Scheme or Relay
SGT I
PROTECTION COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS

OF 132 KV BALDIA GRID
Hun choki
Protection configuration is carried out considering

power system as a whole and not in isolation. Protections
settings are achieved in a manner to affect minimum due
to any fault.
TABLEVII.
Orangi
Distance protection is zone based protection. There are

three levels of zones from Zone-1 to Zone-3. Zone-1 is
80% of length, Zone-2 is 120% of length and Zone-3 is
225% of length. Relays are configured to operate on
standard time settings on the basis of voltage levels and
zones. Tripping time for Zone -1 targeted as minimum as
possible or close to zero, tripping time for Zone-2 is
300ms while tripping time for Zone-3 is 700ms for KESC
network [9].
Tapal
Protection of transmission lines is carried out by the

combination of various relays but distance relays are used
as main protection. KESC utilizes relays from multiple
vendors depending on cost, performance, functions and
the availability of technical personnel. Distance relays
used by KESC are shown in Table-XI. At 220 kV two
distance relays are used while
at 132 kV and 66 kV only
one main distance protection is used with its auxiliary
relays and components. Over current protections is also
used as backup for these voltage levels. At 11kV only
over current protection is used for both primary and back
up protection.
Valika
T RANSMISION PROTECTION RELAYS
TABLE VIII. TRIP RECORD OF SIX MONTHS FOR THE 132 KV BALDIA
GRID
Monthly
trips
66 kV transmissions are available with some grid

stations. Vinder grid station has been taken to
demonstrate the protection component specifications on
66 kV level. Specification of component at Vinder 66 kV
grid station is shown in Ta
ble-IX. Trip record of six
months (Jan 2010-June 2010) for the 66KV Vinder to
Uthal line is shown in Table-X.
800/1
800/1
132KV/100
ASEA
ASEA RAZOA RK614
ASEA RANZA RK881
NIL
ASEA RXIDF-2H RK651
ASEA RAICA XR330
ASEA RASC RK862
ASEA RAAAE RK614
C.T Ratio (P.C)

C.T Ratio (M.C)
P.T Ratio
Panel
Main I
Fault Locator
Line Diff.
Over Current
Breaker Fail.
Sync Check
Auto Reclosers
Jan
2010
Feb
2010
Mar
2010
Apr
2010
May
2010
June
2010
TABLE IX. PROTECTION COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS OF 66 KV

VINDER GRID
Protection Scheme/
Description
Relay
400/5
C.T Ratio (P.C)
400/5
C.T Ratio (M.C)
P.T Ratio
66KV/100
Panel
ELECTRON BREDA
Main I
GE D-60
Line Diff.
NIL
Over Current
ALSTOM MICCOM P122
TABLE X. Trip Record of 66 kV Vinder Grid
Month
Vinder - Uthal 66 kV Line Trips
Jan 2010
Feb 2010
Mar 2010
Apr 2010
May 2010
Jun 2010
Table XI. Distance Relays Used In KESC

Vendor
Relay No
Siemens
BBC
ASEA
GEC
GE
7SA522, 7SA612, 7SA52

LZ3, L3WYS
RAZFE RK613, RAZOA RK614
PYTC, SHPM101 QUADRAMHO,
OPTIMHO
D-60
140
Areva
MCOM P443
ABB(BBC+ASEA)
REL 670, RED 670
FAULT HISTORY AT KESC
Protection level and coordination can easily be

examined after analyzing the faults and trip records
during the year. Comparison of trips record for six month,
from January to June for 2009 and 2010, shows the
improvement in system performance. Trips on lines,
transformer and total trips are shown in Tables-12. The
total no. of trips is also presented in Figure-1. This would
help to predict the reliability of the system [10].
In 2009, there was an average of 49 transformer faults
and 37 line trippings per month. On the other hand, there
were average of 45 transformer faults and 40 line
trippings per month in 2010. Looking at the overall faults
and analysing, we can easily say that there is an average
decrease of 1.7 faults per month within
a year.
Considering the amount of investment made on installing
new relays and equipment, the decrease in number of
trips is not that prominent. This means that a further study
of load characteristics is required in order to set proper
fault settings.
COMPARISON OF
KESC AND QESCO
Reliability of system is mainly dependent upon faults

and abnormal conditions [2]. From organizational
structure point of view KESC and QESCO are different
as KESC also owns generation while QESCO is
responsible for transmission and distribution only. For
most of the fault conditions, almost same protection is
applied in both systems. Protection schemes are the same
throughout the system but due to location and economical
reasons, equipment and components differ from one
system to other. Same fault scenarios and its applied
protections are shown in Table-XIII. Practical data and
techniques in KESC and QESCO have been shown in
Table- XIV, for some abnormal conditions in the system.
.
Table XII. KESC Tripping Record
Months
Total Transformer
Tripped
22
24
27
34
45
35
44
50
60
73
74
80
Jan-10
Jan-09
Feb-10
Feb-09
Mar-10
Mar-09
Apr-10
Apr-09
May-10
May-09
Jun-10
Jun-09
Total Line
Tripped
30
34
30
24
48
25
37
31
45
49
54
64
Total
Tripped
52
58
57
58
93
60
81
81
105
122
128
146
Table XIII. Protection Solutions at KESC

S.No
1
Fault
The D.C supply to the
Tripping circuit fails.
The current or voltage

supply to the relay
fails.
The tripping
mechanism of circuit
breaker fails
The circuit breaker
fails to operate
5
The primary protective
relay fails
Solution
In case of DC supply failure,
11kV incomer trips
automatically. Also DC fail
alarms are also employed.
PT fail signal is employed.
No protection for CT.
Trip circuit supervision
relays are employed
Breaker failure relay
Backup protection is
employed. For most of the
cases over current is
employed as back up
protection.
Table XIV. Protection Comparison OF KESC and QESCO

Abnormal
Operating
Conditions
Over Loads
Under &
Over
Voltage
Under
Frequency
Voltage
Swings
Current
Swings
KESC
QESCO
For transmission side

over current relays are
used for overload.
For transmission line

over current is used
for overload protection
7RW600
(Siemens),
7SJ80 (Siemens) and
relays
of
other
companies such as ABB
are also used.
7SJ6011 (Siemens)
ABB FCN950, AREVA

P922, ABB FCX103,
Siemens 7SJ80 etc
Protection is blocked on
power swings.
Protection is blocked on
power swings.
SPAJ (ABB)
VAA (GEC) relay is
used.
Over current relays are
installed.
EXPANSION OF KESC NETWORK AND ITS PROTECTION

SCENARIO
Figure 1. Monthly Total Tripping Comparison
In 2009, KESC expanded its network and established

11 new grid stations. These Grid stations include Jail
Road, Azizabad, PRL, Memon Goth, Airport 2, Hospital
141
Grid, Korangi South and Maymar, FTC, DHA-I and

Creek City. These grid stations solve the problem of
faults to a large extent through distribution of loads on
these grids.
Jail road, Azizabad, PRL, Memon Goth, Airport 2,
Hospital Grid, Korangi South and Maymar, FTC grid
stations are manufactured and commissioned by ABB
Company. Advance protection schemes have been
applied to all these grids. Line protection is achieved
using line distance and differential relays at various
voltage levels.
Defense grid at Creek City was manufactured and
commissioned by Areva. While DHA-I grid station was
manufactured and commissioned by Siemens.
These grids have increased the reliability and
protection level of transmission lines there. Advance
protection schemes have been employed at these grid
stations.
further modifications and improved protection

coordination to reduce number of faults per circuit per
month. This number would directly dictate the reliability
of the KESC transmission network. Comparison of KESC
protection scheme with that of protection scheme of
QESCO indicates that protection equipment and vendors
are different for the same protection solution. This
information may also help to compare available schemes
and equipment with other countries and benchmark
globally the protection practices of KESC.
Power demand of Karachi has increased exponentially
in the last few decades. In order to meet local demand;
the electrical grid has been expanded and advanced
protection relays and schemes were introduced. Thus,
coordination of transmission protection with existing
generation protection is another future area of research
and a detailed analysis for fault records at KESC and
investigating major fault causes and clearance times is
also planned as another future possibility.
CONCLUSION & FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Technical and brief overview of KESC network is
presented here. Focus in this publication is limited to
transmission protection. The specification of some of the
220 kV, 132 kV and 66 kV grids are shown along with
the existing protection schemes in practice for
transmission grids. Transmission fault records have also
been presented for the period of Jan-Jun for Year 2009
and 2010.
From analysis of available records, fault clearance and
protection efficiency has improved and has further room
for improvement. These network protections require
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors would like to thank Muhammad Zulqarnain,
Assistant
Engineer
in
QESCO
Protection
Instrumentation, for providing protection scenario of
QESCO and Mr. Siraj-ud-Deen Ahmed Khan, GM
Protection in KESC, for making it possible for us to visit
different Grid stations and for giving useful information
concerning transmission protection scenario in KESC.
Authors would also like to take opportunity to thank Dr.
Nirmal Nair from University of Auckland, New Zealand
for his support and guidance.
REFRENCES
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48]
[49]
[50]
Available at http://www.kesc.com.pk [ Cited on 25th June 2010]

Kjolle, G.H., et al. Protection system faults 1999 &# x2013; 2003 and the influence on the reliability of supply. in
Power Tech, 2005 IEEE Russia. 2005.
Sykes, J., et al. Reliability of protection systems (what are the real concerns). in 63rd Annual Conference for
Protective Relay Engineers, 2010.
Daochun, H., R. Jiangjun, and Y. Shifeng. Overview of the recent developments of ultra high voltage AC
transmission in China. in Power and Energy Society General Meeting - Conversion and Delivery of Electrical
Energy in the 21st Century, 2008 IEEE. 2008.
KESC Annual Report 2009.
Available at http://www.infopakistan.pk/2010/02/kesc-goes-online-against-theft-of-electricity/. [Cited on 12th
February 2010]
Henville, C.F., Digital relay reports verify power system models. Computer Applications in Power, IEEE, 2000.
13(1): p. 26-32.
Tholomier, D., S. Richards, and A. Apostolov. Advanced distance protection applications for dynamic loading and
out-of step condition. in Bulk Power System Dynamics and Control - VII. Revitalizing Operational Reliability, 2007
iREP Symposium. 2007.
Elahi, M., Zone base Protection. 2010: Karachi.
Hussain, B., et al., Transmission system protection: a reliability study. Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on,
1997. 12(2): p. 675-680.
142

Reactor Kinetics Revisited:

A Coefficient Based Model (CBM)
Wajdi M.Ratemi
Nuclear Engineering Department
Alfateh University, P.OBox 91821,
Tripoli, Libya
wm_ratemi@hotmail.com
Abstract
In this paper, a nuclear reactor kinetics model

based on Guelph expansion coefficients calculation ( Coefficients
Based Model, CBM), for n groups of delayed neutrons is developed.
The accompanying characteristic equation is a polynomial form of
the Inhour equation with the same coefficients of the CBM- kinetics
model. Those coefficients depend on Universal abc- values which
are dependent on the type of the fuel fueling a nuclear reactor.
Furthermore, such coefficients are linearly dependent on the inserted
reactivity
,i.e; A m = a m + b m + c m . In this paper, the
Universal abc- values have been presented symbolically, for the first
time, as well as with their numerical values for U-235 fueled
reactors for one, two, three, and six groups of delayed neutrons.
Simulation studies for constant, and variable reactivity insertions are
made for the CBM kinetics model, and a comparison of results, with
numerical solutions of classical kinetics models for one, two, three,
and six groups of delayed neutrons are presented. The results show
good agreements, especially for single step insertion of reactivity,
with the advantage of the CBM- solution of not encountering the
stiffness problem accompanying the numerical solutions of the
classical kinetics model.
Keywords- universal abc-values; point reactor kinetics; guelph
expansion; polynomial expansion; simulation; CBM-reactor kinetics
model; Inhour equation.
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear reactors can be modeled by the classical six groups
point reactor kinetics model [1,2,and 3], which is presented by
seven coupled first order differential equations. Such kinetics
model has an accompanying transcendental equation called
the Inhour equation [2]. A polynomial form of the Inhour
equation has been introduced [4,5]. Such polynomial has
coefficients which have linear dependence on inserted
reactivity and depend on universal abc-values specific to the
fuel fueling the nuclear reactor in concern [5]. The polynomial
form of the inhour equation has been derived based on special
polynomial expansion which has been named later as The
Guelph expansion [6]. Such Inhour polynomial equation
represents the characteristic equation of an (n+1)th order
differential equation representing the nuclear reactor with n
groups of delayed neutrons with its coefficients as those of
the inhour polynomial equation, hence, the name Coefficients
Based Model (CBM) for the point reactor kinetics [7] . Those
coefficients and the corresponding abc- values have been used
for simulating nuclear reactors with only delayed neutrons[8],

and with accompanying beryllium photo-neutrons [9] for
constant step reactivity insertions. In this paper, the author
extends the application of the CBM kinetics model to
solutions involving single step insertion of reactivities, as well
as, for multiple step insertions of reactivities for one, two,
three, and six groups of delayed neutrons . The CBM
solutions requires the calculation of the coefficients at the
inserted reactivity, then solving for the roots of the inhour
polynomial either by the roots command used in the matlab
package, or by the R-transform method [10] derived also from
the Guelph expansion , and then plug in the analytical solution
of the CBM kinetics model. The results were compared to the
numerical solutions of the respected models. Good
agreements have been achieved especially for single step
insertions of reactivities. Further results were presented for
one group model for ramp, and sinusoidal insertions of
reactivities, and when compared to numerical solutions, good
agreements have been established at the beginning of the
simulation, however, as the simulation proceeds with time, a
deviation from the numerical solution has been noticed. The
CBM- solutions have been found, besides its good agreements
especially at the single step insertions of reactivities, to be
stable whereas the numerical solutions fail at larger time steps
because of the numerical stiffness of the problem.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
THE UNIVERSAL ABC-VALUES
AND
Nuclear Reactor Kinetics Model

When a neutron balance is made by equating the rate of
change of neutrons, R, to the rate of neutron production, P,
minus the rate of neutron loss , L, a point reactor kinetics
model can be obtained for n-groups of delayed neutrons. In
this paper, two mathematical kinetics models for a nuclear
reactor are presented. The first is called the classical model
which is widely used in literature, whereas, the other one is
developed by the author and is called the Coefficients Based
Model (CBM).
143
Classical reactor kinetics model
A nuclear reactor can be modeled using six groups of delayed

neutrons by a set of seven coupled first order differential
equations given by (1), and ( 2) [1,2,and 3]:
dp
(1)
=
p + i C i
dt
i
dC i i
(2)
=
p i C i
; i = 1,2,...,6 ,
dt
where, p is the reactor power, is the reactivity ( related to the

motion of control rods in and out of the reactor), Ci is the ith
delayed neutron precursor,
represents neutron generation
time, i represents the ith precursors decay constant, i is the
ith delayed neutron fractions. The corresponding characterstic
equation for the above mentioned system of seven coupled
differential equations is well known in literature[1] as the
Inhour equation and is given by:
= +
i
i
+ i
Am = ( .. k .. ) + i
i =1
T = n
k
i =1
i 1
i2
.. ) i
(..
k 1
.. )
T = n
k 1
Where m = n + 1 0, k = 0 n + 1 with one to one

correspondence.
Equivalently , equation (7) can be
represented in terms of the Universal abc- values as:
Am = a m + bm + cm
(8)
Where, am's, bm's, and cm's can be read directly from equation
(7).
Equation (6) is then can be viewed as the characteristic
equation for a nuclear reactor which can be modeled as:
n +1
dmp
m=0
dt m
Am
= 0,
(9)
where the coefficients Am's are given by (7). Because of these

newly generated coefficients, (9) is named a Coefficient Based
Model (CBM) for a nuclear reactor [7] .
Expanding (3) ,one gets (4):

n
k 1
(7)
(3)
Coeffecients based model for nuclear reactors
( ..
T = n 1
k 1
( ) ( + i ) + 1 ( + i ) + 2 ( + i ) + ...
n
(4)
+ n ( + i ) = 0
The Universal abc-values for U-235 fueled nuclear reactors
in
Where n represents the number of the delayed neutron groups.

References [4,5, and 6] presented a new polynomial expansion
form which is called the Guelph expansion and is given by :
n
i =1
k =0
( + i ) =
Where
nk
( ... k ... ) .
T = n
k
(5)
Tables I, II, III, and IV represent the Universal abc- values for
U-235 fueled reactors both symbollically and with their
corresponding numerical values , for one, two , three , and six
groups of delayed neutrons, respectively . The values for the
constants i's, and i's of the U-235 fuel are taken from
Hetrick [1] for the different delayed neutron groups.
k
... ... term in the Guelph expansion is defined
T = n
k
UNIVERSAL ABC-VALUES FOR ONE GROUP MODEL
TABLE I.
as: ' of the set 1 n, multiply k- components for each

possible combinations and add them up'. The number of such
combinations is called the binomial coefficient T which is
given by n!/k!(n-k)! . The k value ranges from 0 to n. For
k=0, the summation value equals to one , while its value is
zero for k outside the assigned range.
When (5) is substitued in (4), then (4) can be rewritten in the
following form:
n +1
F ( ) = Am m = 0,
m =0
where Am's are given by:
(6)
a0
a1
a2
b0
b1
.0065
b2
c0
-.0767
c1
-1
-1
c2
144
a0
a1
a2
a3
2+
Numerical and analytic solutions of the respected models
.00028918
The system of equations ( n+1 coupled first order differential

equations) for the classical representation of the point reactor
kinetics given by (1), and (2) can be solved numerically using
Matlab package with the initial conditions p(0)=p0 , and
C(0)= i p0/(
i) for the number of delayed neutron groups
i=1,2,3,6. The CBM kinetics model ( a single n+1 order
differential equation) given by (9), and (8) can be solved
numerically using Matlab package with initial conditions given
by:
0.0316
0.6813
a4
b0
b1
b2
2+
b3
1
3
1+
1
3+
.000024474
2)
0.0018
0.0065
b4
c0
-a1
-.00028918
c1
-a2
-0.0316
c2
-a3
-0.6813
c3
-a4
-1
c4
TABLE II.
a0
0
1
a2
.5912
a3
b0
b1
b2
.0012078144
.0065
b3
c0
-a1
c1
-a2
-.5912
c2
-a3
-1
c3
0
IVERSAL ABC-VALUES FOR THREE GROUPS MODEL
(10)
Where the Bj's [8] are given by (11) as:
Bj =
p0
; j =1,2,.....n .
n
i i
j +
2
i=1 (j + i )
(11)
The analytic solution of the CBM kinetics model , and

according to (9) is given by:
UNIVERSAL ABC-VALUES FOR TWO GROUPS MODEL
a1
TABLE III.
n+1
dp
(0) = Bjj ; = 0,1.....,n
dt
j=1
n+1
jt
p(t) = Bje
j=1
(12)
Where the Bj's are given ,as well , by (11).

It is then, one only needs to determine the roots j's from the
new form of the polynomial inhour equation given above by
(6) in order to find the analytic solution of the CBM-kinetics
model. The roots of the Inhour polynomial can be easily
found using the roots command in the matlab package .
Further more, The Guelph expansion expression given by (5)
can directly relate the roots of any polynomial to the
polynomial coefficients through the following formula which is
named as the R-transforms [10] method :
a r k = ...k ... ; k = 0,1, 2,..r
(13)
T = r
k
With r as the degree of the polynomial, and the summation

term is as described before. Note by substituting for 's the
values of the negative roots, one can determine the respected
coefficients an-k of the polynomial expansion. Conversely,
knowing the coefficients of the polynomials, one solves the
system of the nonlinear equation numerically by using (solve)
command in matlab package. The R-transform can find the
roots for five roots, but for higher number of roots , due to the
145
nonlinearity of the system, the matlab fails for its numerical

solution, a point is worth researching.
TABLE IV.
UNIVERSAL ABC-VALUES FOR SIX GROUPS MODEL
0
4.3359e-005
0.0055
0.1832
1.7761
5.3707
4.6049
1.0
0
3.6736e-006
3.3387e-004
0.0058
0.0265
0.0273
0.0065
0
146
Figure 1 presents the six groups inhour polynomial behavior

for inserted positive reactivity of .1$ , segmented about the
roots ( -58.9575, -2.8804, -1.0127, -.1883, -.0623, -.0138,
+.0101), whereas, Figure 2 presents a qualitative overall
behavior for the mentioned inhour polynomial. For negative
insertion of reactivity, one can obtain similar behavior, except
that all intersections will be in the negative side.
study has been made for constant, as well as, for variable
insertions of step reactivities.
Constant step insertion of reactivity for one, two, three, and
six groups cases
The following figures presents the simulation results for
positive insertion of 0.1$ reactivity for 1g, 2g, 3g, and 6g
CBM-models with comparisons with numerical solutions.
In figure 3 , the results are shown for one group case with
CBM- analytic solution using either the roots- command of
matlab , or R-transform method for roots findings of the
inhour polynomial equation. Also numerical solution for two
coupled equations or a single 2nd order differential equation
representing the reactor kinetics are presented for comparison.
As it is clear from the figure, an excellent agreement has been
achieved.
Figure 7.
Quantitative behavior for the Inhour polynomial equation

( =.1$)
f()
Figure 9.
Figure 8.
Power response for positive step insertion (1g-case)
Figure 4 presents results for CBM- analytic solution, and the

numerical solution CBM-3rd order differential equation, as well
as, for the 3coupled 1st order model. Excellent agreement has
been achieved between the CBM-analytic solution and the
numerical 3-coupled 1st order solution. However, a deviation
has been presented by the 3rd order model after .3 seconds from
the start of the simulation.
Qualitative Inhour polynomial behavior (+ )
In this study, the roots are easily found by the roots command
of Matlab package applied to the evaluated Am's coefficients
developed for the CBM kinetics model given by (8), or more
closely by the calculated universal abc values given in Tables I,
II, III, and IV for one , two, three, and six groups of delayed
neutrons respectively.

In this section, a verification of the CBM- reactor models is
made by comparing its results with the classical models for
one , two, three, and six groups of delayed neutrons. The
Figure 10.
Figure 5 introduces the results of three groups models for

CBM-analytic solution, and the numerical solution of 4-
147
coupled differential equations. As it is seen from the figure,

good agreement has been achieved.
Figure 13.
Figure 11.
Figure 6 presents the solutions for the six groups models for the
analytic CBM, as well as, the numerical solution of seven
coupled 1st order equations. Again, good agreement has been
demonstrated.
Figure 12.
Variable reactivity insertion (1g), Classical and

CBM
Figure 8 presents the power response for the same reactivity

insertion scenario for 2g case, with CBM-analytic substituted
for time steps of .1 sec. and .01 sec. Both solutions are
compared with the numerical solution of 3-coupled 1st order
reactor model . Again, excellent agreement for the CBManalytic solutions at .01, and .1 sec. with the numerical solution
at the first step insertion of the reactivity, but a noticeable
deviation at the next step insertion of the reactivity is
presented.
However, the numerical solution presents a
numerical instability at time step of 0.1 sec. (a disadvantage for
the numerical solution, see Figure 9 demonstrating such
instability in using time step of 0.1 sec.).
Variable steps insertion of reactivity for one, two, three, and

six groups cases
In this subsection, The CBM- analytical solutions are
demonstrated for variable steps insertions of reactivities for
one , two, three and six groups and are compared with the
corresponding numerical solutions of the respected models.
Figure 14. Variable reactivity insertion (2g), Classical and CBM
Figure 7 presents the power response for 1g model and for

variable two steps insertions of reactivities at t=0sec with
=0.1$, then at t=1sec. with = 0.05$ . The results for CBManalytic with roots finding using root-command of matlab, and
CBM-analytic solution with roots finding using R-transform
method, as well as, the numerical solution for two coupled 1st
order kinetics model. Coinciding agreement is noticed among
the CBM-analytic solutions as expected, which both fit closely
with the numerical solution at the first step insertion, but
reasonably, at the 2nd step insertion of the reactivity.
148
Figure 16. Variable reactivity insertion (3g), Classical and CBM

Figure 15.
Instabilty of numerical solution for dt=.1sec (2g)
In figure 10 , results for 3 groups models are presented for two

reactivity steps, e.g; at t=0 , =.1$ and at t=1 sec. , =-1$.
Again, the figure presents the solution of CBM-analytic at time
steps of 0.1 sec. and 0.01 sec., whereas, the numerical solution
of 4 - coupled 1st order model is solved at time steps of 0.01
sec. which presents numerical instability at t= 1 sec. when the
next reactivity step is introduced. Such instability is resolved
when the numerical time step is reduced to 0.001 sec. for this
simulation. Excellent agreement is always achieved at the first
step of reactivity insertion.
order model. While, the excellent agreement between the
CBM-solutions is achieved , a deviation of results is noticed in
comparison with the numerical solution for the next step
insertion of reactivity.
Figure 17.
Variable reactivity insertion (3g), Classical and CBM
Figure 11 presents the power response for two consecutive

positive insertions of reactivities applied to 6groups models,
the first is applied at t=0 sec. with amount of 0.1$, and at t= 1
sec. the reactivity of the system is 0.2$ .
The excellent agreement is achieved for the first step insertion

among the CBM-analytic with time steps of 0.1 sec, and
0.01sec. as well as, the numerical solution of seven coupled 1st
equations. The figures show excellent agreements among all

at the first 2.5 sec. of the 5 sec. simulation time. However,
while agreements are sustained between the CBM-analytic
solutions, a deviation from the numerical solution is noticed
afterwards.
Figure 18. Power response for ramp insertion of reactivity
Figures 12, 13 present the simulations for different reactivity

insertions for one group model , i.e. ramp and sinusoidal
insertions. A comparison of results are made among the
solutions of CBM-analytic with the two different methods of
finding the roots of the inhour polynomial equation, and the
numerical solution using two coupled 1st order differential
149
Figure 19.
Power response for sinusoidal insertion of reactivity
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, The Nuclear Reactor Kinetics have been
revisited. A new polynomial form of the inhour equation is
presented with Universal abc-values which depend on the
specific type of the fuel which fuels the reactor. Such abcvalues are presented symbolically and with their numerical
values for U-235 fuel. A segmented quantitative and a full
qualtitive graph for the Inhour polynomial is presented. The
coefficients of the inhour polynomial are the same as the
(n+1)th order differential equation representing the kinetics of a
nuclear reactor, hence the origin of the naming of the
Coefficient Based Model (CBM). A simulation studies are
made for single constant step insertion of reactivity, as well as
for multiple steps insertions of constant reactivities for one,
two, three, and six groups of delayed neutrons. Comparisons
are made with numerical solutions, and good agreements were
noticed at the first step insertions, while some deviations are
seen at the next step insertion. Other reactivity insertions such
as ramp, and sinusoidal insertions have been explored with one
group model , and compared with numerical solutions. Good
agreements are achieved at almost half of the time of
simulation, then deviations are noticed afterwards. The
numerical solutions present instability at larger time steps due
to numerical stiffness, however, such problem does not exist
in the analytic CBM-solutions.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
D. Hetrick, " Dynamics of Nuclear Reactor ", Chicago, pp.6-8, 1971.

R.Rydin, Nuclear Reactor Theory and Design",Publications, pp.207-208, 1977.
G.Bell and S.Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Dynamics", Krieger, New York, p478, 1979 .
W.M.Ratemi, Unpublished work, 1996.
Ratemi, W. M., Eshabo, A. E. , New form of the Inhour equation and its universal ABC-values for different reactor types,
Ann. Nucl. Energy. 1998; 25(.6): 377-386.
Ratemi, W. M., Abdulla, H. The Guelph expansion: a mathematical expansion for polynomial expansion. Abstract International Conference on Mathematical Sciences, Istanbul. 2009; p.381.
W.M.Ratemi , " Coefficient Based Model(CBM) of a Nuclear Reactor
with Reactimeter and RTC-Control", Abstract -International Conference on Mathematical Applications in Engineering
(ICMAE10), 3-5 August 2010, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
W.M.Ratemi,and A.Eshaboo, "New form of the point reactor kinetics", The 4th Arab Conference for peaceful uses of the
Atomic Energy, Cairo, E gypt ,Dec.1998.
Aboanber A.E. ( 2003), An efficient analytical form for the period-reactivity relation of beryllium and heavy-water
moderated reactors, Nuclear Engineering and Design 224, 279-292.
Ratemi W. M. R-transforms for polynomial expansion and root extraction. Abstract - International Conference on Analysis
and Applications (ICAA2010), Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. 2010; p.52.
150

Role of Iron oxide Catalysts in Selective

Catalytic Reduction of NOx and Soot from
Vehicular Emission
S. Anjuman*, S.Tahira** and K. Hizbullah*
*
DES. IIUI, Islamabad, UOP, Pakistan, *
Abstract- This study deals with Iron containing catalysts i-e

Iron oxide Fe2O3) Iron potassium oxide Fe1.9K0.1O3, copper
iron oxide Cu0.9K0.1, Fe2O3, nickel iron oxide Ni Fe2O4, and
Nickel potassium iron oxide Ni0.95K0.05 Fe2O4 catalyst were
synthesized by using
PVA technique. By X-ray
Diffraction technique these catalysts were characterized to
ensure the formation of crystalline structure. Energy
Dispersive X-rays analysis (EDX) was used for the
confirmation of presence of different metals and Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) for Surface Morphology.
Then the catalytic investigations of the prepared catalyst
were carried out for their activity measurement toward
simultaneous conversion of NOx and Soot from an engine
exhaust. Some Iron containing oxide catalysts were
partially modified by alkali metal potassium and were
used for NOx -Soot reaction in a model exhaust gas.
Fe1.9K0.1O3 show high catalytic performance for N2
formation in the prepared catalyst. Further studies have
shown that Fe1.9K0.1O3 was deactivated in a substantial
way after about 20 Temperature.
Temperature Programmed Reaction (TPR) experiments
due to agglomeration of the promoter potassium.
Experiments carried out over the aged Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst
have shown that NOx-soot reaction was suppressed at
higher oxygen concentration, since O2-soot conversion was
kindly favored. More over nitrite species formed at the
catalyst surface might play an important role in NOx-soot
conversion.
Key words: Soot combustion, NOx, Simultaneous, EDX &
SEM.
I. INTRODUCTION:
Diesel engine represent an important source for the
emission of air pollutants, like colorless and odorless
nitric oxide (NO), Pungent Reddish Brown nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), the quite killer CO, Powerful irritant
SO2, unburned Hydrocarbon and Particulate matter.
So far two main procedures have been examined in
detail for elimination of NOx from diesel exhaust, the
classical Selective Catalytic reduction (SCR) procedure
and HC-SCR procedure respectively. In case of SCR
Nitrogen oxides are selectively reduced by ammonia
into nitrogen over TiO2 supported by V2O5 /WO3
Catalyst (1, 2). The required reducing agent ammonia
can be produced on board by the thermal
decomposition of urea, which must be carried out in an
additional tank. (3) Contrary to that in the HC-SCR
procedure nitrogen oxides are reduced by the
hydrocarbons over platinum catalysts [4]. In this
process hydrocarbons can be generated by the fuel, and
therefore no additional tank is required for its storage.
However the NOx reduction takes place with smaller
conversions and lower nitrogen selectivity that occurs

by the NH3-SCR procedure. Huge quantities of the
unwanted greenhouse gas N2O are also formed.
A possible way for the removal of nitrogen oxides and
soot from diesel exhaust gas is the simultaneous
catalytic conversion of both components. In this
reaction NOx is reduced by soot forming N2 and CO2
according to the overall equation (I) and (II), where by
soot is considered to be pure Carbon for simplicity. (2)
C + 2NO CO2 + N2
(I)
(II)
C + NO2 CO2 + 0.5 N2
The main objective of this work is to: a). Control
different air pollutants, emitting from fossil fuel
combustion sources through catalysis. b).To meet the
future NOx and Soot regulation it is necessary to
develop such exhaust system with the help of which an
efficient and simultaneous removal of NOx and soot is
possible. c). Preparation of Iron oxide catalysts for an
efficient and simultaneous conversion of NOx and soot
to yield nitrogen and carbon dioxide. In future such
catalysts could be an essential component of exhaust
after treatment systems which would work easily in an
oxidizing atmosphere.
II. EXPERIMENTAL: Chemicals
The chemical used are Iron nitrate, Potassium nitrate,
copper nitrate, Nickel nitrate, PVA and KBr. The entire
chemicals used were of high grade purity. Similarly the
model exhaust is a blend of oxygen and other pure
gases.
A. Synthesis:
Simple metal oxides such as Fe2O3, V2O5, CeO2 and
CuO, Spinals (AB2O4) with A=Cu and B=Fe, La) as
well as perovskites ABO3 with A=Y, La and B=Mn, Fe,
Cu, Co) were synthesized as catalysts. In order to
increase the activity of these catalysts more metal
cations were partially replaced by potassium, i-e
Fe1.9K0.1O3, Cu0.9K0.1Fe2O4, Ni0.95K0.05 Fe2O4, etc. The
synthesis of catalyst was carried out by the PVA
technique. In all the cases an aqueous solution with
10% Poly Vinyl Alcohol was mixed with an appropriate
amount of metal nitrate solution where the molar ratio
of metal cation to PVA monomer was 2:1. The PVA
was added to water too slowly to avoid chunk
formation with constant stirring over a magnetic stirrer.
The solution was slowly heated and evaporated leaving
a fluffy mass which was dried at 250 C and
151
subsequently ground to powder. The powder material

was then calcinated at 750 C in air for 5 hours. After
calcinations these material were analyzed by XRD to
ensure the formation of the desired crystalline structure
(6).
B. Characterization of catalysts: X-Ray Diffraction
(XRD):
The catalysts were analyzed by XRD (D501, Siemens)
to ensure the formation of the desired crystalline
structure. The XRD patterns of the catalysts that were
modified by potassium were to be similar to that of pure
sample e.g. Fe2O3 and Fe1.9K0.1O3. So it is assumed that
the potassium is not incorporated into the crystal lattice
but at least is present in the form of a solid solution at
dispersed spots. However there is also the possibility
for the agglomeration of potassium on the crystalline
surface. (5)
C. Energy Dispersive X-rays analysis (EDX):
The EDX (Energy Dispersive X-rays analysis clearly
indicates the presence of different metals after the
formation of a catalyst. The pattern of the presence of
different metal in the prepared catalyst was observed in
the prepared graphs. The EDX was performed using
JEOL-JSM-5910 electron microscope operated at
20KV with a tungsten filament.
D. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM):
Scanning Electron Microscopy is employed for the
surface morphology of the catalyst. SEM permits
qualitative characterization of the catalyst surface and
help to interpret the phenomena occurring during
calcinations and pre-treatment. The most important
advantage of electron microscopy is the effectiveness of
preparation method and directly be observed by looking
to the metal particles. From SEM the particle size
distribution can be obtained. This technique also reveals
whether the particles are evenly distributed or packed
up in large aggregates. If the particle are sufficiently
large, their shape can be distinguished and their crystal
structure is then determined.
SEM was performed using JEOL JSM-5910 electron
microscope operated at 20 KV with a
tungsten
filament at the electron source. (1)
E. Surface Area Measurement
The BET surface area of the prepared catalyst was
measured by multi-Point Sorptomatic 1990 (Porotec)
using nitrogen as adsorbents.
F. DRIFTS examinations
DRIFTS studies were carried out in order to
characterize soot surface. The Spectra was recorded on
ATI Mattson Galaxy 5020 FTIR Spectrometer equipped
with a MCT Detector and a Selector from Graceby
Specac. For these measurements the soot was diluted
with KBr, Where by a mixture of 0.15 wt. % soot was
used. Pure KBr was used as a reference.
For catalytic investigation, catalysts blended with

carbon black (Printex L, Degussa) were used. The
molar ratio of catalysts/soot was 2:1. The mixtures were
pressed to pellets employing a hydrolytic press of
40MPa. The pellets were then granulated and sieved in
a mesh size of 250-500m. Pellets formation is
necessary to avoid a discharge of soot or catalyst mass
during the activity measurements. Preliminary
investigations have shown that these catalyst-soot
pellets exhibit the same catalytic results like a
powdered mixture only prepared in a mortar with a
pestle. Pellets that were pressed at higher pressure show
lower activity due to limitation of mass transfer in the
particle core. Catalytic studies were carried out in a
quartz glass reactor (i.d. 22mm) using temperature
programmed reaction (TPR). For each study an
appropriate amount of catalyst-soot mixture, 15 m mole
catalyst and 7.5 m mole soot, was taken. The standard
model exhaust gas consisted of 500 ppm NO and 6vol
% O2 in argon was used. The TPR was also performed
without catalyst in order to investigate the activity of
pure soot.
To evaluate the best catalyst, concentration of O2 (0-14
Vol %) and H2O (0-10 Vol %) as well as molar
catalyst/soot ratio (1-10) were varied. More over NO2
was dosed to the feed instead of NO in order to
examine the effect of nitrogen dioxide on the NOx -soot
conversion. The analysis of NOx was conducted by
mean of CLD (El-ht, Eco Physics), while nitrogen was
detected by GC/TCD (RGC 202 with packed columns
Haye Sep Q 60 and mol sieve 5 , siemens). N2O, CO
and CO2 were quantified by NDIR spectroscopy (Uras
10 E, Hartman and Braun). Oxygen was analyzed by
means of magnetomechanics (Magnos 6 G, Hartman
and Braun). Total flow of reactant gases was kept at
700ml min-1. The temperature was linearly increased
from 150 to 500 C at the rate of 2.3 K min-1. (6)
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Figure 1.1 shows the result of TPR measurement of
Fe2O3 catalyst. The conversion of NOx and soot to N2
and CO2 occur in the temperature range of 350-500 C.
Where as the ignition temperature of soot is lowered
due to presence of catalysts. The non-catalytic soot
oxidation begins at about 570C.In the presence of
every catalyst the soot was completely oxidized during
the TPR experiments. The main product of NOx was
always nitrogen while N2O was formed in low
concentration, as a by product. The concentration of
NOx exhibits a broad minimum of 268ppm at 415 C
with a NOx conversion of 46%, whereas nitrogen
oxides are mainly reduced to N2, the formation of
unwanted by product N2O is negligibly small at a
maximum concentration of only 10 ppm.
III.
CATALYTICAL INVESTIGATION:
152
Concentration / ppm
Concentration / ppm
500
500
400
NOx
NOx
300
400
N2
200
N2
300
100
N2O
N2O
200
150
200
250
300
350
400
Temperature / C
450
500
100
Concentration of NOx, N2 and N2O during TPR

0
experiment. Catalyst: Fe2O3.
150
Figure 1.2 reflects information about the formation of CO

and CO2, during the NOx /soot reaction, over Fe2O3 catalyst.
It is evident that the main product of soot is CO2. The
conversion of CO to CO2 starts at 310C. The maximum
was observed at 22 ppm, while
concentration of CO
maximum concentration of CO2 was found at 1.5 vol%.
Concentration / Vol.-%
Concentration / ppm
40
1.5
30
CO2
200
250
300
350
20
CO
450
500
Concentration of NO, N2 and N2O during TPR experiment.

Catalyst: Fe 1.9 K0.1O3.
Fig 1.4 depicts the concentration of CO and CO2 during

TPR experiment over Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst. The conversion
of CO to CO2 starts at 270 C. The maximum concentration
of CO was observed over Fe1.9K0.1O3, catalyst, which
amounts to 40 ppm. The maximum concentration of CO2
was found at 1.4 vol %.
Concentration /
1
400
Temperature / C
Concentration / ppm
40
1.5
30
20
0.5
10
CO2
10
0.5
CO
0
150
200
250
300
350
Temperature / C
400
450
500
Concentration of CO and CO2 during TPR experiment.

Catalyst: Fe2O3.
0
150
200
250
Temperature / C
300
350
400
450
500
Figure 1.3 shows the effect of potassium as a Figure 1.5 shows TPR measurement over Cu0.9K0.1Fe2O4.
promoter in the modified catalyst Fe1.9K0.1O3. The
The NOx concentration decreases to 250ppm at 385 C,
result proves that in the presence of potassium, the
corresponding to 50% conversion of NOx. The
catalytic activity is significantly increased. It is clear
concentration of N2O in this experiement amounts to
from fig.4.3 that over the Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst the NOx
25ppm. Among the catalyst under the investigation ,
is reduced to 210 ppm at 355C, corresponding to a
Cu.9K0.1Fe2O4 shows the highest amount of N2O formation .
conversion of 58%. A second NOx concentration
minimum of 355 ppm can also be observed in the
same figure which could be related to the trace of
Fe2O3 present in the catalyst. An advantage is that the
ignition temperature of soot is decreased to 250 C
using the Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst. On the contrary, the
amount of N2 formed and the molar ratio of N2: N2O
is lowered than observed with the pure Fe2O3 catalyst,
although the NOx /soot reaction occurs at lower
temperature.
153
Concentration/ ppm
500
NOx
400
N2
Fig 1.8 depicts the concentration of CO and CO2 during

TPR experiment on Ni0.95K0.05Fe2O4 catalyst. CO2
conversion starts at 225C, reaching at a maximum
concentration of 1.27 Vol%, while the maximum
concentration of CO was obsereved is 6 ppm.
Concentration / ppm
40
N2O
300
1.5
30
CO2
20
CO
0.5
10
200
100
0
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Temperature/ C
0
0
150
Fig. 1.6 reflects the conversion of CO to CO2 over

Cu0.9K0.1Fe2O4 catalyst. CO2 conversion starts at 310 C .
The maximum concentration of CO was obsereved at 14 ppm
while maximum concentration of CO2 is 0.6 Vol%.
Concentration / ppm
40
1.5
CO2
30
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Temperature / C
Concentration of CO and CO2 during TPR

experiment on
Ni0.95K0.05Fe2O4
Fig 1.9 shows the effect of NiFe2O4 catalyst. The NOx

concentration decreases to 350 ppm at 380 C,
corresponding to 30% conversion of NOx. While N2O
formed in low concentration is 9ppm as a byproduct.
Concentration/ ppm
500
20
CO
NOx
400
0.5
N2
10
N2O
300
200
0
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
100
Temperature / C
Fig. 1.7 shows the result of TPR measurement over

Cu0.9K0.1Fe2O4 catalyst. The Nox concentration decreases to
310ppm at 390C , corresponding to 38 % conversion of
NOx. The formation of N2O amounts to 20ppm.
Concentration / ppm
0
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Temperature/ C
Concentration of NOx, N2 and N2O during TPR experiment.

NiFe2O4
500
NOx
400
N2
N2O
300
200
Fig 1.10 represents the concentration of CO and CO2

during TPR experiment on NiFe2O catalyst. The conversion
of CO2 starts at 235 C. The maximum concentration of CO
was found to be 9 ppm. While maximum concentration of
CO2 is 1.1 Vol%.
100
0
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Temperature / C
Concentration of NOx, N2 and N2O during TPR experiment on

Ni0.95K0.05Fe2O4
154
Formation of N2 (), N2O (), CO () and CO2 (z)
Concentration / ppm
40
during TPR experiment over Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst.
Figure 1.12 displays the result after 20 TPR runs, for

1.5
30
which only new soot mixture was prepared,
CO2
Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst is significantly de activated. At

1
20
this deactivation stage the activity of Fe1.9K0.1O3
CO
remains constant. Only one N2

0.5
concentration
maximum of 50ppm is then observed at relatively
10
high temperature, while N2O is not detected however

ignition temperature of soot is raised by catalyst
0
0
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
deactivation and is found to be 310 C and CO
500
Temperature / C
formation is further suppressed over the aged

Concentration of CO and CO2 during TPR experiment
catalyst. The BET surface area doesnt change, the de
on NiFe2O4
activation of Fe1.9K0.1O3 is supposed to be associated
From above results and discussion i-e by studying the

catalytic activity of the prepared catalyst it is evident
that Fe1.9 K0.1O3 shows high catalytic activity towards
the simultaneous conversion of NOx and Soot from
diesel engine exhaust. For this reason Fe1.9 K0.1O3
catalyst is selected for further investigation.
Fig 1.11 depicts the result of TPR measurement in
with agglomeration of the promoter potassium on the

catalyst surface. This supposition is confirmed by
TPR data of deactivated Fe1.9K0.1O3 and pure Fe2O3,
both catalyst show similar activity and high molar
ratio of N2 and N2O formation.
which fresh Fe1.9K0.1O3 was used. The main products

nitrous oxide and carbon monoxides are formed as a
/
) / vol.%
1.5
2O), 2c(CO)
60 c(N2), c(Nc(CO
ppm
50
by-product. Further it was found that fresh catalyst
40
exhibits two region of activity corresponding to
30
different active sites. Maximum rates of N2, N2O and
20
detected are nitrogen and carbon dioxide, while
CO2 formation were observed between 355- 400 C.
due to the presence of potassium i-e an interaction of
show similar activity in this
c(COO2 )) // v o l.%
1 2 5 c(N 2 ), c(N 2 O ),c(C
1 .5
ppm
100
1
75
aged
Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst.
soot has been carried out by using the deactivated

Fe1.9K0.1O3 catalyst.
Conclusion:
0 .5
This work is considered to be an
interesting alternative of the presently known

techniques. The result of TPR shows that Iron in
Particular
act
simultaneous
as
an
active
species
for
the
NOx/Soot removal. Iron containing
catalyst especially Fe1.9K0.1O3 causes relatively high
25
0
Formation of N2 (), N2O (), CO () and CO2 (z) over
The study of the effect of O2, NO2, H2O and catalyst
temperature range (fig.1.11)
50
0
1502 00250300350400
450500
Temperature / C
cationic iron and potassium surface species, while the

since pure Fe2O3
0.5
10
We assume that the activity of the first maximum is
second one is attributed to iron component alone,
yield of N2 and CO2.
0
1 5 02 0 02 5 03 0 03 5 04 0 04 5 05 0 0
Tem p er a tu re / C
155
24. L. Khalfallah Boudali, A. Ghorbel, P. Grange and F.

Figueras, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental
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156

SIMPLE ENERGY AUDITING OF MALE AND FEMALE CAMPUS INTERNATIONAL

ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
S.Anam, S.Irum, S. Tahira and S.Anjuman.
DES. IIUI, Islamabad, UOP, Pakistan
Abstract- Natural resources are an important

source of national wealth around the world play
an important role in the development of a nation.
Due to limited amount of nonrenewable energy
sources it is important to conserve natural
resources so that they will be available for future
generations. Energy audit is a tool to conserve
energy. A simple energy audit was conducted at
male and female campus of International Islamic
university Islamabad. The data has been collected
through walk through survey. Total electricity
consumption was determined by calculating the
watts of existing electrical appliances in the
campuses and than calculate saving potential by
replacing three parameters computers, large tube
lights and air conditions by energy efficient
appliances. The results shows that by replacing
current electrical appliances installed in the
buildings about 26.5 % of energy would be saved
.The university is still under construction it is
suggested that in new buildings energy efficient
appliance should be installed.
Key words: energy audit, energy conservation,
energy management, energy efficient technology.
I. INTRODUCTION:
Energy which is also an important natural resource
and everything we do is connected to energy in one
form or another. Energy has a number of different
forms. All forms of energy fall under two categories
i.e. kinetic energy (Radiant energy, Thermal energy,
motion, sound, Electrical energy). Potential energy
(Chemical energy, Nuclear energy, stored mechanical
energy, Gravitational energy). Electrical energy is
most widely used form and a secondary source of
energy, which is obtained through the conversion of
primary forms of energy i.e. coal, nuclear energy,
natural gas, or oil etc. . Electricity is largely produced
by power stations burning fossil fuels. In Pakistan
electricity is the most important source of energy. It
has become a necessity in the present in commercial
sector. The major domestic users of electricity in
Pakistan along with their respective shares of
consumption are house hold with 45.6%, commercial
sector 7.4%, industrial sector 28.4%, agriculture sector
11.8%, street lights 0.6% and other government
sectors with 6.2% share in total energy consumption.
The residential consumption of electricity has the
highest share. (Source: Pakistan Economic Survey,

2007-08)
Pakistan with limited resources of fossil fuels and rain
dependent hydroelectric generation witnessing long
hour of power shut downs, reflects very well on
prevailing energy crises. The situation is alarming and
frustrating power availability position in the country.
This is high time to think of alternative such as
savings, need to identify and put them to practice.
Energy wastage in the building sector is one of the
large possibilities where saving opportunities can be
definitely sought.
Educational institutes and
universities buildings are organizations which are
functioning for building the nation and consume
energy in different forms and ways at large scale.
Uninterrupted power supply is the fore most need in
education sector. The area of study was International
Islamic University, H-10 sector Islamabad. It occupies
704 acres (2.85 km2) of land. Mainly the male and the
female campus have the most work load and hence
most energy consuming areas occupying departments,
class rooms, laboratories, auditorium, stationary and
photo state shops etc. Both campuses have three floors
and total 210 rooms each. The area of each campus is
280,000 feet.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY ARE:
1. To carry out the energy audit of male and
female campus of International Islamic
university Islamabad
2. To suggest the improvements in energy
system of International Islamic university
Islamabad making it more energy efficient to
conserve the energy.
3. To help the university administration in
saving energy bills.
II. METHODOLOGY:
Energy audit has been used as tool to assess the
energy consumption. It is
commonly used to
describe a broad spectrum of energy studies ranging
from quick walk though of a facility to identify major
problem areas to a comprehensive analysis of the
implications of alternative energy efficiency measures
sufficient to satisfy the financial criteria. A checklist
was developed to note detailed buildings information
as number of windows and ventilators in each room,
detail information of electrical appliance such as fans ,
exhaust fans , tube lights , bulbs , air conditioners ,
computers , multimedia, printers ,photo copiers,
157
k
electricall cooler , friddge , ovens annd electrical kettles
etc. A waalk through suurvey methodd was developed for
the inspeection of buiilding and too observe buuilding
structure, electrical aand room lighhtning assesssment.
The dataa analysis hass been done through Miccrosoft
excel. All
A the data of
o building, electrical andd gas
appliancees has enteredd in the excel sheet and anaalyzed
the data and
a then graphhs has been deeveloped.
potential of saving 44% off Current power usage by thhe

PCs.
100000
0
reduced
powerbyPC
III. RESULTS
S and DISC
CUSSIONS:
Energy conservationn can be achieved thhrough
increasedd efficient ennergy use, inn conjunctionn with
decreasedd
energy
consumptioon
or
reduced
consumpption from conventional energy sources.
Energy consumption can be reduuced by chaanging
behavior, by implemeenting energyy save policiees and
by installling less enerrgy consuminng appliances. This
energy audit
a
is a sim
mple audit. Inn this study power
p
consumed by the elecctrical appliannces is determ
mined
by colleccting the detaiiled informatiion about elecctrical
appliancees i.e. fans, exhaust fanns, air condiitions,
computerrs, bulbs, tuube lights, multimedia,
m
o
ovens,
refrigerattor, electric keettles, printer and electric cooler.
c
Total pow
wer consumed by these apppliances in female
f
and malee campus is 10, 14,426 watts
w
and 9,222,645
watts resspectively. Moost of These appliances
a
woork for
10 to 12 hours and thhe study is baased on the saving
s
potential of these threee parameters
1. The type off computers used in labss and
departments
2. Type of bulbbs and tube lights used in
i the
campus
i appropriate to the
3. The AC wattaage (either it is
area where it is operating or
o not)
A. Computers
a two typess of computerrs used in thee labs
There are
and for the departmeent work on thhe basis of thee type
of moniitor.
1. LCD monitorr
2.
CRT monitorr
D monitor coonsumes 1000 watts and CRT

An LCD
consumes 180 watts off electricity annd by replacinng one
CRT by LCD 80 wattts of the electtrical power can
c be
saved (A
ABA Alaskan Dictionary). Data shows that
t
in
the femalle and male caampus most of
o the computeers are
CRT. Total number of CRT computers in both
campusess is 343 and 2201, and consume total pow
wer of
84,600 watts
w
and 38,1160watts, if thhese computeers are
replaced by LCDs pow
wer consumptiion will be reduced
wer is
to 37,600 watts and116, 960. Totaal saved pow
w
and 21,2200watts resppectively. There is
47000 watts
currentpower
medby
consum
PC
C
r
by com
mputer after replaacement in femaale
Fig 1.1 power reduced
campus
20000
0
reduced
power
powerbysm
mall currentp
dbyTL
consume
TL
Fig 1.2 power red

duced by computer after replacementt in male campus
B. Tubee lights
In female annd male camppus mostly sm
mall tube lighhts
are working for
f the enlighhtenment. But at some placees
large tube ligghts are also innstalled. Poweer consumptioon
by small tubee lights is 30 w
watts and by laarge tube lighhts
is 50 watts (A
ABA Alaskann Dictionary). If a large tubbe
of poweer
light is replaaced by a smaaller one 20 watts
w
can be savedd. Data showss that total laarge tube lighhts
are 258 and 272 which consume 12,900 watts annd
13,600 wattss. By replacinng them with
h smaller tubbe
lights power consumptionn is reduced to 7,740 wattts
and 8,160wattts respectivelly. 40% of thee current poweer
usage
by
tube
ligghts
can
be
savedd.
20000
0
reduced
power
mall currentp
powerbysm
consume
dbyTL
TL
Fig 1.3 poower reduceed by tubee lights afteer

replacementt in female caampus
1588
200000
0
100000
0
0
20000
0
0
Reduced
powerbysmall
TL
powerr
reducedaafter
replacement
Currrentpower
consumedby
laargeTL
Fig 1.4 power reducced by smalll tube light after

replacem
ment in male campus
C. Air Conditionns
For enerrgy saving air conditioning,, it is necessarry that
the air conditions
c
d be in accorrdance
sellected should
with the area of room
m. to air condiition a room that
t
is
15 feet wide
w
and 20 feeet long, you would
w
calculaate: 15
x 20 x 20
0(Btu) = 6,0000. Thus, an airr conditioner with
w a
6,000 Bttu capacity would
w
be requ
uired that is of
o 0.5
ton. Requ
uired AC can be determineed by the follo
owing
formula
AC requ
uired (tons) = Area
A of room 20( btu)
12000
((EcoMallTM 1994-2010)
Daata
shows th
hat in female and
a male cam
mpus if the AC
Cs are
installed according to the area calcculated by fo
ormula
power co
onsumption iss reduced to 49,214.26
4
wattts and
51,495.26
6697 Watts while currentt usage is 1,18,667
watts and
d 1, 37,126 w
watts respectiv
vely.58.5 % can
c be
saved of the current poower usage.
20
00000
0
reeduced
pow
werbyAC:
Currentpower
C
consumedbyy
AC
p
reduced
d by ACs insstalled accordiing to
Fig 1.5 power
area in feemale campuss
ntpower
Curren
consu
umedby
AC
Fig 1.6 poweer reduced byy ACs installeed according to

t
area in male campus
c
D. Totaal power savedd in both camppuses
Calculations of data showss that by replaacing large tub
be
lights by sm
mall tube lightts, CRT monitors by LCD
Ds
and by installling air condiition calculateed according to
t
area about 26.5% of thee total powerr consumed by
b
campus can be
b saved.
%agepow
wersavedin
bothcaampusess
2
74%
curren
nt
use
1
26%
saved
1.7 percentag
ge of power saaved in both caampuses
IV. CONC
CLUSION:
Energy has everlastinglyy been an esssential resourcce
is on
in the progreess of any nattion. Energy shortfall
s
ne
of the hot issu
ues facing by the world tod
day particularlly
in developing
g countries i.ee. Pakistan. Itt is the need of
o
time to conserve energy bby using diffeerent strategiees
like energy managemennt; energy auditing an
nd
behavioral ch
hanges etc. T
This study is a step toward
ds
energy conservation at educational institutions
i
b
by
conducting a simple energgy audit of feemale and malle
campus of In
nternational Isslamic University Islamabad
d.
It is conclud
ded that a lot of energy caan be saved by
b
replacing thee current apppliances by en
nergy efficien
nt
appliances.
V. SUGG
GESTIONS:
ng recommenddations are heereby made on
o
The followin
the basis of th
he study:
1. CRT monitors should bee replaced by LCD monitorrs
LCD monito
or has more iinitial/ purchaasing cost thaan
CRT howeveer, LCDs havve longer life span and low
w
power consum
mption so thesse are cheaperr in long run.
2. Air condittion should bbe installed acccording to th
he
area calculateed by the form
mula
159
9
3. Campaign and seminars should be arranged for the

awareness about importance of energy
and to
motivate people to show positive behavior towards
energy conservation.
4. Make sure the maximum utilization of sunlight.
VI. REFRENCES:
1. Manczyk, H., (2000) Energy Accounting Audit
for Commercial Office Building
2. Janssen, R.,( 2004) Towards Energy Efficient
Buildings in Europe Euroace: the European Alliance
of Companies for Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
3. Nouri, J., Karbasi, A., R, Borgheipour and Taheri,
A (2006) Energy Management System Audit and
Implementation in Educational Buildings American
Journal of Applied Sciences
4. Martiskainen,M.,( 2007) Affecting Consumer
Behavior on Energy Demand Sussex Energy
Group SPRU - Science and Technology Policy
Research;
5. Thomas E. Curry., David M. Reiner., Mark A. de
Figueiredo & Howard J. Herzog; (2005)
A Survey of Public Attitudes towards Energy &
Environment Great Britain Laboratory for energy
and the ernvironment.
c.,
Thirumoorthy,n
and
Damodaran,
6.
Parthasarathy,P Energy audit in sugar industry
Engineering and consultants pvt. ltd.
7. Mata, J.,( 2003).Energy auditing as a first step for
efficient energy managementA focus on Buildings.
8. Ecogeneration.,( 2009) Australian Clean Energy
Directory Great Southern Press, Melbourne.
9. US Department of Energy.,(2009) Economics of
Energy Effective Lighting for Offices Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
10. New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection. (2006) How to Conduct an Energy
Audit A Short Guide for Local Governments and
Communities.
11. Magasanik, M (2008) Defininga National
Energy Efficiency StrategyThe Climate Institute,
Sydney.
12. Ecogeneration(2009-10) Australian Clean
Energy Directory Great Southern Press Melbourne.
13. US Environmental Protection Agency,(2007)
Report to Congress on Data Center Energy Efficiency
Public Law USEPA, Washington DC.
14. CitySwitch Green Office Program,(2009) Office
Energy Efficiency. City of sydney
160

SURVEY, DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT, AND

INSTALLATION OF MICRO-HYDEL POWER
GENERATION
M.AJAZ
1. Abstract: This paper presents the survey, design,

development and installation Of micro-hydel power
generation using low head Kaplan water turbine.
Electricity production from hydro power has been and
still is today, the first renewable source used to generate
electricity. The development of
energy from renewable is very important step in
reduction of carbon emissions(C02).
2. INTRODUCTION
In new and renewable energy sources, micro-hydel
power(MHP) is mature technology. Long long ago,
human being learnt how to make use of water for power
and even at present in some countries primitive hydraulic
devices could be found. Nowadays MHP has been well
developed, with the application of new technology and
design to shorten its construction period and the first cost
being reduced by full use of local people and materials as
well as a series of preferential policies from the
government.
3. SELF POLICY
The 3-self policy, namely self-construction, selfmanagement, self-consumption, which means that the
people who invested and constructed MHP stations have
the right to manage the plant, to use the output of MHP
and to get benefits from the station.
Further developing MHP with benefits from existing
stations, which means that the benefit of MHP should be
reinvested to further develop MHP or local grids. Local
grids can have their own supply area and unified
management system of generation, distribution and
power supply, and be connected and mutually aided with
large(WAPDA)grids.
The government gives preferential loans and exemption
to MHP developers.
In Pakistan MHP construction was subsidized by ATDO
under the ministry of science and technology.
HYDRO ENERGY IS KNOWN AS TRADITIONAL RENEWABLE

ENERGY SOURCES, IT BASES ON NATURAL CIRCULATING
WATER FLOW AND ITS DROP FROM HIGHER TO LOWER
LAND SURFACE THAT CONSTITUTES THE POTENTIAL. IN
ORDER TO CONVERT THIS POTENTIAL TO APPLICABLE
ELECTRIC ENERGY, WATER FLOW SHOULD BE LED TO AND
DRIVE A TURBINE, TRANSFORMING HYDRO ENERGY INTO
MECHANICAL ENERGY, THE LATTER AGAIN DRIVES A
CONNECTED
GENERATOR,
TRANSFORMING
THE
MECHANICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRIC ENERGY. IN
NATURAL CIRCUMSTANCES, WHEN WATER FLOWS DOWN
THE COURSE BY GRAVITATION, THE HYDRO ENERGY IS
LOST IN OVERCOMING THE RESISTANCE AND SCOURING OF
RIVER BED. A HYDROPOWER SCHEME REQUIRES BOTH
WATER FLOW AND A DROP IN HEIGHT (HEAD) TO PRODUCE
USEFUL POWER. IT IS A POWER CONVERSION SYSTEM,
ABSORBING POWER IN THE FORM OF HEAD AND FLOW,
AND DELIVERING POWER IN THE FORM OF ELECTRICITY OR
MECHANICAL SHAFT POWER. NO POWER CONVERSION
SYSTEM CAN DELIVER AS MUCH USEFUL POWER AS IT
ABSORBS. SOME POWER IS LOST BY THE SYSTEM ITSELF IN
THE FORM OF FRICTION, HEATING, NOISE ETC.
THE CONVERSION EQUATION IS
POWER (INPUT)=POWER OUTPUT+LOSS
OR
POWER (OUTPUT) = POWER
INPUT*
CONVERSION
EFFICIENCY
FOR
EXAMPLE, IF THE SCHEME ABSORBS

DELIVERS 120KW,THEN THE LOSS IS
EFFICIENCY IS 60%
200KW AND
80KW.THE
THE EQUATION ABOVE IS USUALLY EXPRESSED SLIGHTLY

DIFFERENTLY. THE POWER INPUT, OR TOTAL POWER
ABSORBED BY THE HYDRO SCHEME, IS THE GROSS POWER,
PGROSS. THE POWER USEFULLY DELIVERED IS THE NET
POWER, PNET.
THE OVERALL EFFICIENCY OF THE SCHEME IS TERMED EO.
(FIG 1)
In Latin America, MHP development special priority. In

Canada and Czech & Slovakia provide favorable policy
in tariff and ten years of exemption to the MHP
company.
Considering the positive effect of MHP on environment,
some underdeveloped countries give preference to MHP
developers in licensing of the project.
ELECTRICAL POWER FROM WATER
Fig-1
161
PNET = PGROSS*EO
KW
THE
GROSS POWER IS GROSS HEAD (HG) MULTIPLIED BY

FLOW (Q) AND MULTIPLIED BY A FACTOR OF 10,SO THE
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF HYDRO POWER IS
PNET=HG*Q*10*EO
METERS,FLOW IS IN
KW WHERE HEAD IS IN
CUBIC METER/SEC(CUSIC).THIS
SIMPLE EQUATION IS HEART OF ALL HYDRO POWER
DESIGN WORK.
BLADE DOES NOT CHANGE. ALTHOUGH TRADITIONALLY THE

PROPELLER IS PROFILED TO OPTIMIZE THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE
LIFT FORCES ACTING ON IT, DESIGN HAVE BEEN PRODUCED WITH
FLAT SECTION BLADES WHICH OFFER LESS EFFICIENCY BUT ARE
MORE EASILY FABRICATED. THIS KIND OF DESIGN CAN BE
CONSIDERED FOR MHP WHERE LOW COST AND EASE OF
FABRICATION ARE PRIORITIES. IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE TO USE
CASTING THE PROPELLER CASING IN CONCRETE, SUCH AS CHINESE
DESIGN THE SKETCH OF KAPLAN TURBINE IS SHOWN IN FIG2.
DESIGNING A MHP SCHEME

THE
RECOMMENDED APPROACH TO DESIGNING A SCHEME HAS

FOLLOWING STAGES;
1.CAPABILITY AND DEMAND SURVEY

IT IS ESSENTIAL TO ESTABLISH ACCURATELY HOW MUCH ENERGY
IS WANTED FOR WHAT PURPOSES, WHEN IT IS WANTED, AND
WHERE IT IS WANTED. CAN PROSPECTIVE CONSUMERS OF THE
ENERGY AFFORD A NEW ENERGY SOURCE, AND HOW MUCH ARE
THEY WILLING TO PAY FOR IT?.
IT IS ESSENTIAL TO ASSESS THE ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITY OF
THE USERS OF THE SCHEME. MICRO-HYDEL POWER IS OFTEN
PLANNED FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES WHERE MOST PEOPLE DO NOT
USE COMPLEX MACHINES. THE SCHEME WILL TEND TO INVOLVE
LARGE AMOUNTS OF CAPITAL AND SOME CONTRIBUTIONS IN
LABOR FROM LOCAL PEOPLE, WHO WILL HAVE HIGH
EXPECTATIONS OF THE BENEFITS THE NEW TECHNOLOGY WILL
BRING TO THEM. TO AVOID DISAPPOINTMENT DUE TO IRREGULAR
MAINTENANCE AND CASH FLOW DIFFICULTIES, IT IS BEST TO
ENSURE A SOUND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM BEFORE STARTING THE
PROJECT.
2. HYDROLOGY STUDY AND SITE SURVEY
THIS ESTABLISHES THE HYDRO POWER POTENTIAL OF THE SITE. IT
SHOWS HOW THE WATER FLOW VARIES THROUGH THE YEAR, AND
WHERE WATER MUST BE TAKEN FOR THE CHEAPEST AND MOST
EFFECTIVE SCHEME. IT SHOWS HOW MUCH POWER WILL BE
AVAILABLE, AND WHEN IT WILL BE AVAILABLE. THE STUDY
TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE VARIOUS USES OF WATER, FOR
INSTANCE IRRIGATION FOR AGRICULTURE, WHICH WILL TAKE
PRECEDENCE OVER HYDRO POWER. FOR THIS PURPOSE THE
SURVEY OF NALLAHA NEAR I.I.U IS CARRIED OUT. THE PLAN OF
NALLAHA IS SHOWN IN FIG 6. A SMALL EARTH FILL DAM IS
PROPOSED AT POINT A IN FIG 6.
KAPLAN TURBINE
THE BASIC KAPLAN TURBINE IS LOW HEAD WATER TURBINE USED
IN MHP. IT CONSISTS OF PROPELLER, SIMILAR TO A SHIP,S
PROPELLER, FITTED INSIDE A CONTINUATION OF PENSTOCK TUBE,
ITS SHAFT TAKEN OUT WHERE THE TUBE CHANGES DIRECTION.
USUALLY THREE TO SIX BLADES ARE USED, THREE IN THE CASE OF
VERY LOW HEAD UNITS. WATER FLOW IS REGULATED BY THE USE
OF SWIVELING GATES (WICKET GATES) JUST UPSTREAM OF
PROPELLER. THE PART FLOW EFFICIENCY CHARACTERISTIC TENDS
TO BE POOR. THIS KIND OF TURBINE IS ALSO CALLED FIXEDBLADE AXIAL FLOW TURBINE, SINCE THE GEOMETRY OF THE
FIG 2.
DRAUGHT TUBES
THE KAPLAN TURBINE USE AN ENCLOSURE BELOW THE RUNNER
KNOWN AS THE DRAUGHT TUBE. ONE PURPOSE OF THE ENCLOSURE
IS TO MAINTAIN A COLUMN OF WATER BETWEEN THE TURBINE
OUTLET AND THE DOWNSTREAM WATER LEVEL. THE SECOND
PURPOSE IS THE RECOVERY OF VELOCITY ENERGY OR KINETIC
ENERGY IN THE WATER LEAVING THE RUNNER. SINCE WATER HAS
TO LEAVE THE TURBINE RUNNER AT A RELATIVELY HIGH
VELOCITY IN ORDER TO EXIT FROM THE TURBINE STILL POSSESSES
SUBSTANTIAL PROPORTION OF THE AVAILABLE KINETIC ENERGY.
TO RECOVER THIS ENERGY EFFICIENTLY, THE WATER VELOCITY
MUST BE REDUCED GRADUALLY WHILE FRICTION LOSSES ARE
MINIMIZED. IF THE VELOCITY IS NOT REDUCED, WATER WOULD JET
OUT OF THE TURBINE OUTLET INTO THE TAILRACE AND ENERGY
WOULD BE LOST AS TURBULENCE IN THE TAILRACE. THIS
RECOVERY OF VELOCITY HEAD CAN BE OBTAINED BY GRADUAL
INCREASE IN THE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE DRAUGHT TUBE,
RESULTING IN A GRADUAL REDUCTION OF THE VELOCITY. IN
GENERAL THE DIAMETER OF TUBE OUTLET IS ABOUT TWICE THAT
OF ITS INLET, AND THE ANGLE BETWEEN OPPOSITE WALLS OF AN
EXPANDING DRAUGHT TUBE SHOULD BE BETWEEN 7 AND 20 TO
GIVE OPTIMUM ENERGY RECOVERY.
There are two types of A.C generators suitable for use in MHD
electricity supply scheme. These are synchronous and
Asynchronous generators. Asynchronous generators are also
called induction generators. Induction generators are being
used increasingly in small micro-hydel schemes also. Their
advantages are that they are easily, simply constructed and
repaired, reliable, rugged, require little maintenance and can
withstand 100% over speed. Induction generators are easily
162
used as geneerators when connected

c
to an existing suupply
system (grid) and have been in this way forr many years. When
W
used in a stanndalone applicaation such as issolated micro-hhydel
scheme they require
r
fitting with excitationn capacitors, thhis is
shown in fig
. They can thhen be used to power single fixed
resistive load for
f instance a complete
c
set of village lights, either
e
all switched on, or all switchhed off. If fittedd additionally with
w a
voltage regulaation system (controller) they can be used ass allpurpose as suppply generators.
The stator andd rotor of Asyncchronous generrator is shown in
i fig
3
The water turbine driven
d
Asynchrronous generato
or can in fact bee
d to operate muultiple fixed reesistive loads, such
s
as villagee
used
lights, with only the
t addition off capacitors, iff some voltagee
variation and de-exxcitation probleems are tolerated for the sakee
of very
v
low cost. The
T developmennt, in recent yeaars, of a simplee
voltage and speed controller, the induction generator controllerr
(IGC
C), which hass overcome theese problems and made thee
stan
nd-alone inducction generatorr an increasin
ngly attractivee
prop
position for miccro-hydel schem
mes.
1) Fig-3
A
g
generator
is squuirrel cage typee and
The rotor of Asynchronous
rotor speed N=
=120*f/p(1-S)rppm
S=slip of gennerator and it iss negative in case
c
of a generrator.
Slip=Ns-N/Nss where Ns is thhe synchronous speed of generrator,
for three phasee winding Ns=1120*f/p rpm.
Stand-alone Asynchronou
A
s generator
The lagging reactive magnnetizing currennt of an induuction
machine can be
b supplied byy capacitors andd in the case of
o an
induction mottor this means that the capaccitors, if of coorrect
value, correct the power factoor to unity. Ideally, the same value
v
minals of the same
of capacitors connected accross the term
induction macchine will causee it to generate at the same vooltage
as that supplieed to it as a mottor if it is driveen at the same speed
s
in stand-alone conditions. In practice it wouuld have to be drriven
faster in orderr to produce thee same frequenccy as the slip is now
negative. Mooreover, the voltage
v
producced will be less,
especially wheen supplying cuurrent, as the voltage
v
drops innside
the machine are in the oppposite direction to those when
w
motoring. In fact one of the drawbackss of the induuction
generator is itts poor voltage regulation. Eveen whens drivven at
constant speedd, its output volltage drops rapiidly with increaasing
load as shownn in Fig4
Seleection of an induction
i
mottor for use ass an inductionn
gen
nerator
Man
nufacturers do not
n make inducction machines specifically ass
geneerators in the small
s
sizes likeely to be requiired for micro-hydeel schemes. To choose a motoor to act as a generator, simplyy
divide the generatoor rating that yoou require by a derating factorr
of 0.8.In
0
other woords if you wissh to supply 10k.w choose a
motor of 10/0.8=122.5k.w rating.
Fulll feasibility studdies
For full feasibility study three diffferent feasibilitiies are studied.
1: The
T nallaha nearr international IIslamic universiity Islamabad
is seelected for micrro-hydel power generation. Forr this purpose
the civil
c
survey of this
t site is carriied out. The vellocity of water
is measured
m
with thhe help of curreent meter and it is
0.66
6cusecft/sec andd volume of waater is 3.3cusecfft/sec.So it is
estim
mated that it is sufficient amouunt of water flow for 1k.w
pow
wer generation. The
T flow of waater is measured
d in three
diffeerent places in the
t nallaha. Thee head of waterr is also
suffficient for Kaplaan turbine operaation for powerr generation.
The water head is 10feet.The
1
highhest water level is 1664 and
hrough
loweest water level is 1653.So wateer is flowing th
grav
vitation. As shoown a small dam
m is proposed att point A in
Fig6
6
Fig-4
2)
3)
On the other hand,
h
the voltagge is much morre dependent onn the
speed with whhich it is drivenn than the synchhronous generattor as
shown in Fig55.
4)
Fig-6
and a micro-hydel power house iis proposed at point B. Thee

estim
mated cost off project is 22.4million rup
pees. The fulll
feassibility study is hand over to Project Directorate
D
forr
implementation.
he nallaha nearr Alshifa internnational hospitaal Islamabad iss
2:Th
stud
died for MHD.T
The plan of nallaha is shown in
n Fig7.
1633
Fig-7
The civil survey of nallaha is carried out. The flow of water is
measured with the help of current meter at three different
places in the nallaha. The water flow is 21.87cusec and
estimated out put power is 8k.w.A small dam is proposed at
point A in Fig7 and a small power house is proposed at point
B in the Fig7. The project cost is 13.4million Rupees. The full

feasibility study is hand over to project Directorate of Alshifa
international hospital for implementation.
3:A small water reservoir is used for rain water storage in
Tamer-e-Millat institute of technology Ratwal Teh Fateh Jang.
This storage water is pumped with the help of two pumps and
stored in masonry water tank of 30000gallons capacity. This
stored water is used for irrigation purpose with the help of
2.5inch dia p.v.c pipe. The Kaplan turbine is installed here with
special arrangement. The Kaplan turbine is installed below 10
feet this water tank. So the water head is 10 feet and turbine
gives 250r.p.m,and gives no power. Because the required speed
of turbine is 1000r.p.m.So the 6inch dia of p.v.c pipe is
proposed with 6inch gate valve for getting out put power from
turbine. But the experiment is carried out with 2.5inch dia of
p.v.c pipe.
References.
1.Surveying and leveling by TP Kanatkar
2.Surveying and leveling by S.K Hussain
3.Suerveying by David Clarks.
4.Advanced Surveying by P.Son Chost
5.A text book of Hydraulics, fluid mechanics & Hydraulic Machines by R.S Khurmi
164

The Role of Photovoltaics in Energy

Requirements in Pakistan
I. A. Shah, N. Ul-Haq and H. Nasir
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME),
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
AbstractIn this review article global energy issue is
discussed with specific reference to Pakistan. The energy
consumption and supply from different sources like oil, gas,
electricity, nuclear power, bio gas and especially from
renewables is taken into account. Also discussed some
suggestions for the energy requirements. Focus is given to
the production of renewable energy sources like technology
of photovoltaics in which solar power is converted into
electricity. Solar cell is discussed including its two basic
types inorganic solar cell and organic solar cell, its way of
functioning, process of fabrication etc is also discussed.
Organic or polymeric solar cell is discussed in detail.
keeping in view the financial condition and requirement of
energy for our country suggestions are given for low cost
and simple processing of organic solar cells. It is also
suggested that availability of all the materials required for
the development of organic solar cells should be guaranteed.
Interest should be developed at the university and other
research organization level of Pakistan to do work on
polymeric solar cells for increasing their efficiencies so that
they can be practically utilized.
INTRODUCTION
Global energy issues
All over the world nations are faced with serious
problem of how to secure the resources needed to
generate electricity and meet the increasing demand
associated with economic growth [1]. Electricity
companies must take into account factors such as the
differing conditions specific to each country, the
economic viability of each option, the stability of the fuel
supply and the environmental impact issues.
Uranium provides high energy production per unit weight
of fuel and is relatively easy to ship and store. According
to the IEA Red Book, world uranium resources at an
acceptable cost are enough to supply the present level of
nuclear power for decades to come.
Natural gas is an environmentally friendly fossil fuel
since it does not contain sulfur that causes acid rain, and
its low carbon content compared with other fossil fuels
means that it has little inclusive warming effect.
The reality that there are still broad reserves of coal
in deposits spotted all around the world makes coal a very
economical and secure energy source. Also through the
improvement of efficiency of supercritical technologies
and through the use of cutting-edge "clean coal"
technologies such as Integrated Coal Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC), high power producing
efficiencies can be achieved, reducing CO2 emissions so
that power can be generated economically while still

protecting the environment.
Oil allows for flexibility in procurement while it
offers relatively few years of viable remaining deposits
compared with other fossil fuels, and the majorities are
distributed in the Middle East. Some power companies
use oil to cope with fluctuations in demand, using lowsulfur crude oil to minimize the environmental impact.
Hydropower uses natural energy and generates no
CO2 in power generation. Reservoir power stations with
stored energy facilities and pumped-storage power
stations are important power sources during peak periods.
Renewables are natural forms of energy, such as
solar, wind and geothermal, and have minimal
environmental impact. They can contribute to reduce the
use of limited fossil fuels.
By emerging technologies that use energy efficiently,
including energy-efficient appliances such as heat pumps
and energy-saving household appliances, and by
providing consumers with information on better ways to
use electricity and raise their awareness of energy
conservation issues, we can make energy efficiency better
on the demand side and effectively reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.
There is no one global formula for the finest mix of
energy supply options. Each country must work towards a
best possible solution that reflects all of its particular
regional circumstances, including the locally available
energy resources. Attention should also be paid to the
contribution of transmission networks to optimize the mix
and use of financial resources. By sharing their advanced
technologies, expertise and experience in formulating
best-mix energy supply solutions with developing
nations.
Energy Issues of Pakistan
Our country Pakistan is an energy-deficient country
and energy issue is the main thing to be discussed and
find suitable solutions for energy problems, here we will
discuss the energy distribution and supply in Pakistan.
Figure 1 shows the sectored distribution of energy in
Pakistan. The biggest sector is industry at 58 percent
followed by transport at 22 percent, household at 15
percent, agriculture and commercial 2 percent each and
other/govt. 1 percent. However, it should be noted that
the consumption mix of energy the industrial and services
sector changed over time electricity consumption
decreased, gas consumption increased. In addition, both
165
these sectors also increase their consumption of oil as

well.
Figure 1. Sectoral Distribution of Energy in Pakistan [2]
Supply of energy from different sources: For

Pakistan the main sources which supply energy is oil,
coal, gas and electricity, a large amount of increase in
supply was brought about by the increased availability of
natural gas [3]. Table 1 shows the energy distribution by
fuel type (in percentage) for the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s,
for various sectors of the economy.
As shown in Figure 2 energy consumption in Pakistan
in the last decade 1995-96 to 2004-05 has significantly
increased due to higher levels of economic growth; 5.1
percent 2002-03, 6.4 percent in 2003-04 and 8.4 percent
in 2004-05 to maintain this growth momentum the
Pakistani economy would require cheap and abundant
energy supplies in the coming years.
For this purpose an Alternative Energy Development
Board (AEDB) was established as an autonomous body
attached to the Cabinet Division vide Notification
No.F.1/7/2003/Admn II, dated 12th May 2003 [4]. The
Board was established to act as a central agency for
development, promotion and facilitation of renewable
energy technologies, formulation of plans, policies and
development of technological base for manufacturing of
renewable energy equipment in Pakistan. In Feb 2006,
the administrative control of the Board was shifted from
Cabinet Division to the Ministry of Water & Power. The
President of Islamic Republic of Pakistan, on 30th April
2005, promulgated an Ordinance for the establishment of
Alternative Energy Development Board. The National
Assembly of Pakistan passed the bill for establishment of
Alternative Energy Development Board on 28 February
2007, simply Pakistan want to maintain this board and
make it more and more beneficial for the country.
Solar Energy
Solar energy means radiant energy that is coming from
the sun, this energy has been harnessed by humans since
earlier times using a range of ever-evolving technologies.
Solar energy along with secondary solar-powered
resources such as wind, wave power, hydroelectricity and
biomass, account for most of the available renewable

energy on earth, only a small fraction of the available
solar energy is used [5].
Light energy powered electrical generation relies on
heat engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are
limited only by human ingenuity. Solar applications
include space heating and cooling through solar
architecture, potable water via distillation and
disinfection, day lighting, solar hot water, solar cooking,
and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.
To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to
use solar cells in the form of solar panels.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized into two as
either passive or active solar depending on the way they
capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar
techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels. Passive
solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable light dispersing
properties, and designing spaces.
About half the incoming solar energy reaches the
Earth's surface. The Earth receives 174PW (peta watt) of
incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere. [6].
About 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is
absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectra
of solar light at the Earths surface are mostly spread
across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small
part in the near-ultraviolet.
Earth's land surface, rivers and atmosphere absorb
solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm
air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
resulting atmospheric circulations [7].When the air
reaches a height, where the temperature is low, water
vapors condense into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's
Figure 2. Energy Demand and Supply Projection [2]
surface, completing the water cycle. The heat of water

condensation
amplifies
convection,
producing
atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anticyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land
masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of
14 degree centigrade.
SOLAR CELL
A solar cell is a device that converts the radiant energy of
sun straight into electric current by the famous
phenomena known as photovoltaic effect [8]. Sometimes
166
the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended

specifically to capture energy from sunlight such as solar
panels and solar cells, while the term photovoltaic is used
when the light source is unspecified. Combinations of
many solar cells in different ways form solar panels, solar
modules or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaics is the field
of technology and research related to the application of
solar cells in producing electricity for practical
utilization. The energy generated this way is an example
of solar energy.
Photovoltaic Solar Cells or Inorganic Solar Cells
The photovoltaic effect, i.e. light induced voltage, was
exposed in 1839 by E. Becquerel when he shed light onto
an AgCl electrode in an electrolyte solution [10]. C. Fritts
demonstrated the first solid-state solar cell in 1883 by
depositing a thin layer of Au on Se semiconductor [9,10].
The semiconductor served as the light absorber to convert
photons into electron-hole pairs, and the internal electric
field in the Au/ Se Schottky junction separated the photoexcited charge carriers. The two basic processes, that is
light absorption and charge separation, are still the basis
in all inorganic solar cells today. Modern solar cells were
patented in 1946 and established in 1954 by Chapin,
Fuller, and Pearson at Bell Laboratories. Their cell
employed a single-crystal Si (sc-Si) wafer for light
absorption and a p-n junction for charge separation, with
an efficiency of ~5%. Figure 3 illustrates the principle of
this cell. Photon absorption is throughout the wafer and
extends outside the depletion region. Therefore, charge
separation involves diffusion of photo-excited charge
carriers toward the depletion region. This makes the
quality of the whole wafer critical in terms of minority
carrier lifetime and carrier mobility for high efficiency. In
comparison, it is the quality of the surface region which
matters most in CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor) devices, since CMOS operation takes
place within a thin layer (<100 nm) of the wafer surface.
Although the efficiency of solar cells has been improving
gradually since 1954, the best part of todays commercial
solar cells still resemble the Bell Laboratories cell, i.e.,
they utilize a Si wafer in either single-crystal or
polycrystalline form for light absorption and a p-n
junction for charge separation.
Schematically the cross section and fabrication process of
a common structure for sc-Si cells is shown in Figure 4 .
It starts with a p-type Si(100) wafer with resistivity of ~1
-cm. The wafer is first etched in either NaOH or KOH
to form micro scale pyramids with (111) facets on the
surface. The textured surface reduces light reflection,
since reflected light from a pyramid often strikes another
Figure 3. Principle of wafer Silicon solar cells photon absorption is

throughout the wafer and charge separation often involves diffusion
of photo exited charge carriers [11, 12].
pyramid, thus a second chance of incidence. A p-n

junction is formed by diffusing an n-type dopant, often P,
into the front side of the wafer for a typical depth of ~0.5
m. The backside electrical contact is formed by reacting
a screen-printed Al film with the wafer to form an AlSi
compound. The front finger contact is also screen printed
with an Ag paste. The typical width of the contact fingers
is ~200 m and the separation between two fingers is ~3
mm, for a balance between minimum resistance and
minimum light shadowing. Finally a transparent material,
often SiNx, is deposited on the wafer as an antireflection
coating by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
Figure 4. Cross section (d) and fabrication process of single crystal

Si solar cells (a) surface texturing (b) n-emitter diffusion (c)
metallization and (d) antireflection coating [13].
(PECVD) [14].
Photochemical Solar Cells or Organic Solar Cells
There are other ways of generating electricity straight
from the sun. We saw how photovoltaic solar cells rely
on the photovoltaic effect that occurs at semiconductor
junctions, and how the semiconductor performs the two
jobs of absorbing the light and separating electrons
[15,16]. One of the problems with this approach is that,
because of the sensitive nature of the cells, they must be
manufactured in dust free conditions in order to be clean
and free from defects which might slow down their
operation. This works effectively however, it is
expensive. The thing about photochemical solar cells is
that they use cheap technology. Titanium dioxide is not
some rare chemical that requires expensive processing, it
is already produced in large quantities and used
commonly furthermore, you dont need an awful lot of it
only around 10 g per square meter is sufficient. The
photochemical solar cell has full-grown out of an
expanding branch of technology, looking at how we can
take off natural processes to make more advanced
technologies. Rather than having a single thing to do all
of the jobs, as in a conventional photovoltaic cell,
photochemical solar cells take off processes that occur in
nature. Electron transfer is the base for all life in cells it
occurs in the mitochondria, the powerhouses of cells
which convert nutrients into energy. Titanium dioxide,
while not straight away springing to mind as a household
name, is included in a lot of the products that we use
every day. In paints, as a pigment, it is recognized by its
name titanium white. It is also used in products such as
toothpaste and sunscreen. Titanium dioxide is great at
absorbing ultraviolet light.
167
How do photochemical solar cells work?

In the Figure 5 we can observe that energy transfer taking
place, light striking the photochemical solar cell,
generating energy and turning the shaft of the electric
motor, which is connected to cell [17]. The radiated
energy from the sun in the form of light is being
transformed through a chemical process into electrical
energy, which travels through the circuit to the motor,
where electromagnets turn the electrical energy into
movement (kinetic energy). We require looking at the cell
in a little more depth to understand the chemical
processes that are taking place in it in order to generate
the electricity. The dye when it is excited by light injects
an electron into titanium dioxide with which the plates
are coated and semi conducts [18].
I. Suggestions
1. Industrialized countries need large investment to
maintain electricity infrastructure and face the pressures
of demand growth. Huge investments are required and a
stable and expected regulatory framework will facilitate
private investment.
2. Cooperation among electricity companies from the
countries to achieve significant improvements in
electricity technology is essential to meet the challenges
of energy security and climate change.
3. Communication networks need to be further integrated
and modernized to create regional efficiency and
optimize the use of resources.
4. The Flexible Mechanisms negotiated under the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
should recognize the contribution of all forms of
electricity generation including large hydro, nuclear and

best available clean coal technologies as well as sinks
such as carbon capture and geological sequestration in
managing global emissions of greenhouse gases.
5. International financial institutions should prioritize
energy issues and develop suitable financial mechanisms
to attract private investment in and transfer technology to
developing countries.
TABLE VI.
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION BY FUEL TYPE IN PAKISTAN
Oil
1980s
Gas
Household
35.5
Agriculture
Industry
[3]
Electricity
Coal
25.5
38.4
0.5
29.9
12.9
0.0
53.6
70.1
19.9
0.0
13.6
Services
86.2
5.7
8.1
0.0
Transport
Commerce
100.0
3.0
0.0
40.2
0.0
56.9
0.0
0.0
Others/Govt.
66.1
0.0
33.3
0.6
1990s
Oil
Gas
Electricity
Coal
Household
39.3
39.1
21.6
0.0
Agriculture
Industry
38.8
30.5
0.0
54.0
61.2
6.2
0.0
9.3
Services
92.5
4.9
2.6
0.0
Transport
Commerce
99.9
7.8
0.0
61.0
0.0
31.2
0.0
0.0
Others/Govt.
65.2
0.0
34.8
0.0
Oil
Gas
Electricity
Coal
Household
5.8
62.4
31.8
0.0
Agriculture
Industry
32.9
28.8
0.0
56.2
67.1
5.4
0.0
0.0
Services
88.2
9.2
2.6
0.0
Transport
Commerce
96.8
0.0
3.2
71.3
0.0
28.7
0.0
0.0
Others/Govt.
51.9
0.0
48.1
0.0
2000s
Figure 5. Function of photochemical solar cell or Polymeric solar

cell [17].
168
6. The mandates of present international institutions

responsible for energy issues should represent and
reconcile the interests of both producer and consumer
countries.
15 May 2009, p. 891.

[9] U.S. Department of Energy, Basic Research Needs for
Solar Energy
Utilization (2005).
J. Summary
Now we have question in mind that at what degree
polymer solar cells can commercially compete with solar
cells which are totally silicon based. The silicon solar cell
industry has the important industrial advantage of being
able to cover the infrastructure developed for the
computer industry. Besides, the present efficiency of
polymer solar cells lies near 10 percent, much below the
value for silicon cells. Polymer solar cells also suffer
from environmental degradation. Good protective covers
or sheets are still to be developed.
Still, organic photovoltaic devices show great promise for
decreasing the cost of solar energy to the point where
it may become widespread in the decades ahead. While
great progress has been made in the last ten years with
respect to understanding the chemistry, physics and
materials science of organic photovoltaics, work remains
to be done to further improve their performance.
[10] U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Administration
(http:// www.eia.doe.gov/).
[11] E. Becquerel, Comptes Rendus vol 9 p. 46.
[12] R. Ohl, U.S. Patent 2,402,662 (1946).
[13] D. C. Fuller, and G. Pearson, J. Appl. Phys., vol 25,
p.676
(1954).
[14] D. S. R. Einhaus, Solar Energy Mater. Solar Cells,
vol 72, p27
(2002).
[15] B. R. M. Grtzel, Nature vol 353 p.737 (1991).
References
[16] M.K. Nazeeruddin, A. Kay, I. Rodicio, R. H. Backer,

E. Mueller,
[1] B. Mert article New energy order and Fast

Principles 2010.
P. Liska, N. Viachopoulos, M.Grtzel, J. Am. Chem.

Soc. 115
(1)
[2] M.A. Mahmood Report of Energy issues in Pakistan

(2006).
[3] State Bank of Pakistan Second Quarterly report for
Fiscal Year 2006.
[4] Workshop of A.E.D.B held in Islamabad 12 Oct,
2010.
(1993).
[17] M. Grtzel, AIP Conf. vol 404 p.119 (1997).
[18] M. Grtzel, K. Kalyanasundaram, Curr. Sci vol 66,
p.706
(1994)
[5] J. Perlin, From space to earth: The story of solar

Electricity, Harvard University Press, 1999.
[6] A. Vecchia, W. Formisano, V. Rosselli, D. Ruggi,
"Possibilities for the Application of Solar Energy in
the European
Community Agriculture". Solar energy, vol. 26,
1981.
[7] M.Z. Jacobson Review of solutions to global warming
(2009).
[8] R. M. Swanson. Photovoltaics Power Up, Science,
Vol. 324,
169

U.S. NRC Training for

Research and Training Reactor Inspectors
Gary M. Sandquist and Jay F. Kunze, Fellows, ASME and ANS
Abstract- Currently, a large number of license
activities (Early Site Permits, Combined Operating
License, reactor certifications, etc.), are pending for
review before the United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (US NRC). Much of the senior staff at the
NRC is now committed to these review and licensing
actions. To address this additional workload, the NRC
has recruited a large number of new Regulatory Staff
for dealing with these and other regulatory actions such
as the US Fleet of Research and Test Reactors (RTRs).
These reactors pose unusual demands on Regulatory
Staff since the US Fleet of RTRs, although few (32
Licensed RTRs as of 2010), they represent a broad
range of reactor types, operations, and research and
training aspects that nuclear reactor power plants (such
as the 104 LWRs) do not pose. The US NRC must
inspect and regulate all these entities. This paper
addresses selected training topics and regulatory
activities provided US NRC Inspectors for US RTRs.
Index Terms Regulations, Research & Test Reactors, US
NRC, Training.
I - INTRODUCTION
The safety and security of the nuclear reactor operations in any
part of the world or in any application is of concern not only to
the nation hosting the reactors, but also the entire world
nuclear community. It has been justifiably said that a reactor
accident or major incident anywhere is of concern and action
everywhere. The accidents at TMI II in the US in March 1979
and Chernobyl in April 1985 are evidence of this great
concern. The safety and security, or lack of these, have
technical, political, and economic consequences for all nations
and ubiquitous consequences throughout the world. The
principal role of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) is securing the safety of the public while licensing and
regulating the design, construction and operation of nuclear
reactors in the United States.
II. INSTRUCTION TOPICS
A summary of the training topics presented for NRC
Inspectors. [1]
1.0 Facilities and Operations at Research and Training
Reactors (RTRs)
1.1 Administration and Staffing
1.2 Radiation Protection
ALARA Program
Sources of Radiation
Personnel Radiation Monitoring
Radiation Surveys
Experiments
Radioactive Waste Management
1.3 Instrumentation and Control Systems (ICS)
Radiation Detection Systems
Neutron Detection Systems
Reactor Control Systems
1.4 Material Aging Management
Aging Mechanisms in Nuclear Reactors
In-Service Inspections (ISI) for RTRs
2- Reactor Physics
Nuclear Reactions
Neutron Balance
Nuclear Cross Section
Slowing Down of Neutrons
2.1 Multiplication Factor
Reactivity
Reactivity Temperature Coefficients
2.2 Control Rods
2.3 Fission Product Poisons
2.4 Reactor Kinetics
Effect of Delayed Neutrons on Generation Time
Delayed and Prompt Critical
Prompt Jump and Prompt Drop
Excess Reactivity and Shutdown Reactivity
Reactivity of Experiments
Control Rod Reactivity Worth
Transient Rods and Inherent Feedback
2.5 Power Distribution
Reflector Effects
Control Rod Effects
Void, Flux Trap, and Experiment Effects
2.6 Critical Loading and Reactor Startup
2.7 Fuel Storage
2.8 RTR Fueling Options
Low-Enriched, Low-Concentration U
High-Enriched, Low Concentration U
Low-Enriched. High-Concentration U
Physics of High-Enriched U Systems
Physics of Mixed Cores
2.9 Physics of Reactor Pulsing - TRIGA
2.10 Physics of Heavy Water Moderated RTRs
170
III US RESEARCH AND TEST REACTORS (RTRs)

The operating organization and staffing level for Research and
Training Reactors (RTRs) differ significantly from commercial
nuclear power reactors (NPRs). At RTR facilities (especially at
universities) regulated by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) there are significant staffing differences between
administration, facilities, and operations depending on mission,
financial support and level of utilization of the particular RTR.
NPRs have a single focus, namely the safe, economical, and
efficient generation of electricity for distribution and sale. The
NPR site is organized and given the technical, financial, and
personnel resources required to maintain high plant availability.
The NPR is staffed for continuous shift operation and expeditious
on-line and corrective maintenance. All plant work is done with
careful attention to regulatory requirements and oversight by the
onsite NRC Inspector(s) and adequate radiation protection staff to
maintain personnel radiation exposure as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA). These NPR personnel along with the support
of engineering, procurement, clerical, quality assurance, and other
specialist groups form an organization composed of hundreds of
personnel with a mission of producing a single product, electrical
power for distribution and sale.
In contrast, RTRs are usually a small component within a larger
organization with a mission broader and more diverse than
sustained reactor operation and production of electrical power.
Thus, the mission and activities of the RTR staff differs greatly
from that of the NPR. The staff size and expertise together with the
mission of a small RTR are inter-related. The mission of the RTR
may be limited by its small staff size and the expertise of its
personnel. The same facility could have a significantly expanded
mission if the staff and resources were available to manage and
promote the RTRs use. In contrast to NPRs, sustained operations at
RTRs is not usually essential and a forced RTR outage lasting a
few days or longer is not the concern it would be for NPRs. A
comparison of the major differences between power and RTRs is
provided in Table 1.
Currently there are 32 NRC-licensed RTRs that fall into one of
three categories:
3 RTRs in Private industry: Dow Chemical Company,

Aerotest Operations, Inc., and General Electric Company
Nuclear Test Reactor
3 RTRs at US Federal facilities: US National Institute of

Standards & Technology,
Armed Forces Radiobiology
Research Institute, US Geological Survey, US Department of
Interior
Academia. (26 RTRs)

The Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute (AFRRI)
studies the biological effects of radiation. The National Institute of
Science and Technology (NIST) RTR provides specialized neutron
beams for its world class Center for Neutron Research where basic
science research and materials studies are performed. The mission
of the US Geological Survey (USGS) RTR is primarily to
characterize geological specimens to fulfill the USGS overall
mission.
Table 1: Major Differences between NPRs and RTRs

Nuclear Power Plants
(NPRs)
Research and Test Reactors

(RTRs)
Operated as heat source for

power production
Operated as intense neutron

sources
Operated continually at full

power during entire fuel cycle
Small RTRs: Frequent power

cycling. Large RTRs:
Continuous Operation
Slow, methodical, infrequent

power changes
Core power shaped for
maximum fuel cycle burnup
Access restricted to small
operating staff
Productivity measured by
electrical energy generated at
a high capacity factor
Secondary plant facilities
affect reactor safety
Fission product inventory
decay heat to damage fuel
Fuel enriched to 3 to 10%
Frequent start-ups and rapid

power changes
Power within limits for
experimental needs.
Intended for supporting many
students and researchers
Productivity measured by
number of students trained and
researchers supported
Reactor operator aware of
activities by users
Only large RTRs exhibit decay
heat limits
LEU fuel (3% to 20%). HEU
fuel (>20%) replaced by LEU
Neutron beams extracted for
irradiations and experiments
RTR range core size, design,
experimental facilities
RTR power range from 5 W to
20 MW- range of 4 million
Shielding integral to design to

avoid neutron escape
Standardization of NPRs to
produce electrical power
NPR power range from ~1500
to 4000 MW(th)- 2.67 range
The 26 US University RTRs have operating organizations ranging

from a one or two member operating staff to several dozen full and
part time staff. The usual reason for a small staff at an RTR,
insufficient to provide significant research services, is that the RTR
is also a significant pedagogical tool requiring minimal investment
and operating expense.
At the higher end of the academic spectrum of utilization are the
university RTRs engaged in basic nuclear research that provide
academic and outside users with neutron activation and irradiation
analysis, neutron radiography, radionuclide supplies, neutron
irradiation services, medical applications, material studies, and
basic science research supported by nuclear reactor facilities.
The current NRC Licensed RTRs as of 2010 are shown in Table 2.
The table provides the Docket and License Number, Reactor Type,
Facility, and Licensed power level in kW. The 26 US University
RTRs have operating organizations ranging are the university
RTRs engaged in basic nuclear research that provide academic and
outside users with neutron activation analysis, neutron radiography,
radionuclide supplies, neutron irradiation services, medical
applications, material studies, and basic science research supported
by nuclear reactor facilities.
171
IV RADIATION PROTECTION
Table 2: NRC Licensed RTRs at US Universities

Docket
License
Reactor
Type
50-184
TR-5
Tank/Plate
50-186
R-103
Tank
50-20
R-37
Tank
50-607
R-130
TRIGA
50-193
R-95
Pool/Plate
50-602
R-129
TRIGA
50-5
R-2
TRIGA
50-243
R-160
TRIGA
50-170
R-84
TRIGA
10
50-274
R-113
TRIGA
11
50-27
R-76
TRIGA
12
50-156
R-74
TRIGA
National Institute
of Standards &
Technology
U of Missouri
Columbia
MIT
UC, Davis
McClellan
Nuclear Research
Center
Rhode Island
AEC
U of TX
Pennsylvania
State U
Oregon State U
Armed Forces
Radiobiology
Research
Institute
US Geological
Survey (USGS)
Washington State
U
U of WN
13
50-128
R-83
TRIGA
Texas A&M U
1,000
14
50-297
R-120
PULSTAR
1,000
15
50-223
R-125
Pool/Plate
NC State U
U of
Massachusetts
Lowell
16
50-150
R-75
Ohio State U
500
17
50-264
R-108
Pool/Plate
(MTR)
TRIGA
300
18
50-326
R-116
TRIGA
19
50-288
R-112
TRIGA
20
50-228
R-98
TRIGA
21
50-188
R-88
TRIGA
Dow Chemical
U of CaliforniaIrvine
Reed College
Aerotest
Operations, Inc.
Kansas State U
22
50-166
R-70
TRIGA
23
50-123
R-79
POOL
24
50-113
R-52
TRIGA
25
50-407
R-126
TRIGA
26
50-73
R-33
NTR
27
50-83
R-56
28
50-182
R-87
Argonaut
Pool/Plate
(MTR)
Facility
U - University
Power
Level
(kW)
U of MD
U of Missouri Rolla
U of AZ
20,000
10,000
5,000
2,300
2,000
1,100
1,100
1,100
1,100
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
250
250
250
250
250
200
110
U of UT
GE Nuclear Test
Reactor
U of FL
100
Purdue U
100
100
30
50-59
R-23
AGN-201
Rensselaer
Polytechnic
Institute
Texas A&M U
31
50-284
R-110
AGN-201
Idaho State U
0.005
32
50-252
R-102
AGN-201
U of NM
0.005
29
50-225
CX-22
Critical
Assembly
Operations at RTRs inherently carry the potential for personnel

exposures to elevated levels of ionizing radiation in excess of
national background levels. The US National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurements (NCRP) in Report 160 reported in
2006 that the average radiation exposure of US residents is now 6.3
mSv. Significantly, 48% of this US average exposure is now
associated with medical applications of radiation and less that 0.1%
is associated with all industrial uses including all nuclear reactors.
0.1
0.005
ALARA, which is a result of this conservative regulatory

philosophy, is defined as the policy of making reasonable efforts to
maintain exposures to ionizing radiation as far below regulatory
dose limits as is practical. The standard operation of ionizing
radiation facilities and activities at near regulatory limits is an
unacceptable practice. ALARA is thus a philosophy of practice
associated with applications associated with ionizing radiation. It is
not a numerically defined regulatory limit nor is it a mandated
series of procedures that must be implemented without exception.
ALARA is also a practical policy in that it recognizes that radiation
and radioactive materials provide beneficial products and services
for humans including medicine, science, energy, industry and other
benefits. The basis of ALARA also assumes that any level of
exposure to radiation must be assumed to have some associated
level of risk to human health. This implies that for any activity
resulting in human exposures to radiation, it is necessary to ensure
that:
Benefit of activity greater than potential harm from radiation

Risk level from occupational exposures doesnt exceed risks
acceptable in other occupations with high safety standards
Public risk less than or equal to other normal risks accepted by
society.
ALARA applied to RTRs

ALARA programs at RTRs are established and documented in
accordance with Title 10 of the US Code of Federal Regulations,
Part 20.1101 (10CFR20.1101) [2]. The typical goal for most RTR
facilities is to limit radiation levels in unrestricted areas to about
10% of 10CFR20.1301(a)(1) [3] using training, shielding and
operational procedures with periodic review of these activities.
Records documenting ALARA activities, personnel exposures, and
reviews are standard items for NRC inspections.
a) Sources of Radiation
Of course the original source of most of the radiation sources found
at a RTR are those associated with the nuclear fission process and
the succeeding radiation and radioactive materials produced as a
result of the fission process in the RTR core. This cascading
process of nuclear and radioactive reactions is depicted in Figure 1.
Observe that the end result of the complex chain of reactions is a
broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation (EM) spanning the
energy spectrum from visible (Cherenkov) UV to MeV gamma rays
Besides the radiation emanating from the RTR during operation
and even during shutdown, there are many other potential sources
of radiation at RTRs such as fixed point sources, airborne, liquid,
and solid sources. In general, radiation sources found at typical
research and test reactors can be classified into the following
general classes:
Calibration and check sources
172
Startup, and other sources used for instrumentation and

nuclear support functions
Airborne, liquid, and solid radiation sources from operations
Radiation sources produced within experimental facilities
Fission products as applicable
documented to satisfy license and NRC requirements. Documented

inventories of all SNM are required on a prescribed basis.
A typical irradiated TRIGA fuel element in a 1 MW TRIGA
Reactor has a radiation field greater than 1 Gy/hr in air at 1 meter
when the element is removed from the reactor tank. Radiation dose
rates from handling these elements are the primary concern for
radiation protection of personnel. Thus, spent fuel element transfers
involving irradiated fuel are performed by reviewed and written
procedures and with adequate shielding to meet appropriate
radiation limits. Typically, such fuel management operations
produce a High Radiation Area and a fuel element transfer cask is
employed to reduce personnel exposures.
An important, potential source of radiation and radioactivity in
sources at RTRs, other than irradiated fuel, is the release of fission
products from the irradiated reactor fuel. Those detected
radionuclides through chemical analyses and detectors used in
helium sweep systems of the primary coolant system include
radioactive gases of xenon, krypton, and Cs-138 (a daughter
product of Xe-138. Radioactive isotopes of iodine (e.g., I-131) are
of particular concern. However, using the typical makeup rate for
the helium system at NIST, for example, less than 3.7 GBq of these
radionuclides are released annually. These release concentrations
are low (less than 0.01Bq/liter) and thus represent a negligible
contribution to the total gaseous emissions.
Figure 1: Radiation Cascade from Nuclear Fission

Liquid radioactive material is not routinely produced or used in
normal operations of RTRs, with the exception of neutron
activation of impurities in the primary coolant. A filter(s) and
demineralizer resins remove the majority of these impurities. Other
radioactive waste can be generated from decontamination,
maintenance, or laboratory activities. Radionuclides and their
concentrations in the environment of the RTR depend on reactor
power, reactor operating time and time since reactor shutdown.
Typical sources of these radiation sources are shown in Table 3
Table 3: Typical RTR Sources of Radioactivity at RTRs
Major Radiation Sources Associated with RTR Operations
Liquid
Solid
Airborne
Ar41, N16,
H3 , Ag110m, Cu64,
Co60, Fe55, Fe59,
H3, C14
Cu66
Zn65, Na24
(soluble irradiated
(irradiation
assemblies)
nuclides)
Reactor Fuel
Unirradiated fuel at RTRs poses very low external radiation
exposure to workers. The principal issues regarding new fuel are
criticality issues and safe and secure storage. The fuel classified as
Special Nuclear Material (SNM) is controlled under the operating
license of the RTR and must be handled, stored, and properly
(b) Experimental Radiation Sources

Neutron Beams
The majority of research at a research and test reactor use neutrons
of various energies to study material constituents, processes, and
structures. These neutrons are often extracted from the reactor core
via neutron beam tubes (i.e., channels along which neutrons can
travel to the experiment). Neutron beams at an RTR typically range
from a few square mm to 200 square cm. Beams with an in-beam
dose rate in excess of 1 mSv/hr and are accessible (have an open
path in excess of 30 cm) are designated as High Radiation Areas. A
characteristic of well-designed neutron beam tubes is that the
radiation field outside of the beam is usually low, less than 0.05
mSv/hr. However, experimental samples and equipment at the
beam stop can result in Radiation Area or even High Radiation
Area conditions. These areas must be controlled as required by
10CFR20 Sections 1601 and 1902 [4]. Non-beam related and
short-term experiments are also shielded and controlled to keep
personnel exposures ALARA.
Pneumatic Systems and In-Core Exposure Facilities
Experiments and their configurations utilizing pneumatic and incore facilities are highly variable, frequently producing multi-curie
activity sources. All elements of the activity, facility usage,
experiment management, disposal, and potential personnel
exposures are addressed by technical review and administrative
authorization processes. Typically, holding the irradiated
experiments in a shielded configuration to allow sufficient decay
prior to direct manipulation, processing, or analysis is a primary
ALARA policy used in these situations.
Both Ar-41 and N-16 are produced in the section of the pneumatic
transfer system that is located in the reactor core. During operation
of the pneumatic transfer system, air containing very small amounts
of these two radioisotopes is exhausted from the system through a
HEPA filter to the facility stack. Experience at RTRs has shown
that even after repetitive operations of this system, there have been
173
no detectable increases in the release of these two radioisotopes.

Therefore, the Ar-41 and N-16 from the pneumatic transfer system
is not generally considered to be a measurable contributor to the
radioisotopes released or exposure rates associated with reactor
operations. However, operating records must demonstrate that this
is true.
c) Radiation Surveys
The main purpose of the radiation survey program is to assure
radiological surveillance over selected reactor facility work areas in
order to provide information and trending characteristics and
assessment of the existing ALARA program. Data of this type is
used to confirm that safe radiation working conditions exist within
the various operational areas under surveillance and to reduce
personnel exposures where possible.
The first objective of the radiation survey program is to assure that
the monitoring program is organized such that routine radiation
level and contamination level surveys of specific designated areas
and activities within the facility are performed. Also special
radiation surveys are performed as necessary to support nonroutine facility operations.
A second objective of the program is to make frequent on-the-spot
personal observations (including recorded data) of radiation work
areas. These observations may provide advance warning of needed
corrections in order to ensure safe use and handling of radiation
sources and other radioactive materials.
A third objective is to use the information that has been gathered
through completion of the first two objectives in order to ensure
(and document) that all phases of the operational and radiation
protection programs are consistent with the goal of keeping
radiation doses to personnel and releases of radioactivity to the
environment ALARA.
i.
d)
Operations Radiation Levels
Depending on the class/research workload, a typical RTR operates
for only one shift per day or less (40 hours per week). Facilities
such as the University of Missouri RTR and NIST will typically
operate a 24-hour shift schedule. An occupationally exposed
individual only spends a fraction of the time in areas where there is
a potential for measurable radiation levels. Radiation surveys of a
reactor facility are usually performed within the restricted area
during full-power operations to ascertain an exposure rates for
personnel working in the vicinity. Typical values of radiation levels
at various locations at a typical 1 MW TRIGA are provided in
Table 4. Taking into consideration the limited occupancy times,
the relatively low dose rates observed, and typical personnel doses
received by the reactor staff, it is common that occupational doses
can be maintained below the regulatory limits given in 10 CFR 20.
i)
(1)
Authorization and Conditions for Experiments
Administrative requirements exist at RTRs to assure that all
experiments are performed in a manner that will ensure the
protection of the public. Experiment review meets the requirements
of Regulatory Guide 2.2 [5}, and Standard ANSI N401-1974
(ANS-15.6) [6] as modified by Regulatory Guide 2.4 [7]. The two
Regulatory Guides identifies the considerations that should be
addressed to define limits and other requirements are included in
the technical specifications for the RTR.
Table 4 Typical RTR Radiation Levels RTRs at 1 MW
Facility Location
Reactor Pool
Surface
Reactor Bay Floor
Demineralizer
Tank
Primary Water
Pipes
Primary Water
Filter
Typical Dose Rate

Equivalent on
Contact (mSv/hr)
1 (typically N-16)
1
25
Typical Dose Rate

Equivalent @ 30 cm
(mSv/hr)
0.65 (typically N16)
1
1
10
<1
Considerations and safety analyses for experiments should address:

(1) Interaction of an experiment with the reactor system that has
the potential for breaching any primary barrier for fission
product release from fuel, interaction of an experiment with
the reactor system that has the potential for breaching any
primary barrier for fission product release from fuel
(2) Interaction of an experiment with the reactor system that has
the potential for breaching any primary barrier for fission
product release from fuel, interaction of an experiment with
the reactor system that has the potential for breaching any
primary barrier for fission product release from fuel
(3) Any interaction of an experiment with the reactor system that
could adversely affect any engineered safety features or
control system features designed to protect the public from a
fission product release
(4) Any inherent feature of an experiment that could create
beams, radiation fields, or unconfined radioactive materials
(5) Potentially adverse interaction with concurrent experimental
and operational activities.
(6) Reactor Control Circuits
e)
RTR Control Rods
Control rods are used to adjust flux within the core. Often, it is
desirable to adjust the height of the individual control rods. Most
RTRs contain have a rod position indication device connected
(most often chain driven) to the rod drive motor. The rod position
indication device generates a signal proportional to the distance
traveled by the control rod.
Most RTRs have two classes of reactor control rods (i.e., thermal
neutron absorption rods), safety rods and regulating rods. Safety
rods provide safe shutdown capability for the reactor and generally
have a large negative reactivity capacity (several $). Safety rods are
connected to the rod positioning equipment via an electromagnet.
Upon receipt of a scram signal, a current amplifier supplying
current to the electromagnet, de-energizes (i.e., fails safe), causing
the safety rod(s) to drop into the core and shutting down the
reactor.
Regulating rods (usually with significantly lower reactivity worth)
are used to accurately adjust and control reactor power. A third
class of control rods (referred to as a transient rod) is associated
with those TRIGA reactors licensed for pulsing operations. The
transient rod is designed to move very rapidly (fires), exiting the
core and producing a large positive reactivity increase within the
reactor core (reactivity > 1$).
174
For pulsing operations, often the regulating rod is directly

connected to the positioning motor to prevent the regulating rod
from scramming. Safety rods on the other hand are required to
scram if an unsafe condition develops during the pulsing operation.
The transient rods also retain their scram capability.
In the late 1980s instrumentation designers introduced reactor
control systems that convert the analog information from radiation
detectors into digital signals that can be readily processed by digital
controllers and computers. Many RTRs have installed such digital
based systems to replace aging analog systems. In general, digital
based systems are more accurate, reliable and exhibit improved
output for operational control of the reactor. The important physical
and nuclear properties and signals to be measured and controlled in
a RTR include the following as shown in Table 4
Table 4 Measurement Parameters in RTRs
Neutrons (e.g., counts and counts/s)
Neutron flux (e.g., nts/cm2-s)
Gammas (e.g., counts/s, mSv/hr, Gy)
Charged particles (alphas, betas, fission fragments in counts/s)
Fission events (e.g., kW(thermal)/cc)
Temperature (e.g., oC, oF)
Pressures (e.g., psi, kPa, atmospheres)
Fluid flow of air and water (e.g., cfm, gpm)
Component movement and position (e.g., control rods, etc.)
Reactor startup and operating ranges for the range of power levels
for RTRs are shown in Figure 2. The figure displays those typical
meters and the monitoring range corresponding to a typical RTR
power level (e.g., 1 MW). Observe that a fission chamber is used
for reactor startup when the neutron signal is very low and the large
amplification produced in the fission chamber.
In Region A of the figure a wide range log power channel provides
the necessary indication of power as the reactor is brought from
startup within the operating level of RTRs operating in the MW
power range. A multirange linear power channel is also used in this
range with stepping of the power within each decade range of
power. As the reactor power approaches a few percent of the
licensed power level, ion chambers provide measurements of the
power level as shown in Regions C and D. The ranges of these
various channels, e.g., wide range log power channel, multirange
linear power channel, and % power channel are indicated in the
figure and their operating ranges are displayed.
IV RTR FUELING OPTIONS

In contrast with Light Water Reactors (LWR), there is wide
variation in the physics and engineering principles underlying the
designs and operating characteristics of research reactors. The
reason is that different RTR designs and uses emphasize different
reactor operational objectives. Among the objectives, some RTRs
maximize in-core thermal neutron fluxes and external neutron
beam physics, while others are concerned with building a foolproof safe training facility. In the latter category, an organization
concerned with building one unit for its own use probably
emphasizes high-neutron economy and versatility. A group
primarily concerned with becoming a training reactor supplier and
vendor would emphasize safety features, competitive costs,
standardization, and unique patentable design features.
Figure 2: Neutron Channel Measurement Ranges for an RTR.

a) Low-Enriched, Low-Concentration Uranium
Most university research and training reactors (RTRs) can be
classified as low enriched (less than 20% U-235) and low
concentration uranium The majority of these RTRs are hydrogen
moderated, usually water, however the AGN reactors are
moderated by polystyrene, CH2 (or H2C), very similar to H2O in
hydrogen density. These reactors are essentially undermoderated
so that reduction in moderator from temperature increase or boiling
will provide a negative temperature and void coefficient.
A prime example of a RTR supplier is the TRIGA Reactor line
designed and marketed worldwide by Gulf General Atomic (GA) in
San Diego, CA. The most notable and unique feature of this reactor
is the special reactor fuel used in TRIGAs. In 1956, a team of
distinguished physicists at General Atomics, including Frederic de
Hoffmann, Freeman Dyson, and Ted Taylor, developed a novel
reactor fuel that exhibited such a large, prompt negative reactivity
temperature coefficient, that the TRIGA fuel could experience a
prompt critical condition without fuel failure. The following
description will not trace the long historical basis for developing
and testing this new fuel (see GA-471, Technical Foundations of
TRIGA, August 1958), but describes briefly the nucleonics and
thermal-hydraulics of the U-ZrHx-fueled reactors. As shown
below, TRIGA fuel rods incorporate a high concentration of
chemically combined hydrogen and zirconium, so these rods are
actually fuel-moderator rods.
The traditional standard TRIGA fuel element contains uranium
enriched to 20% U-235 with about 8.5% weight as uranium
uniformly mixed in the zirconium hydride matrix. There is nearly
the same density of hydrogen in the ZrH1.6 as in the H2O, so for
most of the neutron slowing down energies the fission neutrons are
moderated essentially as if the moderator were pure water (the
175
order of 70% to 80% volume fraction. However, as the neutron

energies approach the binding energy of the hydrogen in the
zirconium lattice (about 1 eV), the apparent hydrogen mass is
similar to that of zirconium, so any further thermalization must
occur primarily in the water surrounding the TRIGA fuel element.
The bound hydrogen atoms in the ZrH vibrate in place and can
even transfer some kinetic energy to a colliding neutron. When this
occurs, the average neutron energy in the fuel rod is increased
above the average neutron energy in the surrounding water, and
these faster neutrons have a greater chance of leaking out of the
fuel rod without causing fission. When the total fission rate
increases and raises the fuel temperature, there is increased
vibration of the bound hydrogen and a larger fraction of the
thermalized neutrons will gain energy through collisions. The
energy of the average neutron in the fuel rod will thus be higher,
with a higher probability of not causing fission (because the fission
cross section is inversely proportional to velocity) and thus having
higher probability of leaking into the surrounding water. The net
effect of this rather complex process is a decrease in the thermal
utilization f as the temperature rises in the uranium-zirconium
hydride. Because the uranium is intimately mixed with the ZrH,
the heat transfer from the uranium and temperature rise of the ZrH
is instantaneous, so the result is a highly useful, prompt negative
temperature coefficient of reactivity that dominates the other
temperature dependent reactivity terms, as discussed below.
Because there is a high ratio of U-238 to U-235 in the standard
TRIGA fuel (about 4 U-238 atoms per U-235 atom), the Doppler
broadening of U-238 resonance absorption (that directly affects the
resonance escape probability p) also produces a prompt negative
temperature coefficient of reactivity that acts for epithermal
neutrons independently of the thermal utilization effect described
previously. These two negative reactivity mechanisms (f and p) are
additive and together contribute about 80% of the total negative
temperature coefficient of low-enriched TRIGA fuels. The
remainder of the reactivity temperature coefficient is due to
increased neutron leakage from the core at higher moderator
temperatures.
This prompt temperature coefficient is inherent in the TRIGA fuel
and highly stabilizes reactor operation around the steady-state
mode of operation. This coefficient has such a large negative
reactivity effect upon some RTRs that it is the basis for allowing
TRIGA reactors to safely and routinely operate in the pulse mode
routinely with reactivity insertions greater than one dollar. Of
course power reactors (e.g., LWRs) do not have such TRIGA fuel
properties, viz., the resultant large, prompt, negative temperature
coefficient, and should never operate in a pulsed mode.
Finally, in summary, there are three components of the prompt
negative temperature coefficient for TRIGA fuel that all lead to
reduction in the effective multiplication factor in the reactor core.
As the temperature of the Zr-H in the fuel increases (this

change is immediate with the fuel temperature) neutrons in the
fuel leave the fuel and enter the surrounding water with higher
energy.
As the fuel temperature increases, absorption resonances

(principally in U-238) Doppler broaden and the resonance
escape probability decreases, decreasing the effective
multiplication factor.
The increase in the coolant moderator (water) increases the

mean free path for neutrons increasing core leakage.
b) High-Enriched, Low Concentration Uranium

Gulf General Atomic (GA) has also developed a TRIGA fuel using
high-enriched uranium (HEU) (70% U-235) but still containing
about 8.5 wt% total uranium in the zirconium hydride. This was
designated as Fuel Lifetime Improvement Program (FLIP) fuel.
The objective was to increase the U-235 loading, thereby
increasing the fuel lifetime and neutron flux intensity and reducing
core size. To maintain an approximately constant reactivity over
the extended life, a burnable poison, erbium, was added to the fuel.
Erbium was chosen because of its strong absorption resonance for
neutrons of about 0.5 eV to maintain a large prompt negative
temperature coefficient of reactivity. With a resonance this close to
thermal neutron energies, some of the neutrons that have been
slowed down in the water to below the resonance energy are
scattered back up at high fuel temperature. This results in another
chance for neutron absorption by erbium.
The net effect is that the thermal utilization of slow neutrons
decreases as the fuel temperature increases. Because these neutron
processes all occur within the fuel rods, there is again a large
prompt negative temperature coefficient of reactivity. As before,
the higher the fuel temperature, the larger the fraction of neutrons
scattered back up to higher energy within the fuel rod. As the
erbium is depleted however, the magnitude of this temperature
coefficient decreases. In the FLIP fuel, there is much less U-238 to
contribute to the Doppler-effect component of the temperature
coefficient because of the high-uranium enrichment. Careful design
has produced a FLIP uranium-zirconium hydride fuel with a
prompt negative temperature coefficient whose magnitude is near
that for the standard TRIGA fuel but is based partly on a different
mechanism that changes slowly with fuel burn up.
c)
Low-Enriched, High-Concentration Uranium
Because of Reactor Safeguard concerns over the use of highly
enriched HEU fuel in research reactors, GA has recently developed
an additional modification of the FLIP concept. This design returns
to the 20% U-235 enrichment. But to obtain the desired lifetime
longer than the original TRIGA fuel, the loading of uranium is
increased from 8.5% to 20 or 30 wt% uranium. As with the FLIP
fuel, the reactivity is initially suppressed and maintained
approximately constant during fuel use by incorporating the same
burnable poison, erbium. The loading of uranium and erbium are
chosen so that the temperature coefficient of reactivity is still large,
negative, and prompt, with about 20% to 25% of the reactivity
effect due to the Doppler absorption broadening in the U-238
resonances. This newer fuel may become a TRIGA fuel standard in
the future and has essentially the same inherent safety features as
the original TRIGA fuel, but now satisfies Reactor Safeguard
considerations.
For both the high-enriched uranium (HEU) FLIP fuel and the highloaded low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel, as the burnable poison
depletes and the magnitude of the temperature coefficient
decreases, the magnitude of reactivity change that can be safely
compensated tends to decrease. This is a slow process, but the
licensee must be aware of this change and adjust operating
procedures accordingly. One licensing consequence is that
Technical Specifications that authorize pulsing operation in a
TRIGA reactor must limit fuel temperature or energy excursion per
pulse, rather than excess reactivity for the new LEU fuel.
176
d) Physics of High-Enriched Uranium Systems

A principal objective of research reactors is to obtain high neutron
fluxes with the least impact from dissipating the high heat
generated. It is apparent that the lower the concentration of U-235,
the higher the neutron flux must be for the same power density. But
a critical mass of U-235 must be maintained to make the reactor
operable. It can be shown that the minimum critical mass is
obtained when the thermal utilization is at a maximum for the
system and occurs for minimum non fission absorptions of thermal
neutrons. This implies minimizing the nonproductive neutron
absorbers that inherently accompany the U-235. Because the U-238
is a major neutron absorber, this further implies using the highest
enrichment of U-235 possible. When research reactors were first
designed in the 1940s and early 1950s, designers favored the use of
HEU. Safeguard concerns were not as evident then as they are
today. HEU was generally available from the former Atomic
Energy Commission (AEC) and was preferred by most designers of
research reactors.
The development of HEU reactor cores follow closely with the
general concepts of criticality considered earlier. However, because
a reduced fraction of uranium fuel is U-238 in HEU, there is
reduced absorption of neutrons in resonances and the negative
reactivity (Doppler absorption) effect on heating of the fuel is
reduced. The first research reactor designed to use enriched
uranium was a liquid homogeneous reactor designed and operated
at Los Alamos. The first licensed nongovernment-owned research
reactor in the US was designed and built at North-Carolina State
University based on the design of this Los Alamos reactor.
Another major design criterion was to build research reactors to
operate at the highest power densities feasible. This led to the thinplate design of HEU metal dispersed in an aluminum complex. This
type of fuel was developed for the Materials Test Reactor (MTR)
reactor in Idaho and later adapted for submarine nuclear power
reactors for the US Navy. After the MTR had operated successfully
for about a year, adoption of this fuel for general purpose research
reactors also became the choice for future RTRs. However, the
thin-plate HEU fuel had no significant prompt negative temperature
coefficient of reactivity to counteract rapid increases in reactivity,
so an experimental program was initiated at Idaho to investigate
excursion-limiting and possible shutdown mechanisms. This
program, first called Borax and then SPERT, both located at Idaho,
confirmed the absence of any significant prompt inherent
mechanism for HEU plate fuel and showed that expansion and
expulsion of coolant/moderator that was relatively slow was the
principal reactor shutdown mechanism. These experiments became
the bases of safety considerations for HEU plate-type research
reactors.
e)
Physics of Mixed Cores
The fuel and poison loadings of TRIGA fuel rods have been chosen
so that they all have about the same net effect on reactivity. This
means that the new highly loaded 20% enriched uranium rods can
replace either 20% enriched lightly loaded or the 70% enriched
lightly loaded rods without a significant change in reactivity
conditions.
However, since the power density in a fuel rod is related to the U235 concentration, a single high-fueled rod located within an array
of low-fueled rods could cause higher power densities and much
higher temperatures in that rod than in its low-fueled neighbors.

Because of this concern, careful analyses must precede and
accompany any plan to make rod-by-rod changes from one fixed
uranium loading to a different one. If the entire core is changed
from one uranium enriched loading to a significantly different one,
the problem does not arise because the power density distribution
will now be approximately uniform over the core. Significantly,
from a safety standpoint, this problem is not unique to TRIGA fuel
but could occur for any fuel type for which a wide range of
uranium enrichment loadings is available for core insertion.
IV RTR PULSING OPERATIONS

In addition to TRIGA uranium-zirconium hydride fuel, another
reactor fuel has been developed for research reactors that also have
a large prompt, negative temperature coefficient. This reactor fuel,
very similar to light-water power reactor fuel, is composed of
sintered uranium oxide pellets enclosed in a sealed cladding tube.
This fuel has been named PULSTAR because its intended use was
in a dual-purpose steady-state and pulsing research reactor. Like
the TRIGA fuel, the PULSTAR fuel has a large negative
temperature coefficient that is contained within the fuel itself and
so acts promptly and independently of the moderator. Such a
mechanism acts to decrease reactivity if the fuel temperature rises
and reduces the rate of fission activity. If the magnitude of the
coefficient is large enough, the reactivity effect can compensate for
an excess reactivity that is larger than one dollar, so the reactor
might be operated in the pulsing mode without fuel damage.
For the PULSTAR reactor, the only significant temperaturedependent neutron absorption mechanism is Doppler broadening of
the U-238 resonances. To attain a sufficiently large negative
temperature coefficient, it is necessary to increase the ratio of U238 to U-235 by a factor of about three or four above that for the
20% enriched TRIGA fuel. Thus, PULSTAR fuels that are
currently in use consist of U-235 enrichments of only 4% and 6%,
respectively.
These fuels provide a prompt negative temperature coefficient of
reactivity comparable to TRIGA fuels. Not only are the PULSTAR
reactors very stable in steady-state operation, but they also are
designed for safe pulsing. Both of the NRC Licensed PULSTAR
reactors have operated safely and successfully in the pulsed mode,
but it has not been found to be an important feature to retain, so this
provision has been deleted from PULSTAR reactor licenses.
The process for pulsing a reactor requires a neutron absorbing
control rod that can be ejected rapidly, inserting a step increase of
reactivity in the reactor greater than one dollar ($ > $1). This puts
the reactor on a prompt period (i.e., operating on prompt neutrons
alone), and the power level increases exponentially with time with
a reactor period associated with prompt neutrons (i.e., several
milliseconds) only. As the power level rapidly increases, the fuel
temperature also increases until at some elevated fuel temperature
the prompt negative temperature coefficient of reactivity reverses
the excess reactivity and terminates the reactor pulse.
This inherent event returns the reactor back to critical state, but at a
high-power level. The continuing generation of power raises the
temperature of the fuel higher and the reactor becomes subcritical
and power level decreases to final equilibrium level. If the rate of
177
heat transfer from the fuel is adequate and fuel does not fail,
the power pulse produces approximately the same temperature
change in the fuel during the power decrease as during the
prompt power increase.
to $5.0, resulting in power peaks up to 7140 MW, integrated

energy production of 46 MW-sec (MJ) per pulse, and peak
temperatures up to about 1150 oC.
Both the TRIGA fuels and the PULSTAR fuels are designed
with these characteristics. These fuels can be used safely in the
pulsed mode of operation and are essentially invulnerable to
damage from inadvertent or accidental insertions of reasonable
values of excess reactivity. GA has demonstrated non
damaging pulses in TRIGA fuel with reactivity insertions up
The authors wish to express appreciation to the US Nuclear

Regulatory Commission for the opportunity to develop and
present this course material to the Research and Test Reactor
Regulatory Staff.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
[16] Research and Test Reactor Technology Course, HRDT Course R-106B, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, dated 2010, Washington
D.C.
[17] Title 10 of the US Code of Federal Regulations, Part 20.1101 (10CFR20.1101).
[18] Title 10 of the US Code of Federal Regulations, Part 20.1301(a)(1) (10CFR20.1301(a)(1).
[19] Title 10 of the US Code of Federal Regulations, Part 20.1601 and 1902 (10CFR20 Sections 1601 and 1902).
[20] US Nuclear Regulatory Guide 2.2. (See reference 7)
[21] Standard ANSI N401-1974 (ANS-15.6) (See reference 7).
[22] US Nuclear Regulatory Guide 2.4
178

Underground Coal Gasification (UCG): Clean

Coal Technology (CCT)
N. Islam*, N. Ul-Haq*, H. Nasir* and S. Tahir*
*
School of Chemical and Materials Engineering, NUST, Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract In this era of technology, when every nation is

striving hard to maintain their energy strategic channels
intact and find the way to explore new frontier of renewable
& sustainable energy resources, underground coal
gasification (UCG ) provides unique opportunity to meet the
future energy need. Although this UCG tech is still under
sanitization stage but still a number of countries adopting
this technology. Specially country like Pakistan, where man
created energy crisis exist, a large reserve of thar coal is
blessing in disguise and UCG is way forward to utilize this
for bright future of the country. This paper explores the
UCG basic aspect ranging from prologue to global cohort in
this field. The energy, economic and environmental
demands of the 21st century appear to support a renewed
and expanded role for commercial UCG development.
INTRODUCTION
Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) is a gasification
process applied to non-mined coal seams, using injection
and production wells drilled from the surface, which
enables the coal to be converted in situ into product gas.
In other words underground coal gasification (UCG)
converts coal in place (underground) into a gaseous
product, commonly known as synthesis gas or syngas.
The process has produced commercial quantities of gas
for both chemical processes and power generation.
During the UCG process, much as in conventional
gasification methods, an oxidant reacts with coal of the
underground coal seams, and part of released sensible
heat is used in coal drying, pyrolysis and the endothermic
reactions that reduce the combustion products. The
resulting mixture is UCG gas. The gas composition
depends on the coal geology as well as the process
parameters. It can be produced using a variety of
oxidants, including air and oxygen-rich gaseous blends.
Based on application of 1978 technology, world-wide
coal reserves corresponded to about 3.04 x 1012 bbl of oil
equivalent, with the US share of 28% of the total
exceeding that of Europe (20%), the USSR (17%), China
(16%), and other countries [1].
Scope of Underground Coal Gasification?
Pakistan is increasingly looking to its coal reserves as
a solution to its dependence on imports to fuel its
economy. Pakistan has huge Thar coal reserve which can
provide a secure domestic energy supply for electricity
production. While petroleum imports may be vulnerable
due to geopolitical uncertainties, domestic coal extraction
and usage are limited primarily by environmental
concerns. Utilizing coal in place of oil, therefore, poses
Figure1: Cartoon of UCG reactor cavity with paired vertical wells.

Reactor is below water table, preventing uncontrolled fires. Air or
O2 enters the injection well and syngas exits the production well.
Water enters from the coal and surrounding rocks. Courtesy of
ErgoExergy, Inc.
numerous challenges, including reducing the impact of

coal mining and combustion on the environment and
human health, and the need to improve technologies to
cleanly convert coal to liquid fuels or gas. The phrase
"Clean Coal" itself seems to be contradiction in terms.
When we speak of Clean Coal Technologies (CCTs) we
mean advanced coal based utilization systems that offer
Significant benefits when used for power production,
pollution control or the conversion of coal into other
alternate energy products.
UCG has numerous advantages over conventional
underground or strip mining and surface gasification,
including:
Conventional coal mining is eliminated with UCG,
reducing operating costs, surface damage and
eliminating mine safety issues such as mine collapse
and asphyxiation;
Coals that are un mineable (too deep, low grade, thin
seams) are exploitable by UCG, thereby greatly
increasing domestic resource availability;
No surface gasification systems are needed, hence,
capital costs are substantially reduced;
No coal is transported at the surface, reducing cost,
emissions, and local footprint associated with coal
shipping and stockpiling
Most of the ash in the coal stays underground, thereby
avoiding the need for excessive gas clean-up, and the
environmental issues associated with fly ash waste
stored at the surface;
There is no production of some criteria pollutants
(e.g., SOx, NOx) and many other pollutants (mercury,
179
particulates, sulfur species) are greatly reduced in

volume and easier to handle.
UCG eliminates much of the energy waste associated
with moving waste as well as usable product from the
ground to the surface;
UCG, compared to conventional mining combined
with surface combustion, produces less greenhouse gas
and has advantages for geologic carbon storage. The
well infrastructure for UCG can be used subsequently
for geologic CO2 sequestration operations. It may be
possible to store CO2 in the reactor zone underground as
well in adjacent layer.
the reaction that produces the syngas comprising H2 and

CO. However, as shown this reaction is endothermic,
and needs external heat input to proceed to any
significant extent. This heat is provided by the two
oxidation reaction, (Reactions 5 and 6). A part of the coal
is combusted by these two reactions to sustain Reaction
1. In addition, a number of side reactions also take place,
such as methane formation (Reactions 3 and 4) and the
Boudouard reaction (Reaction 7). Additional hydrogen
can be made from the syngas by Reaction 2, wherein the
available steam reacts with the CO in the syngas to
generate more H2 and CO2 begins [6].
While UCG is a proven technology, albeit only in the

initial stages of commercialization, the technologies
needed for the analogous concept of down-hole refining
in the oil industry have not yet been developed. Downhole refining, like UCG, has great potential to improve the
environmental and economic picture for fossil fuel
extraction and is a strategic long-term goal of many major
oil companies. Approaches developed and lessons learned
from UCG may help to shorten the timeline for down-hole
processing of liquid fuels [2].
(1) Heterogeneous water-gas shift reaction H = +118.5

kJ mol-1
FUNDAMENTALS OF COAL GASIFICATION

All coal gasification processes, including underground
coal gasification, involve the following basic chemical
reaction:
Coal + Heat
Char + Tar + Water + Gases
(I)
This pyrolysis reaction proceeds rapidly, requiring

relatively modest amounts of heat. The gases produced
include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane (desired
species) and carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
(undesired species). Solid particles often are entrained in
the product gases and brought to the surface where they
must be filtered out. Char, the principal carbonaceous
product of coal pyrolysis, is a hydrocarbon with a
hydrogen-carbon atomic ratio of 0.1 to 0.4, depending on
the temperature and which the pyrolysis takes place. The
char is formed by the heat generated from the burning of
the coal with injected oxygen. In the more detailed
reactions shown below, we have substituted carbon for the
char to show simple stoichiometric and exact heats of
reaction, even though char (not carbon) is the actual
reactant. There are two oxidation reactions involved, both
of which are fast and liberate considerable energy:
C + O2
CO 2 + 393.5 kj / mol
C + 1 O2
CO + 110.5 kj / mol
2
(II)
(III)
The overall chemistry underlying coal gasification

processes is well understood from reaction 1 to 7 &
summarizes the important overall reactions participating
in the coal gasification process. The most important
reaction is the gasification reaction (Reaction 1). This is
C + H 2O
H 2 + CO
(2) Shift conversion H = -42.3 kJ mol-1

CO + H 2 O
H 2 + CO 2
(3) Methanation H = -206.0 kJ mol-1

CO + 3H 2
CH 4 + H 2 O
(4) Hydrogenating gasification H = -87.5 kJ mol-1

C + 2H 2
CH 4
(5) Partial oxidation H = -123.1 kJ mol-1

C + 1 O2
CO
2
(6) Oxidation H = -406.0 kJ mol-1
C + O2
CO 2
(7) Boudouard reaction H = +159.9 kJ mol-1

C + CO 2
2CO [2]
UCG Process
Gasification is a chemical process for converting a
solid or liquid fuel into a combustible gas that
subsequently can be used to produce heat, generate power
or as a feedstock for chemical products such as hydrogen,
methanol or synthetic natural gas. Hundreds of surface
gasification plants have been constructed. More than 160
coal gasification plants worldwide are in operation,
producing the equivalent of 50,000 MW (thermal) of
syngas. UCG may safely operate under many different
conditions and ranks of coal. However, in
the near term, environmental concerns prompt
consideration of site characteristics well before burn
initiation:
Potential sites must meet minimal requirements
(Table1)
Stratigraphic and structural characterization is
needed to satisfy information requirements for rapid
qualitative risk protocols;
Preferred consideration should be given for sites
deeper than 200 m;
Preferred consideration should be given for sites with
strong or rigid overlying strata;
Downgraded consideration should be given to sites
where the coal seams or surrounding strata act as
180
aquifers that may be Underground source(s) of

drinking water (USDWs);
Downgraded consideration should be given to heavily
deformed structures or steeply dipping seams.
In particular, the first two points are most critical to
determining the likely commercial,technical, and
operational success of operations. Several of the other
concerns could be rapidly tested and altered in
characterization (e.g., steeply dipping seams). However,
these sites would also be sites of higher initial risk, and
some mitigating factor should be investigated to offset
that initial increase in risk. As of today, there are several
different approaches to initiating UCG (e.g., UCG, CRIP
(Controlled Retraction Injection Point)), open mine
initiation). Given the literature as it stands, it is not clear
which technologies are best suited to initiation of burns or
UCG management. Because burn initiation is critically
dependent on establishing atmospheric connection
between injection and production wells, choice of
technology will depend greatly on the permeability and
transmissivity of the coals themselves. Again, this places
a premium on site characterization before project testing .
UGC Technology World Wide
1. Russian technology base on Vertical wells
coupled generally with air pressurization to open up an
internal pathway .It is suitable for young coal only.
2 Chinese technology base on Man-built galleries in
the coal seam as the gasification channels and.
Boreholes are constructed to communicate with the
surface
3. European technology base on Create dedicated
inseam boreholes, using drilling and completion
technology, adapted from oil and gas Production. It
uses CRIP and O2.
The UCG is a clean coal technology
The UCG is a fossil fuel technology, and as such must
address concerns over global warming. It does so in the
TABLE 1:
MINIMAL REQUIREMENTS FOR UCG
Type
Requirements
Coal Ranks
Bituminous or lower
ranks
Coal seam
thickness
>0.5m thick
Seam depth
Site access
Water table
Water
composition
12 m
Must have broad
drilling and
monitoring access
Must be lower than
water table
Should not be source
of local drinking
water
Recommended
May have
difficulties with
high ranked
bituminous coals
Best performance
above 1.5 m
thickness
Deeper than 150 m
----Best if not potable
water i.e. TDS >
1,000 ppm
following ways:
The raw UCG gas contains CO2 in concentrations that
vary depending on process conditions and the choice of
oxidant. The gas is produced under pressure and at a
moderate temperature, and easily lends itself to CO2
removal by a range of standard methods, with low energy
penalty and at a relatively low cost.
So captured and removed, CO2 can be permanently
stored (or sequestered) in the underground storage zones
created by coal extraction in the UCG (Ergo-Exergy
UCG) operations. The energy penalty and relative cost of
CO2 re-compression and sequestering are comparatively
low. Along with that, CO2 can be injected into deep
saline aquifers and deeper coal seams as well as used for
enhanced recovery of oil, natural gas and CBM (Coal
Bed Methane).
As in conventional IGCC (Integrated Gasification
combined cycle), UCG gas can be used to generate
electricity with a power island efficiency as high as 55%,
and with the overall efficiency of UCG-IGCC process
reaching 43%. These efficiencies translate into very low
rates of greenhouse emissions per unit of net power
generated.
In chemical manufacturing processes such as FischerTropsch syntheses and production of synthetic methane
or fertilizers, CO2 removal is a routine unit operation.
Permanent storage of CO2 in the UCG-created permeable
zones and the other sinks will significantly greenhouse
emissions of the overall process, from the initial coal
conversion right through to the end product.
The UCG process is designed and tested to prevent or
minimize the other, more traditional environmental
impacts on air, soil and water (including surface streams
and groundwater). The process is conducted in such a
way that gasification pressure in the gasifier is always
slightly less than the hydrostatic pressure of fluid in the
coal seam and surrounding strata. This creates a pressure
gradient directed towards the gasifier. As a result, no flow
from the gasifier into the surroundings is allowed, thereby
preventing both the loss of valuable product and
contamination of the underground environment. The
thorough characterization of existing aquifers in the
vicinity of the underground gasifier and careful
monitoring of the hydrostatic pressure in the aquifers
during operations, form an integral part of the UCG
groundwater protection strategy.
The UCG is an environmentally-friendly and energyefficient technology for producing competitively-priced
gaseous fuel for power generation and chemical
processing. The non-conventional environmentally safe
technologies of coal bed tapping and coal burning include
first of all the underground coal gasification (UCG).
Under the UCG method coal in situ is transformed into
gaseous combustible energy, it is achieved by supplying
(via system of injection wells) an oxidizer to the red hot
coal surface and discharging produced gas (via other well
systems). The UCG is the only coal gasification
technology which is both completely clean and costcompetitive with oil, gas, and conventional coal. The
process has produced commercial quantities of gas for
181
chemical processes and power generation. The gas has

been used for co-firing with pulverized coal in coal-fired
boilers, and can be used in modern gas turbines with
minimal modifications to the combustion system.
Chemical processing of the UCG product gas can
result in its catalytic conversion to methane, distillate
liquid fuels and hydrogen - the fuels of choice for
existing and emerging power generation technologies.
The low capital and operating costs of underground coal
gasification lead to low-cost fuels for power generation,
transportation and other applications. These fuels can be
produced at locations where other sources of energy are
not available or viable, since UCG can extract coal
energy in conditions which render conventional mining
unfeasible, be it for technical, environmental, or
economic reasons [3 5].
Key Advantages of UCG
The specific benefits of operating a large UCG
underground gasifier include the following:
A practically unlimited supply of coal will be
available for gasification; no external coal and water
supply is required to sustain the reaction.
The UCG process creates an immense
underground gas and heat storage capacity, making the
gas supply very stable and robust.
An underground gasifier comprises a number of
underground reactors with largely independent outputs.
The gas streams from different reactors can be mixed
as required, to ensure consistency of overall gas
quality. The outputs of reactors can also be varied, in
order to optimize coal extraction and overall gas output
from the gasifier.
No ash or slag removal and handling are
necessary, since inert material predominantly remains
in the underground cavities.
Ground water influx into the gasifier creates an
effective "steam jacket" around the reactor, making the
heat loss in situ tolerably small.
Optimal pressure in the underground gasifier
promotes groundwater flow into the cavity, thus
confining the chemical process to the boundaries of the
gasifier and preventing contamination of the
underground environment.
A 300% to 400% increase in recoverable coal
reserves is possible by using coals that are unmineable
(too deep, low grade, thin seams);
No conventional gasification facilities are needed;
hence, capital costs are substantially reduced;
UCG with CCS appears cost-competitive with
other coal-based technologies (e.g. super critical
combustion, IGCC) without CCS;
Conventional coal mining is not a part of UCG
facilities, reducing operating costs and surface impacts,
as well as eliminating mine safety issues;
No coal is transported at the surface, reducing cost,
emissions, freight congestion, and facility footprint
associated with coal storage and shipping;
Most of the ash in the coal stays underground,

thereby avoiding the need for additional syngas cleanup, and the environmental issues associated with ash
storage;
There is no production of some criteria pollutants
(e.g., SO2, NOx) ,and many other pollutants (mercury,
particulates, sulfur species) are greatly reduced in
volume and easier to handle; and
Commercial UCG applications use substantially
less water than conventional gasification technologies
UCG is coal gasification without Gasifiers [7].
Limitations/Concerns of UCG
Even though UCG has a number of advantages, the
technology has several limitations and potential
concerns:
Siting and operation of UCG have environmental
consequences, including groundwater impacts and
ground subsidence. Current knowledge and practice
can eliminate or reduce these environmental risks.
While UCG may be technically feasible for many
coal resources, a number of deep seams may be limited
by geologic and hydrologic hazards.
UCG operations cannot be controlled to the same
extent as conventional gasifiers. Many important
process variables, such as the rate of water influx, the
distribution of reactants in the gasification zone, and
the growth rate of the cavity, can only be estimated
from measurements of temperatures and product
quality and quantity.
While UCG economics appear promising,
uncertainties in capital and operating costs are likely to
persist until such time as a reasonable number of UCGbased power plants are built and operated.
UCG is not a steady-state process, and both the
flow rate and the heating value of the syngas will vary
over time.
Multiple gasifiers may be required to supply fuel to an
industrial consumer; the exact number will depend on the
size of the fuel supply required and the precise geology of
the coal deposit targeted.The UCG process is not only a
method of coal conversion; it is a method of extracting
coal from the underground beds - for all intents and
purposes, a mining technique. There are many similarities
between UCG and underground mining: for example,
UCG is concerned with typical mining issues such as
coal extraction efficiency, roof stability and groundwater
influx. As a coal recovery method, UCG supplements
traditional mining often utilizing coal seams that are
impossible or uneconomical to mine using conventional
methods. There are UCG equivalents of conventional
underground mining methods including long-wall, shortwall, and bord-and-pillar methods. A successful UCG
operation factors in roof collapse and overburden
deformation as necessary technology attributes [7].
182
Conclusions
There are many ways that carbon containing compounds may be gasified, coal gasification occurs best in
entrained flow reactors such as the Texaco gasifier. The coal will not heat up as much and will not create methane
and tar. The requirement for fine particles into the gasifier prevents agglomeration
Underground coal gasification technology is present and used today but with certain challenges, water
contamination, impact on environment and land, Potential benefits are many. Syngas used in combined cycle energy
production
Hydrogen fuel cell use for energy production and transportation purposes. Methane and hydrogen have
applications in the chemical industry where they can be used.
Gasification is first step in coal liquefaction process. Coal gasification could reduce dependence on foreign oil
CO2 sequestration
References
[11] S.S. Penner, Coal Gasification: Direct Applications and Syntheses of Chemicals and Fuels Center for Energy and Combustion Research and
Department of Applied Mechanics and Engineering Sciences University of California, San Diego LaJolla, CA 92093 Report # UCRL DOWER0326 Dist. Category UC-109, 49 p.
[12] Burton E, SJ Friedmann, RA Upadhye, in press, Best Practices in Underground Coal Gasification, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Report # UCRL-TR-225331-DRAFT, 119 p.
[13] C. Lowell Miller, Ph.D.The Clean Coal Initiative: An Appropriate Response to Complex Environmental Issues Office of Clean Coal
Technology Office of Fossil Energy U.S. Department of Energy. Proceedings of the Sixteenth Biennial Low-Rank Fuels Symposium
[14] M.G. Berengarten and A.G. Evstifeev Management of environment-friendly coal technologies Experience of developing clean coal
technologies. Drawn from materials of international summer schools Moscow, 1998. 170 pages.
[15] Creedy DP, K Garner, 2004, Clean Energy from Underground Coal Gasification in China, DTI Cleaner Coal Technology Transfer Programme,
Report No. COAL R250 DTI/Pub URN 03/1611, February 2004
[16] Large-Block Experiments in Underground Coal Gasification Energy and Technology Review Lawrena; Livormoru National Laboratory
November 1982 Report # UCRL 52000-82-11 DES3 003802
[17] The national coal council, inc U.S. energy Deptt. Report # 2000-82-11 DES3 0038.
183

Unified Force and its Relation with Global Warming Crave for
Hydrogen Energy and Promote Fuel Cell Technology
Kannan Jegathala Krishnan and Akhtar Kalam
School of Engineering and Science
Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science
Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
{kannan.jegathalakrishnan@live.vu.edu.au, akhtar.kalam@vu.edu.au}
Abstract:
Global warming is presently a tremendous

public interest and has become a threat to every individual.
Huge quantities of CO2 are emitted to the atmosphere by
burning of fossil fuels to produce electricity in power
plants and burning of gasoline in aeroplanes and vehicles.
Enormous amount of greenhouse gasses are sent into the
air when garbage is burnt in landfills. Cutting down of trees
and other plants which collect CO2 a greenhouse gas which
is inhaled and which gives back oxygen which is exhaled
makes global warming worse. Self-Compressive
Surrounding Pressure Force which is also known as
Unified Force is also related with global warming which is
proportional to increase of H2O level in sea and causes
floods, storms, droughts and severe impacts to the
environment and society. In order to better understand
global warming and its relation with Unified Force, this
paper discusses the cause and effect system on the amount
of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere from the
burning of fossil fuels and also the other green house gases
like CH4, water vapour, NOX etc. and emphasis its
importance to focus on crave for Hydrogen Energy and to
promote Fuel Cell technology to keep the earth green and
safer from the impacts of global warming. The benefit of
switching from fossil fuels to Hydrogen Energy and Fuel
Cell technology reduces the impact of global warming,
elimination of pollution caused by fossil fuels and
greenhouse gases, economic dependence and distributed
production.
Key words: Self-Compressive Surrounding Pressure Force
or Unified Force, global warming, greenhouse effect,
hydrogen, fossil fuels, Fuel Cell.
II. GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBALWARMING

Earths atmosphere consists of primary greenhouse gases
like water vapour, CO2, CH4, NOX and other minor gases
that absorb and emit infrared radiations. These radiations
keep earths climate warm and habitable and act like a
I.
INTRODUCTION
A topic on many peoples mind now is global

warming right from school students, advanced researchers,
business leaders to politicians. It is now the right time to
remember great personalities and their concepts to know
more about global warming and its impacts [1].
Newtons concepts of space, time, matter, and
energy the four independent qualities described his great
success in discovery of the gravitational force and the
limitations of his model in the absence of gravitational
repulsive force puzzled Newton and this was clearly seen
when he said I am like a child playing on the shore with
pebbles and shells while the ocean lies before me [1].
The limitations of Newtons model made Einstein
to replace that space, time, matter and energy are no longer
independent quantities and Einstein says gravitational
force arises out of the interaction between two masses and
the surrounding space which was different from Newtons
visualization that the gravitational force arises between
any two material particles by virtue of their masses. Even
Einstein was not having sufficient basis to support
gravitational repulsive force in his model and he says, In
my field equation the left hand side is of fine marble but
the right hand side is of perishable wood [1].
In this present century, in Vethathiris model
Space is provided with great importance which is holding
the whole Universe and he called the Space as Unified
Force or Self-Compressive Surrounding Pressure
Force[1]. In this paper, Space so called Unified Force
or Self-Compressive Surrounding Pressure Force and its
relation with the global warming and its impact, crave for
Hydrogen Energy and to promote Fuel Cell Technology
and also the benefits of switching from fossil fuels to
Hydrogen Energy is explained in detail [1].
blanket to the earth which is known as natural
greenhouse effect [4]. However, since industrial
revolution more greenhouse gas is being emitted into the
atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and other different
sources known as man-made greenhouse effect which is
shown in Table 1 [4]. These greenhouse gases which are
184
emiitted from fosssil fuels andd other differeent sources trrap

morre heat insidee the atmosphhere causing the
t blanket of
gases around thee earth to becoome thicker and
a thicker. Thhis
u slowly byy increasing its
cauuses the earthh to warm up
aveerage temperatture near surfface-areas andd ocean whichh is
knoown as global warming. [5] Global warming
w
makkes
the sea level to
t rise causiing several impacts to the
t
a
envvironment. Deeforestation likke cutting down of trees and
other plants whicch collects CO
O2 and releasses O2 as show
wn
F
1 and buurning of garbbage in landfillls makes globbal
in Fig.
warrming worse. The greenhouuse emission of deforestatiion
andd its percentagge is shown below
b
in Tablle 1. Since huuge
quaantities of CO
O2 are emittedd from the buurning of fosssil
fuells, it is impoortant to know
w how much are being ussed
withh respect to gllobal warmingg.
Fig. 2 shows that w

world-wide usees around 80%
% of
en
nergy from foossil fuels. A
According to the predictionn of
en
nergy consum
mption worldw
wide from both
b
International
En
nergy Agencyy (IEA) and American En
nergy Informaation
Administration the energy consumption will continue to
ncrease 2% per year whicch means eneergy consumpption
in
will be doubleed every 35 yyears [3]. Do
oubling of eneergy
co
onsumption leeads to enorm
mous amount of
o CO2 emisssions
to
o the atmospheere as shown in Fig. 3, by burning of foossil
fu
uels to produce electricity bby power plan
nts and burninng of
gaasoline in aeeroplanes andd vehicles. As a result the
grreenhouse gases trap morre heat and make
m
the earrths
temperature to increase
i
furthher.
TABL
LE 1: TEN SOUR
RCES OF GREE
EN HOUSE GASE
ES [2]
S. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Sourcee
Pow
wer Plants
Cem
ment Productioon
Roaad Transport
Ironn & Steel Mannufacture
Defforestation
Oil & Gas Producction
Garrbage
Liveestock
Ferttilizers
Aviiation
Green House
H
Gas
Carbon dioxidde
C
C
Carbon
dioxidde
C
Carbon
dioxidde
C
Carbon
dioxidde
C
Carbon
dioxidde, Methane
C
Carbon
dioxidde, Methane
C
Carbon
dioxidde, Methane
M
Methane
N
Nitrous
Oxidee
C
Carbon
dioxidde, Water Vap
pour, Nitrous oxide,
o
Aerosools
Fig. 1 Plantss collects CO2 andd gives O2 [9]
When the
t temperatuure increases the
t level of the
t
sea H2O also inccreases and coontinued globbal warming can
c
mellt polar ice annd snow resuulting in a furrther increase of
watter level cauusing several environmenttal impacts [6].
[
Uniified Force orr Self-Comprressive Surrouunding Pressuure
Forrce is proporrtional to the increase of H2O level in sea
s
whiich is explaiined in Sectiion 4 which causes floods,
storrms and severral impacts. The
T relation beetween the SeelfCom
mpressive Suurrounding Preessure Force with the globbal
warrming impactts emphasise its importancce and crave to
Globall Green Housse

Emission
E
25%
4%
13%
3.2%
20 %
6.3%
3%
5.1%
6%
3.5%
Fig. 2 Fosssils fuels in % of total energy conssumed [3]
ocus on Hydrrogen Energyy as an alterrnative sourcee of

fo
en
nergy and to promote
p
Fuel C
Cell technolog
gy.
MPACTS OF G
GLOBAL WA
ARMING
III. IM
will have seriious impacts like
Globall warming w
ex
xtreme weatheer events, riskk of climate change
c
and major
m
irrreversible eveents, ecosystem
ms, H2O and food as show
wn in
Fiig. 5 [10]. Gloobal warmingg will also afffect human heealth
lik
ke increased breathing
b
prooblems in sum
mmer and mallaria
185
mosquito in the regions wheree it is currenttly cold [11]. To

mpacts the em
mission of CO
C 2
reduuce the globaal warming im
from
m fossil fuels must be reduuced from bothh developed and
a
devveloping counntries. The deeveloped couuntries of North
Am
merica and Euurope have prroduced lions share of CO
C 2
andd they have too take more measures
m
towarrds switchingg to
Hyddrogen Energyy and promotte Fuel Cell teechnology. Eaarly
actiions of switcching to Hydrrogen Energyy and Fuel Cell
C
technology favvours employm

ment growth, lower electriicity
prrice, econom
mic impact w
will be modeest, reductionn in
grreenhouse gass emissions can be achieveed. Delay acttions
will lead to disrruptive shockk [10] like busshfire in Austrralia
in
n summer 20009 as shown iin Fig. 4 [8]. Unified forcce or
Seelf-Compressiive Surroundding Pressuree Force andd its
reelation with global warminng and its imp
pacts is explained
th
he subsequent section.
Fig. 5 Global Warminng Impacts [10]
Fig. 4 Bush Fire in Australia [8]
IV. UNIFIED
D FORCE OR
R SELF-COM
MPRESSIVE
SURROUND
DING PRESS
SURE FORCE
E AND ITS
RELATIION WITH GLOBAL
G
WAR
RMING
Milllions of planeets are existingg in the univerrse as shown in
i
Figg. 6 and movinng in the rhythhmic and preciise manner. On
O
the space all the planets
p
are flooating and weight of each
plannet may be off incalculable in
i tons. Thereefore it is veryy
cleaar that space is supporting the
t whole univverse [12]. Thhe
masss of the planeet earth is appproximately eqqual to (6E+244)
kiloograms whichh are
[7]
derived from gravitattional attractioon that the eaarth
has for objects near
n
it [13]. About
A
71% off earth surfacee is
covvered with sallt water oceanns and remainning consists of
conntinents and isslands [14]. Itt is also simplle to understaand
thatt H2O, islandss and continennts which consstitutes the eaarth
together is floating in spaace which means
m
a Seelfi
startinng from coasstal
increasee in global impacts
flooods, ocean currrents etc.
N ENERGY (CRAVE
(
FOR
R HYDROGEN
N
V. HYDROGEN
ENER
RGY)
Co
ompressive Surrounding
S
P
Pressure Forcee is holding H2O,
isllands and coontinents in thhe space; thiis force is caalled
Unified Force or Self-Com
mpressive Surrrounding Presssure
orce. Due to
t emission of greenhou
use gases in the
Fo
attmosphere likke CO2 from the burning of fossil fuells in
po
ower plants, burning off gasoline in
i vehicles and
aeeroplanes and other greenhoouse gases wh
hich traps the suns
s
heeat and light and
a rises the teemperature off the earth [15]].
As a result
r
of contiinued global warming
w
the H2O
level in the seaa increases, annd can potenttially melt thee ice
nd snow, caussing again a rrise of H20 lev
vel in the sea [6].
an
When
W
the levell of the H2O increases the Unified Forcce or
Seelf-Compressiive Surroundinng Pressure Force which exxerts
fo
orce equally arround 360 deggrees on the earth tends to push
p
th
he H2O towarrds the islannd and contin
nent, resultingg in
co
oastal floodinng and H2O intrusion which
w
can caause
ch
hanges in wind
w
and occean currentts, reducing the
av
vailability of irrigation H2O and otheer environmeental
im
mpacts. This way the U
Unified Forcce or the SelfS
Co
ompressive Surrounding
S
P
Pressure Forcee is related too the
gllobal warmingg and is propoortional to the rise of H2O level
l
in
n the sea whiich means inncrease in H2O level tendds to
There is a crave forr Hydrogen En
nergy since foossil
uels contributee large amouunt of greenho
ouse gases which
fu
reesults in globaal warming annd cause environmental imppacts
in
n relation witth the Unifieed Force or Self-Compres
S
ssive
Su
urrounding Prressure Forcee and the red
duced reliancee on
dw
windling reserrves of oil andd gas. H2 as shown
s
in Fig. 7 is
186
the simplest, ulttimate clean energy carrieer and plentiful

ment in the unniverse that has
h the highestt energy conteent
elem
per unit of weighht of any fuel.. When Fuel Cell
C systems are
a
t
fuelled by pure H2 and O2/airr to create eleectric power the
by-product is heat and H2O and no carbon bassed
i
the atmossphere [18].
greenhouse gasess are emitted into
H2 can be
b produced from
fr
diverse array
a
of potenttial
t most com
mmon and besst H2 productiion
feedd stock and the
pathhways are described
d
in Table 2. Otther productiion
pathhways under research couuld be comm
mercially viabble
lateer which includes phhoto electroolysis, therm
mal
deccomposition of
o water, photto biological production and
a
plassmatron [19]. Researchers at Massachussetts Institute of
Tecchnology (MIIT) are usingg solar energgy and a virrus
Fig. 6 The Univverse [16]
naamed M13 too split H2O innto H2 and O2 which couldd be

ussed to fuel carrs. Artificial pphotosynthesiss splitting of H2O
ussing algae, baacteria or harrmless virusess is an imporrtant
em
merging field right now andd its a matterr of time factoor to
prroduce large scale to becoome commerccially viable [20].
[
Hydrogen econnomy represennts a vision sttrategy; howeever,
wo barriers must
m
to overcome to mak
ke the hydroogen
tw
ecconomy a reality.
r
The infrastructure that provvides
seeamless transiitions from pproduction, sttorage, utilisaation
an
nd distributionn must be connected whiich make up the
hy
ydrogen econnomy is the first barrier and the seccond
baarrier is the deemonstration in the markett place that thee H2
ass an energy carrier is ecconomically competitive
c
[
[21].
daamage of thhe entire carr whereas H2 flame vennted
veertically and did
d not damage the rest of th
he vehicle [188].
To ovvercome thee environmen
ntal impacts an
in
nnovative ressearch aimedd at makin
ng revolutionnary
ad
dvances in low
wering the coost, increasing
g the performaance
off the hydrogenn economy and its reliability
y is required [21].
[
Once H2 is madde economically viable then
n large amounnt of
mosphere willl be
grreenhouse gaases emitted to the atm
reeduced drastiically, resultting in erad
dication of the
en
nvironmental impacts
i
from global warmiing, so there is
i no
risse of the H2O level in thhe sea as a reesult the infrrared
raadiations keep the earths suurface warm, safe
s and habittable
an
nd also there is
i no negative impact from the Unified Force
orr Self-Compreessive Surrounnding Pressuree Force.
Until the hydrogenn economy beecomes econoomic
an
nd viable, the temporary sollution to reducce the greenhoouse
efffect would bee Carbon sequuestration. Carrbon sequestraation
is the process used
u
to capturre the CO2 and
d store it for long
l
me. The diffferent methodds include so
oil, plant, occean,
tim
mineral
m
and geo sequestratioon by enhanciing the storagge of
caarbon in soil,, forests, oceean, by chem
mical reaction and
un
nder the grounnds [22]. By uusing the Carrbon sequestraation
method
m
tempoorarily globaal warming impacts can be
reeduced if it is viable annd cost effective methodd to
im
mplement.
VI.
V FUEL CEL
LL TECHNOL
LOGY (TO PR
ROMOTE FU
UEL
CELL TEC
CHNOLOGY))
Figg. 7 Hydrogen atoms in methane [117]
The Unniversity of Miami

M
and BMW
B
undertoook
sevveral tests and found safety of
o the H2 fuel to be sufficieent.
Botth H2 and gasoline cars, set fire in its test by the
t
Uniiversity of Miami,
M
the gaasoline fire resulted
r
in tootal
The need
n
has arrisen to pro
omote Fuel Cell
technology beccause the prim
mary goal off the fuel cell is
po
ollution reducction and it also solves the international
prroblems like global
g
warminng and oil dep
pendency. A Fuel
F
Ceell is an ellectrochemicaal energy co
onversion deevice
prroduces electrricity in the pprocess of con
nverting chem
mical
H2 and O2 intoo H2O [24]. T
There are seveeral types of Fuel
F
Ceells mainly cllassified by thheir operating
g temperature and
th
he type of elecctrolyte they uuse namely Polymer Exchaange
Membrane
M
Fueel Cell (PEM
MFC), Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
(S
SOFC), Alkaliine Fuel Cell (AFC), Molteen Carbonate Fuel
F
Ceell (MCFC), Phosphoric-acid Fuel Celll (PAFC), Dirrectmethanol
m
Fuel Cell and few more. Some types
t
are usedd for
staationary poweer generation plants like SOFC
S
and MC
CFC
187
because they are best suited for large scale power

generations that could provide electricity for towns and
industries. The most likely candidate for transportation
applications is Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC) because they have high power density ratio and
low operating temperature as shown in Fig. 8 [23] and also
T-1000 1.2kW PEM Fuel Cell is shown in Fig. 9 [27]. The
electrochemical process in Fuel Cell is complete and yields
a clean exhaust but in petrol engine the oxidation of fuel is
incomplete. But in respect with mechanical means of
electrical power generation Fuel Cell promises to be more
efficient, clean in operation, reliable and freedom from
maintenance, quiet or silent operation because it is having
few, possibly no, moving parts [24]. Even though Fuel
Crude Oil
Coal
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Solar
Hydro
Wind
Wave
Geothermal
Wood
Cells might be the best answer for global warming and oil
dependency few major issues like cost, durability,
hydration, delivery, infrastructure, storage and other
considerations must be sort out. For the Fuel Cell to
become a practical alternative method of energy production
there is a lot more work to be done by scientists and
manufactures. But still, in a couple of decades the goal to
have a viable Fuel Cell technology based energy system
may be reality [25].
The Fuel Cell technology with Hydrogen Energy
will keep the earth safe and habitable and create a good
relation with Unified Force or Self-Compressive
Surrounding Pressure Force and eradicate global warming.
Reformer
Reformer
Reformer
Power Plant
Generator
Generator
Generator
Generator
Power Plant
Hydrogen
Electrolyte
Reformer
Organic Waste
Reformer
Biomass
Reformer
TABLE 2: HYDROGEN PRODUCTION PATHWAYS [19]
188
VIII. BENEFITS OF SWTCHIING FROM FOSSIL

F
FUEL
LS
TO HYDROGEN
N ENERGY
Thee Hydrogen Eneergy promises to
t eliminate thee problems creaated
by the
t fossil Fuels.. The benefits of
o switching to Hydrogen Enerrgy
are the eliminatioon of pollutioon and greenhhouse gases, the
elim
mination of econnomic dependeence and distribbuted productioons.
When the H2 comees from electrollysis of H2 andd used in Fuel Cell
C
to create
c
power thee by-product is only heat and H2O. The H2 also
a
adds no greenhouuse gases to thhe atmosphere.. As a result the
probblems caused by
b fossil fuelss like pollutionn and greenhouuse
gasees are eliminatted. If Hydroggen Energy is used for electtric
pow
wer generation in power plannts, as fuels in automobiles and
a
induustries then we dont have to depend
d
on Midddle East and its oil
reseerves, this meanns the eliminatiion of economiic dependence. H2
can also be prodduced anywherre when electrricity and H20 is
avaiilable and also in our homes with
w relatively simple
s
technoloogy
and therefore distriibuted productiion is viable in Hydrogen Enerrgy
but not in fossil fueels [26].
For instaance, if we connsider US whichh is the largest oil
impporter in the woorld which impports 13.5 milliion barrel per day
d
(mbbd) and about 20.6
2
mbd is useed in daily whicch accounts about
65%
% for oil importted in daily bassis. US importss 17 percent of oil
from
m Middle Eastt and this deppendence is sttill growing. The
T
grow
wing dependence of oil has beecome a Nationnal Security Thrreat
and government beelieves the counntry will imporrt 68 percent off oil
by 2025
2
[28]. US by
b using fossil fuels
f
it eliminattes more pollution
and greenhouse gaases which leadds to environmeental impact. And
A
d
upon M
Middle East fo
or oil; this situaation
alsso, it mainly depends
afffects the countrries economic hhealth. Presently US require more
m
creativity and gennuine effort, sw
witching toward
ds Hydrogen Ennergy
an
nd promoting Fuel Cell technology and make viable for
distributed produuction in its home [26]. This applies for moost of
the countries whhich depend on fossil fuels to produce electrricity
in power plants and use as fueel for automob
biles and industtries,
no
ow it is time too switch to Hyydrogen Energy
y and promote Fuel
Ceell technology to
t avoid the imppact of global warming.
w
VIII. CON
NCLUSION
The toppics, dealt with this paper are of great importtance
in reducing globaal warming andd its impacts which
w
is related with
the Unified Forcee. Though Carbbon Sequestratiion can solve gllobal
nergy and Fuel Cell
waarming impactss to some extennt, Hydrogen En
tecchnology will keep the earth green, safer and eradicate gllobal
waarming because it is a cleann energy carrieer. Researchers and
scientists shouldd put genuine effort, creativ
vity and focuss on
Hy
ydrogen Energgy and Fuel Ceell technology by the supporrt of
manufacturers, politicians
p
and governments to make it reeality
m be, it cannoot be
eaarlier. Howeverr a recent and ffine a theory may
the final one, and there is alwaays room for fu
urther developm
ment,
nd as Bertrannd Russell in his lecture on
n Cosmology says
an
E
Every theory is
i sense primiitive and cann
not explain alll the
ex
xperimental obsservations.
F 7 PEM Fuel Cell

Fig
C [23]
Fig. 9 T-1000 11.2kW PEM Fuel cell [27]
Fig. 10 Interrnational Petroleuum (Oil) Exports and Imports [28]]
189
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190

2D Forward Modelling of Marine CSEM Survey Geometry for

Seabed Logging
Nazabat Hussain, Muhammad Noh and Norashikin Bt Yahya
Automation and Control System Group, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS.
Bander Seri Iskander, 31750 Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
Email: nazabat@hotmail.com1, nohka@petronas.com.my2, norashikin_yahya@petronas.com.my
Abstract Hydrocarbon reserve exploration in deep water is done
by geophysical surveys. Previously seismic geophysical surveys
were explicitly used but it has indistinct results for both water and
hydrocarbon saturated reservoir. Recent development for the
detection of hydrocarbon reservoir in deeper water is Marine
Controlled Source Electromagnetic (MCSEM) geophysical survey.
MCSEM is sensitive to electrical conductivity of rocks by which it
can differentiate between hydrocarbon reservoir and water saturated
reservoir. MCSEM survey geometry put vital role and may causes
for anomalies in synthetic data. Consequentially MCSEM is sensitive
to survey geometry (e.g. source dipping, rotation and speed,
receivers orientation etc) which causes anomalies. The interpretation
for delineating subsurface structure from survey data need to well
understand the effects of survey geometry anomalies. Forward
modelling is an alternative rather real time survey to study the
aforementioned anomalies. In this paper finite difference method
(FDM) is implemented for 2D forward modelling in the sense of
qualitative understanding to how induced Electromagnetic (EM)
signal changes its overall pattern while interact with physical earth
properties. A stratified earth structure is developed and modelled in
MatLabTM software to study the behaviour of EM field with physical
earth properties. Obtained results of 2D geological models are also
discussed in this paper.
KEYWORDS
Forward modelling, MCSEM, Seabed logging, EM
exploration, Skin depth
I. INTRODUCTION
Over the past few decades, hydrocarbon reservoir
exploration extended from the continents to deep sea water
because most part of the terrain is already explored.

Geophysical surveys are used to investigate about interior
spatial distribution of earth physical properties. Previously
seismic geophysical surveys are pervasively used method
for onshore and offshore hydrocarbon exploration. In deep
sea seismic surveys have ambiguous results to discriminate
between water and hydrocarbon saturated reservoir. In EM
exploration method, it is sensitive to the electrical
conductivity of earth rocks and can find hydrocarbon
saturated reservoir directly [1].
The geophysical surveys are may be classified into
active and passive. In active geophysical surveys a man
made source is used to for the earth properties investigation.
The passive surveys used to study naturally occurring fields
i.e. magneto-telluric and gravity field. MCSEM is an active
geophysical survey and it was previously used for the study
of lithosphere, oceanic basins and crust. In year 2001 a
technique sea bed logging as an application of MCSEM was
developed for delineating the hidden properties of subsea
surface. The imperative objective of seabed logging is to
find hydrocarbons reservoir. In MCSEM method a towed
Horizontal Electric Dipole (HED) with transport vessel is
moved above sea floor as EM source. The arrays of
receivers (EM recorders) are positioned on seafloor whereas
mobile source radiate EM energy both towards subsea
surface and water column. Induced EM signal will reflect
back and received by EM recorders. The complete scenario
of MCSEM is illustrated in Figure 1.
In MCSEM survey the measurements are done by using
the frequency range in the band of 0.01Hz to 10Hz for the
depth of investigation from some meters to several
kilometres. The mobile HED source height from the
seafloor is less than that of the skin depth [2]. The survey
data is conducted by several source receiver positions. In
MCSEM survey source receiver geometry is classified into
inline and broadside survey geometry. The MCSEM surveys
are prepared with both survey geometries in the term of
accuracy. In Figure 2 the inline survey geometry have can
be defined as HED have 00 with the array of receivers where
as broadside have 900.
Figure 1- Survey Geometry of MCSEM for the application if

seabed logging. The EM recorders are placed on seafloor
whereas EM source is towed with transport vessel to radiate
EM energy both into water column and subsea surface.
191

Figure 2- Geometry of source and receiver array
orientation.
In MCSEM surveys, the most critical factor is survey

geometry. Survey geometry involves transmitter receiver
exact position and orientation. In MCSEM forward
modelling is used for qualitative understanding of EM signal
with the physical properties of the earth and survey
geometry. In geophysical surveys the numerical forward
modelling is done by first constructing horizontal layers in
the term of geological structure with electrical properties of
each layer and then applied numerical formulation to create
artificial geophysical data. The process of constructing
geophysical structure from the field measurement of
MCSEM survey is called reverse modelling or inversion.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
More than 70 % part of the earth is covered with oceans
and explored hydrocarbon reserves are only from
comparatively shallow continentals shelf. The enormous
part of the earth ocean corresponds to unexplored area, so
oil and gas industry extended the area of interest for
hydrocarbon search into deep sea. EM exploration methods
are used from long time for geophysical exploration. Over
the last few decades EM method has been used in deep sea
for the application of hydrocarbon exploration. However,
EM methods have been used from long time in geophysics
for different applications i.e. uranium, metal exploration etc
[3, p715].
In 1933 used EM field, generated by electric dipole, and
receivers to detect electrical momentary reflection for
layered earth [3]. In oceanic environment, EM source can be
oriented with four different types as HED, vertical electric
dipole (VED), horizontal magnetic dipole (HMD) and
vertical magnetic dipole (VMD). The VED and VMD
induce only transverse magnetic (TM) and transverse
electric (TE) mode respectively, whereas HED and HMD
induces both TM and TE modes [4]. In MCSEM method
HED is preferred for the mapping of resistive hydrocarbon
saturated reservoir. In 1971 Cox et al. was introduced
MCSEM for the study of earth lithosphere [4]. The first
MCSEM survey for seabed logging (SBL) was conducted
by STATOIL in collaboration with the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, USA and the South-ampton Oceanography
Centre, UK [2].
In MCSEM survey EM energy is sensitive to the seafloor

and subsea sediment conductivity. The MCSEM survey
geometry is to be based on several transmitter and receiver
position for delineating the structure of subsea resistivity.
The survey data is highly sensitive to survey geometry, so
the most crucial part of MCSEM surveys are source/receiver
position and orientation, source receiver separation and
HED height from sea floor. The orientation of seafloor
receivers can be done by aligning with radiation lobe of
HED [4]. In MCSEM survey HED is towed to either one
side of the transport vessel as shown in figure 3. End A of
HED is fixed and end B is free to move. The zenith angle
of free end B describes the dipping and azimuth angle is
rotation. Most related work on dipping and rotation is in
which authors study these effects in detail [4]. However in
this, they not consider the effects of HED speed.
Figure 3- Source dipping and rotation affects for seabed

logging
In this paper horizontally stratified geological structure

with FDM numerical solution is used to study the EM
behaviour for hydrocarbon and water saturated reservoir.
The FDM numerical solution is easy to implement specially
for boundary value problem. The survey geometry is also
discussed in this paper with respect to source placement and
speed.
The rest of the paper is organized as literature review;
research Methodology, Results and analysis. Conclusion and
future work are given in followed references.
III. APPROACH and METHODOLOGY
Varying scenario of survey geometry in marine CSEM
can be examined by real time survey and then interpretation
of synthetic data or forward modelling. There is no need of
real time survey scenario in forward modelling and easy to
understand EM field behaviour for specific geological
structure and survey geometry. In forward modelling the
field governing equations for measurable components of
diffused EM field are derived from Maxwell equations. In
oceanic environment there are two possible current sources
as in Equation (1).
(1)
(2)
Equation (2) shows how changing E-field can induce
magnetic field, where as E (V/m) and H (A/m) are the field
intensity. The value of permittivity is ignored because of
very low time varying signal and dielectric constant
permeability is same as in vacuum [6]. The curl operator
192
solves Equations (1) and (2) for electric and magnetic field
separately as Equations (3) and (4).
(3)
(4)
If we ignore external sources in Equations (3) and (4) are
known as general wave equation that governs behaviour of
all EM fields in uniform a medium [9]. The propagation
constant of induced EM field in subsea conducting medium
is in Equation (5).
(5)
The real part of propagation constant is attenuation
constant and imaginary part is phase constant . The ratio
between displacement current density and total current
density is known as loss tangent angle as.
(6)
(7)
In conducting medium when EM wave amplitude falls by
a factor 1/e of its total value known as skin depth. In
is skin depth and amplitude of
Equation (8) symbol
induced EM field is consider to be completely attenuated
after completing the distance of 5 [6]. The skin depth at
difference frequencies are depicted in Figure 3. It shows that
at low frequency signal are best suited for subsea
environment.
(8)
Figure 5- Anisotropy model according to idealized CSEM and

SBL. These are four anisotropic models as thick or thin
reservoir for water and hydrocarbon saturated.
The anisotropic and stratified geological model is

depicted in Figure 5. In model reservoir that may be water
saturated or hydrocarbon saturated. The mobile HED is
positioned at 50m above from sea floor, whereas receivers
are placed on the sea floor. Time varying signal for source is
with frequency of 0.25Hz. The depth and electrical
conductivity of sea water is 100m and 3.2S/m respectively.
Overburden sediments have thickness of 2km and 2.25km
respectively for thick and thin hydrocarbon reservoir. The
conductivity of sediment is 1.0S/m. The thickness of under
burden sediments is 0.4km with same conductivity as
overburden sediments. The dimension of reservoir is 0.5km
and 0.25km thick for thick and thin reservoir where as
length is 6.8 km. The electrical conductivity of reservoir is
0.5S//m and 5.0S/m for hydrocarbon saturated and saline
water saturated reservoir respectively.
The conversion of field governing Equation (9) into
matrix equations is done by FDM expansion at each
discretize node. In Equations (11) used to calculate the finite
approximate numerical value of E-field plane at any
.
node
(11)
Figure 4- Skin depth of induced wave at different

frequency and resistivity.
In MCSEM survey because of slow time varying EM

fields the value of displacement current is ignored in
Equations (3) and (4). The resultant equations will be Quasistatic equations [8]. The two-dimensional (2D) geological
model is characterized by considering the EM parameters
vary only in one vertical plane and field governing
Equations (9) and (10) represent TE and TM modes for EM
polarization. In MCSEM survey the inline survey geometry
is analogous to TE mode and TM for broad side geometry.
(9)
(10)
In Equation (11) the source term is zero for any node

there is no external source. The step size
and
in
Equation (11) are 200m and 50m respectively. The
formulation of impedance boundary condition at interface of
different homogeneous medium is used to determine the
amplitude of incident, reflected and refracted signal.
(12)
(13)
Equation (12) and (13) are used to determining the
reflected and refracted signal from the interface of different
and
are
homogeneous medium [8]. Whereas
showing the magnitude of incident, reflected and refracted
E-field. The angle of reflection is same as the angle of
193
incident and it can be found by using the definition of

are wave
grazing incident angle. The variable and
number of two different domains
IV. RESULT DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
The delineating of target position and dimension is possible
by the interpretation of data than is taken by with several
source receiver position. Figure 6 illustrates the magnitude
of the E-field on single receiver that is orientated 10 km far
from origin at seafloor. In Figures 6 and 7, Mod1_A and
Mod1_B represent thick and thin reservoir with
hydrocarbon respectively. The overall magnitude peak of Efield for thick hydrocarbon is less because of thick
absorbing domain. In thin hydrocarbon saturated reservoir
the E-field magnitude in large in comparison with thick
hydrocarbon. This behaviour of E-field follows the rule of
reflection and refraction as in Equation (12) and (13),
consequently there will be more reflection when signal
strike to conducting boundary. In above given geological
structure, the hydrocarbon saturated reservoir is surrounded
by more conductive sediments and it will act as absorbing
medium because of internal reflection. The magnitude of
-11
reflected signal reaches to 10 (V/m).
Figure 7- Forward modeling results for anisotropic model in

Figure 5. Figure shows the phase shift of E-field while thick and
thin reservoir is hydrocarbon saturated.
In given geological model, if the reservoir is saturated

with saline water than the overall pattern of diffused EM
field will be altered as shown in figure 8. The conductivity
of saline water saturated reservoir is 5.0S/m.
The Figure 8 as well as Figure 6 both shows only the
magnitude of the signal that reflect back from the interface
and we ignore the direct signal. In practical scenario the
received signal is the sum of direct and reflected signal. In
the case of water saturated reservoir there is less internal
reflection because reserves are surrounding by less
conductive sediments. This concept treats the situation of
galvanic effects as, due to induce field causes of current
flow which congregate around conductive medium and
deflect around less conductive medium [12].

Figure 5. Figure shows the magnitude of E-field while thick and
thin reservoir is hydrocarbon saturated.
Diffused EM field is attenuate rapidly in conductive

medium than that of less conductive medium. In given
stratified geological model the sediments and sea water are
more conductive in comparison to the hydrocarbon saturated
reservoir. Consequently the delineating of structure in depth
and especially large conductive stratum is possible only with
extreme low frequency.
Figure 7 shows that the phase delays of diffused E-field. It
is the cumulative sum for mobile source with static receiver
position. Figure 7 shows the phase delay of Model2_A is
more than that of Mod2_B because first one has more
conductive layers. The forward modelling
of given
geological model, with thick and thin hydrocarbon saturated
reservoir, has different results. The well designed survey
geometry is helpful for the interpretation of synthetic data
whereas poor survey design and transmitter- receiver
orientation can create anomalies. The source height from the
seafloor is not more than that of the skin depth in seawater;
if we increased source height from seafloor than most of the
signal strength will attenuate.

Figure 5. Figure shows the phase shift of E-field while thick and
thin reservoir is saturated with saline water.
Figure 9 shows the phase delay of given model if

reservoir is saturated with saline water. The black line in
Figure 9 represents the cumulative sum of phase delay for
thick water saturated reservoir.
194
delay at receiver end. The phase velocity can be calculated

by using Equation 15.
(15)
Figure 8- Forward modeling results for anisotropic model in Figure

5. Figure shows the phase shift of E-field while thick and thin
reservoir is saturated with saline water
The exploration for deep target and if the stratified

model is highly conductive than it will create more phase
Table 1:
Frequency
(Hz)
Conductivity (S/m)
3.33
1.00
0.25
0.250
866
m/s
1581 m/s
3162 m/s
0.500
1225 m/s
2236 m/s
4472 m/s
1.000
1732 m/s
3162 m/s
6324 m/s
2.000
5.000
2450 m/s
3874 m/s
4472 m/
7071 m/s
8944 m/s
14142 m/s
Conclusion and Future Work

The exploration and drilling operation in deep water is a
challenging and an expensive task. The prior to drilling
operation it is necessary to verify normality of buried
reservoir. The MCSEM survey is successful technique but
its need to consider the well designed survey geometry for
In Table 1 shows Phase velocity at different conductive

domain medium and causes of time delay. In marine CSEM,
mapping of specified target depth is the function of HED
and receiver position. The induced EM signal creates time
delay for deep mapping and high conductive medium. This
time delay causes anomalies for transmitter position while
signal is received at receiver for specific source receiver
separation.
inversion. The survey geometry anomalies in survey data

can be well understood by forward modeling. In 2D forward
modeling we consider near to real time scenario as receivers
are placed on seafloor and mobile source. The obtained
results conclude the hydrocarbon saturated reservoir has
maximum internal reflection and it will act as absorbing
medium for diffused EM field. Whereas water saturated
reservoir alter the overall behavior of EM field. The well
designed survey geometry is causes for accuracy reduce the
risk of false indications. The poor survey geometry can
causes for financial loss in the term of dry hole. There is a
need to improve survey modeling techniques. For complex
reservoir there is need of sophisticated modeling techniques
that will reduce the risk of incurred loss.
The future work intends to study the radiation pattern of
HED for oceanic environment and consider the effect on
main lobe of source while changing the reference axis.
References
[1] T. Eidesmo et. al. 2002. Seabed logging(SBL) a new method for remote and direct identification of hydrocarbon filled
layers in deep water area. First break volume 20.3
Ellingsrud, T. Eidesmo, Johansen, Sinha, MacGregor, and Constable. Remote sensing of hydrocarbon
layers by seabed logging (SBL); results from a cruise offshore Angola. Leading Edge (Tulsa, OK)
(October 2002), 21(10):972, 974, 976, 978, 980, 982. International Conference on Power Generation
Systems
and Renewable Technologies, Nov 29-Dec 2, 2010
International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
[2]
[3] Misac N. Nabighian. 2008. Electromagnetic methods in applied geophysics, volume 2, Applicatio, Parts A and B. Society
of exploration geophysics.
[4] Chave, A. D., and Cox C. S. 1982. Controlled Electromagnetic Sources for Measuring Electrical Conductivity Beneath the
Oceans 1. Forward Problem and Model Study, J. Geophysical Research., 87(B7), 53275338, doi:10.1029/JB087iB07p05327
[5] Weitemeyer K. A. 2008. Marine Electromagnetic Methods for Gas Hydrate Characterization. UC San Diego: Scripps
Institution of Oceanography.
[6] Tage Rosten, Lasse Ammendson, Electromagnetic Data Processing U.S. Patent 0065330, March 13, 2008.
[7] Guru B S and H. Hiziroglu, 2004, Electromagnetic field theory fundamentals, Cambridge university press.
[8] Zhdanov M.S. 2002. Geophysical Inverse Theory and Regularization Problem, vol. 36, Elsevier, Amsterdam (2002) 3,
215pp .
[9] Lseth, L.O. 2007. Modelling of Controlled Source Electromagnetic Data. Ph.D. Dept. of Physics, NTNU.
195

A Paper on National and Worldwide Nuclear Plant Safety

Regulations and Standards
Muhammad Sadiq1), Kamran Mansoor 2) and Waqas Sherani3)
Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority
1) m.sadiq@pnra.org
2) kamran.mansoor@pnra.org
3) waqas.sherani@pnra.org
ABSTRACT
Regulations are the rules, procedures, administrative
codes, set by authorities or governmental agencies to
govern the processes in a safe, efficient and effective
manner. PNRA is the national authority with the mandate
to formulate and implement regulations related to safety of
Nuclear Power Plants at various stages of Siting, Design,
Construction,
Commissioning,
Operation
and
Decommissioning. Thus covering each aspect of
development, safe use and disuse of nuclear energy from
cradle to grave. Pakistan, being a signatory of the
Convention on Nuclear Safety (CNS) under the umbrella
of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has
developed a comprehensive set of regulations which
covers all important areas to ensure safety for the public
and environment from the harmful effects of radiation
emerging from the safe use of nuclear energy. Regulations
formulated by PNRA meet all safety requirements as per
international standards and are at par to the international
nuclear safety standards. This paper has provided an
insight by comparison of PNRA regulations with the
regulations of different countries having a major share of
nuclear power production through Nuclear Power Plants,
such as USA, UK, Japan & Finland. It has been concluded
that PNRA regulations meet all safety related
requirements which are currently being followed
internationally.
.
1)
LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY

FRAMEWORK
1.1 JAPAN
The Atomic Energy Basic Act (Act No.186 of 1955)
promulgated in 1955 serves as the basis of utilization of
nuclear energy in Japan. In order to operate nuclear
administration democratically, the Act also requires
establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission and the
Nuclear Safety Commission and observance of the
governmental regulations in the case of construction of a
nuclear reactor, use of nuclear fuel material, etc.
The Reactor Regulation Act provides the procedures for
safety regulation and the licensing criteria as for the
installment and operation of reactors. For commercial
power reactors, the provisions of the Electricity Business
Act are applied to the regulations on approval of design
and construction methods, pre-service inspection, the
welding method and inspection and Facility Periodic

Inspection. The Act on Special Measures Concerning
Nuclear Emergency Preparedness established in 1999
stipulates special measures for Nuclear Emergency
Preparedness, including licensees obligation for
preparedness on nuclear emergency, the Declaration of
Nuclear Emergency, and establishment of the Nuclear
Emergency response Headquarters.
Ministerial Ordinance was enacted to implement the
provisions of the Reactor Regulation Act. These include;
Ministerial Ordinance for Commercial Power Reactors,
Ministerial Ordinance for Reactors at the Stage of
Research and Development, Ministerial Ordinance for
Technical Standards on Design and Construction Methods
of Nuclear Power Reactors.
The Ministerial Public Notice for defining radiation
exposure dose limits were set out by the Minister of
Economy, Trade and Industry.
1.2 FINLAND
Nuclear energy Act 990/1987 was enacted to keep the
nuclear energy in-line with the overall good of society and
to ensure that it is safe for society and environment and
does not promote the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Additionally, the nuclear waste management, licensing
and use of nuclear energy is also controlled by this act.
Decree /Regulation based on the Nuclear Energy Act, the
Government issued the regulations including: Decree on
the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants (733/2008), Decree on
the Security in the Use of Nuclear Energy (734/2008),
Decree on Emergency Response Arrangements at Nuclear
Power Plants (735/2008), Decree on Safety of Disposal of
Nuclear Waste (736/2008), Decree on Advisory
Committee on Nuclear Safety (164/1988).
Regulatory guides provide guidance to licensees and
applicants on implementing specific parts of regulations.
STUK Safety guides include: YVL 1.10 (Safety criteria
for Siting), YVL 7.1 (Limitation of public exposure in the
environment of and limitation of radioactive releases from
NPPs), YVL 7.2 (Assessment of radiation doses to the
population in the environment of NPPs), YVL 7.3
(Calculation of the dispersion of radioactive releases from
NPPs), YVL 7.6 (Monitoring of discharges of radioactive
substances from NPPs), YVL 7.11 (Radiation monitoring
systems and equipment in NPPs), YVL 7.4 (NPP
emergency preparedness), YVL 7.7 (Radiation monitoring
in the environment of NPPs), YVL 7.9 (Radiation
196
protection of NPP workers), YVL 7.10 (Monitoring of

occupational exposure at NPPs).
1.3 USA
The Atomic Energy Act 1954 established the Atomic
Energy Commission and the legal framework for all
subsequent regulation of nuclear installations. The Energy
Reorganization Act of 1974 abolished the Atomic Energy
Commission and created the NRC to regulate commercial
nuclear activities and the U.S. Energy Research &
Development Administration (ERDA) to continue
government-sponsored nuclear activities. In addition to the
Atomic Energy Act, several statutes and presidential
Executive orders and directives that impact nuclear safety
are issued.
NRC Regulations include: Title 10 CFR Part 20,
Standards for Protection against Radiation, Part 34,
Licenses for Industrial Radiography and Radiation Safety
Requirements for Industrial Radiographic Operations,
Part 35, Medical Use of Byproduct Material Part 39,
Licenses and Radiation Safety Requirements for Well
Logging Part 40, Domestic Licensing of Source
Material Part 50, Domestic Licensing of Production and
Utilization Facilities Part 51, Environmental Protection
Regulations for Domestic Licensing and Related
Regulatory Functions Part 52, Licenses, Certifications,
and Approvals for Nuclear Power Plants Part 54,
Requirements for Renewal of Operating Licenses for
Nuclear Power Plants. Part 55, Operator's Licenses Part
61, Licensing Requirements for Land Disposal of
Radioactive Waste Part 73, Physical Protection of Plants
and Materials Part 100, Reactor Site Criteria. Part 140,
Financial Protection Requirements and Indemnity
Agreements
Regulatory Guides include; RG 1.70, Revision 3, Standard
Format and Content of Safety Analysis Reports for
Nuclear Power Plants, RGs 1.27, Revision 2, Ultimate
Heat Sink for Nuclear Power Plants, RG 1.59, Revision 2,
Design Basis Floods for Nuclear Power Plants; RG 1.208,
a Performance-Based Approach to Define the SiteSpecific Earthquake Ground Motion, RG 1.4, Revision 2,
Assumptions Used for Evaluating the Potential
Radiological Consequences of a Loss-of-Coolant Accident
for Pressurized-Water Reactors, RG 1.145, Revision 1,
Atmospheric Dispersion Models for Potential Accident
Consequence Assessments at Nuclear Power Plants, RG
1.183, Alternative Radiological Source Terms for
Evaluating Design Basis Accidents at Nuclear Power
Reactors, RG 1.28, Quality Assurance Program
Requirements (Design and Construction), RG 1.33, A
Quality Assurance Program Requirements (Operations),
RG 1.101, Revision 4, Emergency Planning and
Preparedness for Nuclear Power Reactors.
1.4 ENGLAND
Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (primary legislation) Under
Act NIA65, no site can be used for the purpose of
installing or operating a nuclear installation unless a
nuclear site license is currently in force, granted by the
HSE. Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 (HSWA74)
assures the health and safety at work of employees and
also those affected by work activities. This Act also
established two regulatory bodies, the Health and Safety

Executive (HSE) and the Health and Safety Commission
(HSC).
Radioactive Substances Act 1993 and Environmental
Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010,
Electricity Act 1989, Utilities Act 2000 and Energy Act
2004; The Environment Act 1995 (EA95) establishes the
Environment Agency as the environmental regulatory
body for England and Wales, and the Scottish
Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) as the equivalent
for Scotland. Disposal of radioactive waste under EPR10
and RSA93 includes the discharge of radioactive waste to
the environment. Under Electricity Act 1989, a generating
station with a capacity greater than 50 megawatts requires
a Consent granted by the Secretary of State for Energy and
Climate Change (for England and Wales) or the Scottish
Ministers. The Energy Act 2004 established the NDA as a
new non-departmental public body which came in to being
in April 2005. It took over the responsibility for
decommissioning. Regulation is secondary legislation and
HSWA74 permits the HSE to develop regulations.
Important regulations in UK include: Ionizing Radiation
Regulations 1999 for Nuclear site licensing regime
Nuclear Reactors (Environmental Impact Assessment for
Decommissioning)
Regulations
1999,
Radiation
(Emergency Preparedness and Public Information)
Regulations 2001, Management of Health and Safety at
Work Regulations 1999, Health and Safety (Fees)
(Amendment) Regulations 2010.
Technical Assessment Guides issued by HSE on, Periodic
Safety Reviews, Licensees arrangements for training and
competence and Tolerability of Risk from Nuclear Power
Stations, Scope and Content of Safety Cases, Environment
Agencies Assessment of Best Practicable Environmental
Option Studies at Nuclear Sites, Respiratory Protective
Equipment
at
Work,
Emergency
Arrangement
Consolidated Guidance, etc.
1.5 PAKISTAN
PNRA Ordinance 2001 is the highest level document in
the nuclear regulatory legislative framework. The next tier
is mandatory national regulations based on internationally
acceptable requirements. Below these are non-mandatory
guides which describe methods acceptable to PNRA to
meet the requirements of regulations.
National Regulations include; Regulations on Licensing
Fee by Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority
(PAK/900) (Rev. 1), Regulations on Radiation Protection
(PAK/904), Regulations for Licensing of Nuclear Safety
Class Equipment and Components Manufacturers
(PAK/907) (Rev. 0), Regulations for the Licensing of
Radiation Facility(ies) other than Nuclear Installation(s)PAK/908, Regulation for Licensing of Nuclear
Installation(s) in Pakistan - PAK/909 (Rev. 0),
Regulations on the Safety of Nuclear Installations Site
Evaluation (PAK/910) (Rev. 1), Regulations on the Safety
of Nuclear Power Plant Design (PAK/911) (Rev. 1),
"Regulations on the Safety of Nuclear Power PlantsQuality Assurance (PAK/912) (Rev. 1), Regulations on
the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants Operation (PAK/913)
(Rev. 1), Regulations on Management of a Nuclear or
197
Radiological Emergency - (PAK/914) (Rev.0),

Regulations on Radioactive Waste Management
PAK/915 and Regulations for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material - PAK/916. Regulations Under
Preparation include; PNRA Enforcement Regulations
PAK/950, Regulations on the Safety of Nuclear Research
Reactors Operation PAK/923, Regulations on the
Decommissioning of Facilities Using Radioactive
Materials PAK/930
PNRA Regulatory Guides include; Registration/Licencing
and Issuance of NOC to the Exporter(s) of
Radiopharmaceuticals, Transport of Radioactive Material
by Road in Pakistan, Probabilistic Safety Analysis PSA
(Level-1), QA in Nuclear Medicine and Distribution of
Potassium Iodide Tablets. Some guides which are under
preparation include;
Radiation Safety In Industrial
Radiography , Guidance for I-131 Users , Aging
Management of NPPs components, Format and contents of
radiation
protection
programs
of
Radiation
Facilities/Practices and Format and contents of application
for design modification/change approvals for NPPs.
2)
QUALITY ASSURANCE
2.1 JAPAN
The concept of quality assurance as a part of regulatory
requirements for ensuring safety of a nuclear installation
was first introduced in October 2003, and the Nuclear
Safety and Industrial Agency (NISA) requires the
licensees of reactor operation to introduce a quality
management system in the operational safety activities.
Guidelines for QA were promulgated in 1970 based on
10CFR50 Appendix B "Quality Assurance Criteria for
Nuclear Power Plants and Fuel Reprocessing Plants ". A
Guide to Quality Assurance of Nuclear Power Plant
(JEAG 4101-1972) was enacted which was based on
IAEA guidelines on quality assurance. NISA endorsed the
Code of Quality Assurance (JEAC 4111) which had been
developed based on the ISO-9001 and GS-R-3.
2.2 FINLAND
According to Government Decree on the Safety of Nuclear
Power Plants (733/2008), the organizations participating
in
the
design,
construction,
operation
and
decommissioning of a nuclear power plant are required to
employ a management system. Decree sets requirements
for the documentation of the lines of management and
monitoring of the operations. STUKs Guide YVL 1.4 sets
general requirements for the management system and
adheres to IAEA Safety Standard GS-R-3. Requirements
for the quality assurance programme during operation and
design are presented in Guides YVL 1.9 and YVL 2.0.
The quality management requirements related to specific
technical areas are presented in the corresponding
technical guides. The management systems of the
licensees are approved by STUK according to Guide YVL
1.4.
2.3 USA
Under 10 CFR Parts 50 and 52 licensing process,

each applicant for a construction permit and COL
must describe its quality assurance program in its

preliminary safety analysis report. Moreover,
managerial and administrative controls that will be
implemented during the operation of the nuclear power
plant are also included in QAP. QAP must also describe
how it will satisfy the applicable requirements of 10 CFR
Part 50, Appendix B, Quality Assurance Criteria for
Nuclear Power Plants and Fuel Reprocessing Plants. It
specifies 18 criteria that the commitments in a licensees
quality assurance program must satisfy. These criteria
cover such topics as organizational independence, design
control, procurement, document control, test control,
corrective action, and audits. The NRC has reviewed
options for adopting more widely accepted international
quality standards, such as International Organization for
Standardization Standard 9001, 2000 edition. On the basis
of this review, the NRC concluded that supplemental
quality requirements would be needed when implementing
Standard 9001 within the existing regulatory framework.
2.4 UK
Requirements for the quality assurance programme are
based on IAEA Safety Requirements Standard GS-R-3
The Management System for Facilities and Activities. It
is important to know that UK adopted GS-R-3 in place of
IAEA 50-C-Q in 2006. GS-R-3 is supported by Safety
Guides: GS-G-3.1 (2006), Application of the
Management System for Facilities and Activities, which
provides guidance on implementing the generic
management system requirements, and GS-G-3.5 (2009),
The Management System for Nuclear Installations. A
licensees management system (sometimes referred to as a
QA programme) is developed as part of the arrangements
to meet Quality Assurance requirements of national and
international quality management Codes and Standards
such as GS-R-3 and ISO 9001.
2.5 PAKISTAN
The National Regulations PAK/912 provides basic
requirements for establishing and implementing quality
assurance programs related to the safety of nuclear power
plants. PAK/912 is based on IAEA Safety Standard 50-CQ (1996). The regulatory requirements for the submission
of quality assurance programs (QAP) at the time of
applying for construction licence and subsequently at the
time of applying for first fuel load permit have been
stipulated in National Regulations PAK/909. The licensee
has to ensure safety in siting, design, construction,
commissioning, operation and decommissioning of the
nuclear installation by establishing QAP based on IAEA
50-C-Q (1996). Regulations for Licensing of Nuclear
Safety Class Equipment and Components Manufacturers
PAK/907 (Rev. 0) requires from applicant to submit
quality assurance plans, process flow diagrams
(production technology) and manufacturing schedules so
that control points for inspections may be selected. PNRA
has taken initiatives to establish its management system in
accordance with the requirements and recommendations of
internationally accepted standards and guidelines i.e. GSR-3 The Management System for Facilities and
Activities. GS-G-3.1 (2006), Application of the
Management System for Facilities and Activities, and GS
198
-G-3.5 (2009), The Management System for Nuclear

Installations.
3)
LICENSING PROCESS
3.1 JAPAN
As per Reactor Regulation Act, the person who intends to
install a nuclear reactor shall obtain a license for reactor
installment after undergoing a review of the basic design
of the nuclear installation by the regulatory body. The
reactor installment license applicant is required to submit
3.2 FINLAND
The applicant shall submit the mentioned documents for a
construction licence to STUK: 1) the preliminary safety
analysis report, which shall include the general design and
safety principles; 2) A probabilistic risk assessment of the
design stage; 3) Classification of structures, systems and
components 4) a description of quality management
during the design and construction; 5) Preliminary plans
for the arrangements for security and emergencies; 6) A
plan for arranging the safeguards control 7) Any other
reports required by the STUK. Based on the review,
STUK prepares statement on safety and safety assessment,
which is submitted to the Ministry of Trade and Industry.
STUKs positive statement on safety is a prerequisite for
the Government to grant the Construction License.
For an operating license, the applicant shall provide the
documents like; 1) the final safety analysis report; 2) a
probabilistic risk assessment; 3) a classification document,
which shows the classification of structures, systems and
components; 4) a quality management programme for the
operation of the nuclear facility; 5) the Technical
Specifications, 6) a summary programme for periodic
inspections; 7) plans for the arrangements for security and
emergencies; 8) a description on how to arrange the
safeguards; 9) administrative rules for the nuclear facility;
10) a programme for radiation monitoring; 11) a
description of how safety requirements are met; and 12) a
programme for the management of ageing. The licensing
process of a new nuclear power plant in Finland is shown
in Figure.
to the competent minister an application describing the

purpose of use, type, thermal power, number of units of
the reactors, name and address of the factory or place of
business, and their associated facilities, spent fuel disposal
method, etc. The applicant is required to submit safety
assessment for the siting and description on safety design
of the nuclear installation, a description on types, extent,
impacts, etc. of reactor accidents, quality assurance
program and Basic Policy for Quality Assurance.
Following is the graphical representation of NPPs
licensing process in Japan.
3.3 USA
The Atomic Energy Act, Chapter 10, Section 101,
prohibits operation of a nuclear installation without a valid
license by NRC. The Atomic Energy Act, Section 189a,
provides interested parties with hearing rights in
proceedings for the granting, suspending, revoking, or
amending of a license or construction permit. Two
alternative approaches to licensing exist. The traditional
approach, under 10 CFR Part 50, requires two steps. In the
first step, the NRC reviews a preliminary application and
decides whether to grant a construction permit. In the
second step, the agency reviews the final application and
decides whether to grant an operating license. In 1989, the
Commission established an alternative licensing system,
published in 10 CFR Part 52, which provides for certified
standard designs and combined licenses that resolve
design issues before construction, and early site permits
that resolve most siting issues years before construction. A
significant difference in the 10 CFR Part 52 process is that
the final safety analysis report must be submitted before
authorization is granted to begin construction. In addition,
the agency can issue an early site permit for approval of
one or more sites separate from an application for a
construction permit or combined license.
An application for a construction permit must contain
three types of information including; 1) Preliminary safety
analyses; 2) An environmental review, and 3) Financial
and antitrust statements. The NRC performs an acceptance
review of the application and documents its findings on
site safety characteristics and emergency planning in a
safety evaluation report. Public meetings near the
proposed site are arranged. The Advisory Committee on
199
Reactor Safeguards (ACRS) reviews each construction

permit application and the NRCs related safety evaluation
in a public meeting. The ACRS reports the results of its
reviews to the Commission. The NRC also conducts an
environmental review. After completion of this review, the
NRC issues a draft environmental impact statement for
comment by the public, including appropriate Federal,
State, and local agencies. The agency then issues and
makes public a final environmental impact statement
(FEIS), which addresses all comments that the agency
received.
The applicant then submits an application to the NRC for
an operating license which contains a final safety analysis
report and an updated environmental report. The ACRS
reviews each operating license application and the NRCs
related final safety evaluation report in a public meeting.
A Federal Register notice is published to provide an
opportunity for any person whose interests might be
affected by the proceeding to petition the NRC for a
hearing.
3.4 UK
No site may be used for the purpose of installing or
operating a nuclear installation unless license has been
granted
by
HSE.
The safety of nuclear installations is secured primarily thro
ugh the
nuclear site licence. Nuclear site licences are granted for a
n indefinite term and one
licence may cover
lifetime of an installation from design, siting, construction,
commissioning, operation, and modification
through to eventual completion of
decommissioning.
Following documents required for site licensing:
Safety management prospectus;
description of the installation or activities to be licensed;
an indication of the status of the activities at the site in
relation to the justification of practices involving ionizing
radiation regulation 2004; map of the site and, for a new
site, its location with details of population type and density
around the proposed site; details of ownership of site;
licence condition compliance statement; submission and
review of safety cases; statement of decommissioning;
detail of emergency arrangements and terms of reference
for
Nuclear
Safety
Committee.
NIA65 places a requirement on HSE to consult the approp
riate environment
agency
(EA in England and Wales, SEPA in Scotland) before gran
ting a new nuclear site licence. ND(HSE) has developed
36 standard conditions that together form a sound basis for
good nuclear safety and radioactive waste management.
ND does not have a formal programme for informing the
public about its functions and responsibilities, its policies
and the uses of radiation sources.
3.5 PAKISTAN
Licensing procedure for nuclear installation(s) in Pakistan
shall comprise of the following stages:
i. Registration of Site. ii. Issuance of the Construction
Licence. iii. Issuance of the Operating Licence. Before
applying for site registration, construction licence and the
operating licence for the nuclear installation(s), the

applicant shall submit no objection certificates from the
relevant government departments. An applicant who
intends to obtain the registration of site for nuclear
installation(s) shall submit an application along with SER.
After approval, the applicant shall establish design and
safety criteria in accordance with the nuclear regulations
and guides and submit the same for the approval by
PNRA. After completion of the preliminary design, the
following reports shall be submitted to PNRA for review,
approval and issuance of construction licence: PSAR;
OQAP and PSA Level 1 reports. After completion of the
detailed design and the safety analysis, the applicant shall
submit an application for introducing nuclear materials
into the system(s) of the nuclear installation(s) along with
the documents include: FSAR, PSA Level One plus
Report, Commissioning Reports, Technical Specifications,
Radiation Protection, Inspection, Fire Protection,
Environmental
Monitoring,
Radioactive
Waste
Management, Physical Protection, PSI & ISI Programs
and Emergency Preparedness Plans and Decommissioning
Strategy. On approval, permission for fuel load permit is
granted. The licence granted shall normally be valid for
ten years. Six (6) months before the expiry, the licensee
shall apply for revalidation with updated report of latest
Periodic Safety Review (PSR). Following is the NPPs
licensing process in Pakistan.
4) RADIATION PROTECTION
Although radiation is naturally present in our environment,
it can have either beneficial or harmful effects, depending
on its use and control. For that reason, to protect people
and the environment from unnecessary exposure
to radiation as a result of civilian uses of nuclear materials,
legislation has been established by the international
community. Toward that end, it is required that nuclear
power plants, research reactors and other medical,
200
industrial, and academic licensees to use and store
radioactive
materials
in a way
that
the public. Following is the comparison of dose limits

defined by different countries of the world.
eliminates
unnecessary exposure and protects radiation workers and

Table: Dose limits for the radiation workers and the public
Items
Dose limits
A.
(1)
Effective
dose limit
(2)
Equivalent
dose limit for eye len
(3) Equivale
nt dose
limit for
skin
JAPAN
USA
100 mSv/5
years but do
not exceed
50mSv in
one year
100 mSv/5
years but do
not exceed
50mSv in one
year
150
mSv/year
500
mSv/year
150 mSv/year
IAEA Safety series No.

115
100 mSv/5 years but do
not exceed 50mSv in
one year
150 mSv/year
500 mSv/year
500 v/year
B.
Effective
dose limit
(5) Equivale
nt dose
limit for
eye lens
(6) Equivale
nt dose
limit for
skin
(4)
Radiation Workers
PAKISTAN
100 mSv/5 years but do not exceed 50mSv in
one year
150 mSv/year
500 mSv/year
General Public
1 mSv/year
1 mSv/year
1 mSv/year
1 mSv/year
15 mSv/year
15 mSv/year
15 mSv/year
15 mSv/year
50 mSv/year
50 mSv/year
50 mSv/year
50 mSv/year
5. CONCLUSIONS
Comparison of Regulations of different countries related to Nuclear power plants has been conducted under this
research study. The scope of study is legislative & regulatory framework, Quality Assurance, licensing process and
Radiation protection. This stipulates that our national regulations are commensurate with safety requirements being
followed/implemented internationally for safe operation of Nuclear Power Plants in Pakistan. It is worth mentioning
that Pakistan, being a developing country, has demonstrated greater commitment to ensure safe operation of Nuclear
Power Plants through legislation compatible with that implemented in the developed countries.
PNRA legislative and regulatory framework is based on PNRA Ordinance 2001 and Regulations in the areas of Siting,
Radiation Protection, Licensing, Design, Operation, Emergency preparedness, Quality Assurance and safe
transportation of nuclear materials. The comparison of PNRA regulations confirmed that safety requirements to design
and operate a Nuclear Power Plant are in-line with the international standards. PNRA has taken initiative to implement
the management system based on IAEA document GS-R-3 The Management System for Facilities and Activities.
However, the study reveals that more explicit legislation in some areas like ; Public hearing during licensing process,
Financial Protection Requirements and Indemnity/civil liability in case of nuclear damage/accident, Physical security
and enforcement etc, need to be developed at par with the international regulatory regimes of the developed countries.
In addition, measures should have to be taken for further improvement in public awareness to response in case of
emergencies for ensuring protection of the general public and the environment from the harmful effects of radiations. It
is indeed a matter of satisfaction that legislative framework of the countries engaged in nuclear power is more or less
standardized and is effective too. This has given an edge in the acceptability of nuclear energy worldwide as a source of
energy which is competitive in terms of economic considerations as well as environment friendly. This is also
competitive in terms of overall risk to the public as well as to the environment compared with other high risk industries.
This paper also provides a thought and emphasizes the importance of effective regulation in other industrial regimes to
improve their effectiveness.
201
REFERENCES
1) Fifth National Report for The convention On Nuclear Safety, August, 2010 by US NRC.
2) PNRA Ordinance No. III, January 22, 2001, Ministry of Law, Justice, Human Rights and
Parliamentary Affairs, Government of Pakistan.
3) PNRA Regulation for Licensing of Nuclear Installation(s) in Pakistan - PAK/909 (Rev. 0).
4) IAEA Safety Series No. 50-C/SG-Q, 1996.
5) PNRA Regulations on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants-Quality Assurance (PAK/912) (Rev. 1)
6) Fifth National Report for The convention On Nuclear Safety, September, 2010 by Government of
Japan
7) PNRA Regulations on Radiation Protection (PAK/904), October, 2004
8) 10 CFR Part 50, Appendix B, Quality Assurance Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants and Fuel
Reprocessing Plants.
9) Government Decree on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants 27.11.2008/733; Finland
10) The United Kingdoms fifth National Report on compliance with the convention On Nuclear
Safety obligations, September, 2010 by Department of Energy and climate change.
202

COAGULATION IN CLARIFIER WITH MICRO-SAND

Kamran Liaquat Bhatti1 and Waseem Qaiser Awan2
1. NFC IET Multan (Pakistan)
2. Ivanovo State Power University, Russia
Abstract: As water treatment play key role in power
generation at thermal and nuclear power station. This article is
devoted to determine effectiveness of water clarifier with use of
micro-sand at Thermal power stations. Efficiency of
coagulation with application of aluminum sulphate and
flocculants is experimentally detected. Presented the result of
the tests of clarifier with micro-sand and given conclusion on
these results.
INTODUCTION
The problem of pollution of water reservoirs is a current issue
for the majority of industrially developed countries. However
the approach to resolve this problem in the different countries is
distinguished. So, in Europe, where the majority of the large
rivers pass through territory of the several countries, it is very
difficult to prevent dump of sewage in them. In these
conditions the preference is given to internal sources of water,
and sewage waters are cleared only of the most toxic
components.
Other picture is observed in the USA where the legislation on
protection of natural water sources is stricter and constantly
becomes tougher. The system of the state control of a condition
of the reservoirs is created, it is operating since 1966,
purposeful, and preparation of experts in protection of
reservoirs against pollution is carried out. The enterprises
specializing on release of the equipment on clearing of drains
and other ecological technics intensively develop. The rate of
return at these enterprises has appeared in 15 2 time above
average on the country.
Figure 1. Constructive scheme of clarifier with

micro-sand
1 - Feed water supply 2 Reagents input 3 - Mixers
with the electric drives
4 Recirculation pump 5 Hydro-cyclones. 6 Discharge of sludge (slime) (a continuous purge).
7 micro-sand return. 8 Clarified water outlet
PROBLEM
It is very difficult to clean such water sources having moderate
mineralization and high quantity of Fe compounds. In this
article a trial check of coagulation in clarifier with use of
micro-sand is performed.
In the problems of tests of clarifier with micro-sand (see fig. 1,
2) included the determination of the following:
Efficiency of coagulation with application of following

reagentsandtheirworkingdoses:
Aluminumsulphate;
Flocculants of not ion gene types, cations and anions
Working range of clarifiers load, corresponding to the set
efficiency of coagulation; possibilities of fast changes of its
productivity;
Operational expenses for water coagulation applicable in one of
the Thermal Power Station of Russia.
Figure 2.Clarified waters channel

As for criteria for an estimation of coagulation
efficiency are used:
- Relative reduction of oxidizability of water, mass

concentration of iron compounds, silicon acid at water
coagulation; mass concentration of the weighed substances,
203
aluminum compounds in coagulated water on an exit from

clarifier;
- Skilled and planned operational expenses of micro-sand,
reagents, waters of heat, the electric power in natural and term
of money (taking into account expenses of reagents for stages
of water purification, caused by a dosage of coagulant).
TESTS:
In the course of tests working solutions of reagents are
used: the 18-water granulated sulphate of aluminum
(the
manufacturer
of
Joint-Stock
Company
"Synthesis", Kostroma, Russia). For preparation of
working solutions of reagents and their dosage in
clarifier the regular equipment of pilot clarifier are
used.
The volume and periodicity of the chemical control are
resulted in table 1.
Table 1. The list of controllable parameters and periodicity of the chemical control
Measured parametres
Frequency of measurements
Temperature of feed water
Constantly
Temperature of clarified water
Constantly
The water used in clarifier
Constantly
The suspension consumed on the recirculation pipeline

Consumption of slime water after cyclones
Constantly
After 3 hours
Pressure on the inlet of the re-circulated pump
Constantly
Pressure on the outlet of the re-circulated pump
Constantly
Pressure before cyclones
Constantly
General alkalinity, mol/dm3
2 times a day
Oxidizability, mg2/
25
Mass concentration of iron compounds in conversion on F,
mg/dm3
2 times a day
2 times a day
Mass concentration of the weighed substances, mg/dm3
2 times a day
Muddiness (Feculence), mg/dm3
2 times a day
Mass concentration of aluminum compounds in conversion

on Al, mg/dm3 (only at coagulation by aluminum salts)
2 times a day
Mass concentration of silicon acid compounds having

ability to recirculate in conversion on SiO2, mg/dm3
2 times a day
2 times a day
After treatment
General alkalinity, mol/dm3
After 2 hours
25
After 2 hours
Oxidizability, mg2/3
After 3 hours
Mass concentration of iron compounds in conversion on F,

mg/dm3
After 3 hours
Mass concentration of the weighed substances , mg/dm3
After 4 hours
204
Measured parametres
Frequency of measurements
Muddiness (Feculence), mg/dm3
After 2 hours
Mass concentration of aluminum compounds in conversion

on Al, mg/dm3
After 3 hours
Mass concentration reactionary capable silicon acid

compounds in conversion on SiO32, - mg/dm3
After 3 hours
The mass fraction control of coagulant after preparation of its

working solution, the control of levels of working solutions
coagulant and flocculent in measuring tanks, volumetric supply
pumps of these solutions was carried out. An actual dose (mass
concentration in water) of coagulant was measured in each 2
hours.
In order to perform performance tests regular devices of
clarifier for measurements are used:
- Quantity of water used in clarifier, on outlet of clarifier, the
consumption of recirculate suspensions;
- Pressure of water on inlet and outlet of pumps of clarified
waters and suspensions,
pressure of suspension before hydro-cyclones;
- Muddiness (Feculence).
Measurements of consumed slime water after a hydro-cyclone
were carried out with use of volumetric method periodically
with application of a volumetric vessel and a stop watch.
Measurements of indicators of quality of water carried out with
application of following methods:
alkalinity acidimetric method
25 potentiometric method
oxidizability permanganate metric method
mass concentration of weighed substances
gravimetric method
mass concentration of iron compounds in conversion of
Fe photocolorimetry
mass concentration of aluminum compounds in
conversion of Al photocolorimetry
Mass concentration reactionary capable silicon acid
compounds in conversion on SiO32- photocolorimetry
For specification of actual dosage of coagulant in
each experiment two additional measurements of mass
concentration of sulphates (photocolorimetry) in feed
water and in coagulated waters were executed.
Dispensing of reagents was carried out in an
automatic mode.
The heated water of the river Sheksna (Russia) is used
as feed water. Preliminary in laboratory tests are
chosen appropriate flocculants and doses of coagulants
(mass concentration). During tests relative values of
the expense of recirculate sludge waters with microsand was about 2,8 %, and a continuous purge of
clarifier was 2,4 % from the expense of clarified
waters.[2]
RESULTS:
In table 2 and 3 some results of tests clarifier with use
of coagulant, a water solution of the granulated
Aluminum sulphate and flocculants AN 905 (firm
SNF) are presented. On the basis of these data it is
possible to conclude, that:
- Productivity of clarifier in a regulation range
practically does not influence on the efficiency of
water treating;
- Muddiness (Feculence) of coagulated waters and
mass concentration in it is much less than weighed
substances 1 mg/dm3. It allows to hope for the small
expense of water on own needs of the mechanical
filters established after clarifier and even before
counter flow ionic filters, and to admit their operation
with high speeds of filtering;
- Mass concentration of connections of silicon acid in
coagulated water is less than in feed water. It means,
that despite partial transition of these connections in
water at its contact to quartz sand, water pollution by
such connections, and their transition in slime prevails
not;
- - At pre-water treating of the river Sheksna by
coagulation for its de mineralization in
counter flow ionic filters or membrane
installations necessary conditions are created
by filters at a dose (mass concentration in
water) aluminum
sulphate in recalculation on l3 + about 7,2 mg/dm3
(0,80 mg-ekv/dm3). At this and at the big doses of data
mass concentration of connections of iron
in coagulated water in recalculation on Fe not more
than 0,1 mg/dm3, and mass concentration of
connections of aluminum in recalculation on l is
practically equal to water or less than 0,1 mg/dm3.
Oxidizability of coagulated waters in the given
conditions within an error of the chemical analysis
does not differ from 3 mg 2/dm3. Mass concentration
of the weighed substances and muddiness (feculence)
of coagulated waters less than 1 mg/dm3. Thus, the
quality of coagulated water corresponds to the basic
requirements feed water for chemical demineralization
plant .
205
Experiments were made with single-stage increase in

productivity of clarifier from 30 to 55 m3/h (see figure
4) are executed. Supervision over quality of coagulated
waters in transient after such step change of

productivity has shown preservation of its high
quality.[3]
Table 2. Results of tests of clarifier with quartz micro-sand (coagulant - aluminum sulphate, flocculent - AN 905)
Dose of coag.,
mg/dm3
Dose of flocc, Water used

mg/dm3
m3/h
Alkalinity ,
eq/dm3
mg-
Permanganate oxidiability,
mg/dm3
25
feed water
Coag.
water
Feed water
Coag. water
Feed water
coag.
Water
0,3
30
1,25
14,4
11,2
6,83
6,75
4,05
0,3
20
1,75
12
7,63
6,52
4,05
0,3
30
1,7
12
6,4
7,63
6,5
4,05
0,3
40
1,6
11,2
4,8
7,63
6,57
4,05
0,3
50
1,65
14,8
4,4
7,63
6,44
0,3
20
1,4
11,2
9,6
7,08
6,8
0,3
35
1,5
1,1
14,4
12,8
7,08
6,72
0,3
50
1,5
1,05
11,2
7,08
6,68
0,3
30
1,3
0,6
13,6
3,2
6,79
6,05
0,3
30
1,6
0,95
13,6
6,4
7,45
6,51
6,5
0,3
30
1,65
0,9
13,6
5,6
7,45
6,55
0,3
30
1,8
12,8
4,4
7,14
6,39
0,3
30
1,65
0,9
15,2
5,6
7,45
6,52
0,3
55
1,95
13,6
5,6
7,14
6,42
0,3
30
1,75
13,6
5,6
7,14
6,47
0,3
50
1,9
13,6
4,8
7,14
6,4
7,65
0,3
20
1,6
0,75
12,8
7,5
6,22
7,65
0,3
20
1,6
0,7
13,6
3,2
7,5
6,16
7,65
0,3
30
1,6
0,7
13,6
3,2
7,5
6,29
7,65
0,3
40
1,55
0,65
12,8
1,6
7,5
6,19
8,5
0,2
30
1,7
0,85
12
5,6
7,35
6,22
8,5
0,3
30
1,75
0,85
12,8
2,4
7,35
6,41
10
0,2
30
1,7
0,65
12,8
4,8
7,35
6,58
10
0,3
30
1,7
0,65
12,8
3,2
7,35
6,22
13
0,2
30
1,65
0,45
14,4
3,2
7,35
5,9
13
0,3
30
1,7
0,4
12
3,2
7,35
5,75
206
Table 3. Results of tests of clarifier with quartz micro-sand (coagulant - aluminum sulphate, flocculent - AN 905)
Dose of
coag.
mg/dm3
Dose of
flocc.,
mg/dm3
Water
used
m3/h
0,3
4,05
(Fe), mg/dm3
Muddiness,
(Al), mg/dm3
(SiO2), mg/dm3
feed
water
Coag.
water
mg/dm3
Feed
water
Coag.
water
Feed
water
Coag.
Water
30
0,82
0,31
2,2
0,72
0,67
0,3
20
1,06
0,25
1,94
0,8
0,7
4,05
0,3
30
1,06
0,34
1,86
0,79
0,72
4,05
0,3
40
1,07
0,37
1,68
0,84
0,74
4,05
0,3
50
1,07
0,1
1,34
0,85
0,72
0,3
20
0,93
0,51
2,88
0,72
0,65
0,3
35
0,93
0,3
3,38
0,77
0,25
0,3
50
0,7
0,38
3,58
0,8
0,72
0,3
30
0,82
0,37
0,94
0,75
0,59
0,3
30
1,29
0,185
1,11
0,04
0,135
0,91
0,82
6,5
0,3
30
1,29
0,2
0,84
0,038
0,125
0,89
0,82
0,3
30
1,18
0,085
0,9
0,04
0,105
1,15
0,93
0,3
30
1,29
0,09
0,65
0,04
0,115
0,89
0,82
0,3
55
1,18
0,09
0,57
0,042
0,0975
0,99
0,89
0,3
30
0,95
0,08
0,51
0,0325
0,0975
0,97
0,93
0,3
50
0,95
0,1
0,47
0,0425
0,09
0,93
0,91
7,65
0,3
20
0,91
0,09
0,75
0,05
0,12
0,89
0,76
7,65
0,3
20
0,7
0,14
0,52
0,04
0,107
0,85
0,72
7,65
0,3
30
0,91
0,08
0,53
0,042
0,115
0,86
0,77
7,65
0,3
40
0,7
0,14
0,64
0,04
0,107
0,8
0,65
8,5
0,2
30
0,712
0,01
0,51
0,037
0,092
0,97
0,93
8,5
0,3
30
0,712
0,095
0,55
0,04
0,092
0,95
0,93
10
0,2
30
0,712
0,05
0,47
0,04
0,107
0,99
0,89
10
0,3
30
0,712
0,05
0,406
0,042
0,097
0,95
0,89
13
0,2
30
0,82
0,05
0,704
0,035
0,112
0,95
0,85
13
0,3
30
0,82
0,057
0,487
0,04
0,12
0,95
0,91
207
Figure No. 3 Change in quality of coagulated waters in transient process after in step increase
of hydraulic loading of clarifier with micro-sand
D hydraulic loading of clarifier;
oxidizability;
Fe mass concentration of iron compounds in conversion of Fe;
muddiness (feculence).
CONCLUSIONS:
On the basis of trial check of clarifier with micro-sand the following conclusions are made:
1.
Clarifier with re-circulated quartz micro-sand is an effective device for preliminary water
treating by coagulation. Usage of micro-sand allows to provide at small dimensions of clarifier its
high productivity and accelerated change in its productivity.
2.
Quality of clarified waters corresponds to requirements to quality of feed water for
modern demineralized water treatment plants.
Refrences:
1.
Draginski V.L., Alekceva L.P., Getmansov. Coagulation in in technology of natural
waters treatments. Moscow, 2005, P.576.
2.
Vinogradov V.N., Awan W.Q. and others. Increasing the effectiveness of clarifier for
coagulated water treatment, Thermal power engineering Journal August 2010, P. 13-17.
3.
Vinogradov V.N., Awan W.Q. and others. Research of the clarifier efficiency with use
of re-circulated micro-sand. Works of ISPU 9th edition, Moscow 2009 P. 182-188
208

Ethanol as an Alternative Source of Energy

S.E. Benjamin1, Hamid Raza2 and Shah Muhammad Haroon
ABSTRACT
Pakistan, at present facades huge shortage of energy
that has disabled several industries and has worsened
the living standards of a common man. Its economy
mainly depends upon agriculture but relies heavily on
imported petroleum to meet the necessities. The
importance of national resources as an alternative energy
resource is thus greatly felt. The sugar cane industry of
Pakistan holds a potential to provide such an alternative
feul as bioethanol that can be produced entirely from
molasses. This paper looks deeper into scope of
ethanol as one replacement that can reduce the
financial and environmental cost of petroleumbased fuels.
Introduction
The alluring luxuries of present and the
population growth in the third world countries has
tremendously increased dependence on fossil
fuels like coal, oil and gas that fulfill almost 70-80%
energy needs globally. The exploited use of fossil
fuels is not only adding carbon dioxide burden to
the atmosphere but also depletion of these at a fast
rate has made these dubious for sustainable
development. The world population is expected to
cross the mark of whopping 12 billion by the year,
2060 (IEA, 2000). The supplies of clean, safe and
substantial energy become questionable. Renewable
energy resources are going to be a perfect fit
encompassing hydro power, biomass, wind,
geothermal and solar thermal technology including
photovoltaic.The developing countries face even a
greater challenge to survive in technology and industrial
growth without alternatives sources of energy for
survival[2]. The utilization of energy and national level
income per capita are successfully correlated. At present
figures stand very low for energy consumption per capita
for Pakistan i.e., 490 Kgoe/a which is equivalent to India
but low as compared to China i.e., 1320 Kgoe/a and
Malaysia at 2420 Kgoe/a {source: International Energy
Information Agency (IAEA), 2007]. Pakistan spends more
than 20% of its foreign exchange earnings on oil imports
every year. The urban population has access to
commercial energy sources but the rural population
consumes wood, animal and crop waste for its domestic
energy needs. [2]
Pakistan Power Sector at a Glance.

In
developing countries, energy it is one of main
source of employment besides a revenue for the
government. It has main three subsections
namely generation, transmission and distribution.
Before 1980s, it was considered as a public
sector natural monopoly. From the last two
decades, it is experiencing the restructuring,
privatization and private participation (due to
reforms and globalization process, many
countries liberalized it[3]. In Pakistan, like other
developing countries, electricity sector was a
vertically integrated public sector. In such a
public owned sector, the customer pays the
cost of poor planning (overstaffing,
mismanagement, efficiency and unreliability
of supply) in the form of higher tariff rates
and receives poor quality of service e.g., high
system losses and poor collection of bills
from the customer,. Another reason could be
political instability, which is common in
developing countries especially in South
Asia. To overcome the mentioned problems,
Government of Pakistan (GOP) realized the
situation and due to pressure from the
international donor agencies (IMF, World
Bank and ADB) in 1980s, GOP liberalized
the sector and invited private sector
participation and foreign investment in
thermal generation. This was the beginning
of restructuring of electricity sector in Pakistan.
Pakistan has two integrated public sector
power utilities, the Water and Power
Development Authority (WAPDA) for the
whole country except Karachi which is under
Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KESC).
The system of WAPDA and KESC are
interconnected through 220 kV double
circuit transmission lines. WAPDA owns
about 58% of the countrys total power
generation capacity and serves about 88% of
all the electricity customers in the country,
serving over 13 million customers. The
country
has
a
total
installed generating capacity of about 19522
MW. The installed capacities owned by
various agencies operating in the country. These
are:
Water & Power Development
Authority (WAPDA): 11327 MW
Karachi Electric Supply
Corporation (KESC): 1756 MW
209
Pakistan Atomic Energy

Commission (PAEC): 462 MW
Independent Power Producers
(IPPs): 5977 MW
Ethanol is a clean-burning, high-octane fuel

that is produced from renewable sources. At its
most basic, ethanol is grain alcohol, produced
from crops such as corn.
Policy for Promoting Electricity

Generation from Renewable Energy Sources
Pakistans first promotion measures for
renewable energy sources were
implemented in the early 1980s. For example,
the sixth Pakistan energy plan (1983-1988)
devoted approximately 14 million to the
areas of renewable energy crops, biogas and a
feasibility study for the commercial
exploitation of solar energy. In May 2001, the
two separate research institutions NIST and
PCAT merged to become the Pakistan
Council for Renewable Energy Technology
(PCRET), the main goal being to better
coordinate research activities and avoid
overlaps.
Pure, 100% ethanol is not generally used as a

motor fuel; instead, a percentage of ethanol is
combined with unleaded gasoline to decreases
the fuel's cost and harmful emissions
increasing the fuel's octane rating. Ethanol
reduces harmful tailpipe emissions of Ethanol
is highly biodegradable, making it safer for the
environment.
The Alternative Energy Development Board

(AEDB) was founded in May 2003 for
supplying wind, solar and mini/small
hydropower generated electricity in remote
regions of Pakistan and also to develop the
countrys medium and long term promotion
policy for renewable energy sources. It also
coordinates joint ventures with the aim of
having foreign technologies in the field of
alternative energies fabricated in Pakistan.
AEDB is also playing its part in abatement
of Greenhouse gases and improving the
Environment of the country by promoting
environment friendly Renewable Energy
projects[4].
Ethanol as Renewable Energy

Source
The only natural, renewable carbon
resource known that is large enough to be
used as a substitute for fossil fuels is
biomass. It includes all water and land
based organisms, vegetation, and trees, or
virgin biomass, and all dead and waste
biomass such as municipal solid waste
(MSW), bio solids (sewage) and animal
wastes (manures) and residues, forestry and
agricultural residues, and certain types of
industrial wastes. Unlike fossil fuel
deposits, biomass is renewable in the sense
that only a short period of time is needed
to replace what is used as an energy
resource [5] . The biomass also fixes carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere by
photosynthesis[6].
Any amount of ethanol can be combined with

gasoline, but the most common blends are: E10
and E 85.
E10 - 10% ethanol and 90% unleaded gasoline.
In 2004, about one-third of America's gasoline
was blended with ethanol, most in this 10%
variety.
E85 - 85% ethanol and 15% unleaded gasoline.
E85 is an alternative fuel for use in flexible
fuel vehicles (FFVs). There are currently more
than 4 million FFVs on America's roads today,
and automakers are rolling out more each year.
In conjunction with more flexible fuel
vehicles, more E85 pumps are being installed
across the country. When E85 is not available,
these FFVs can operate on straight gasoline or
any ethanol blend up to 85%.
Importantly, it does not take a special vehicle
to run on "ethanol". All vehicles can use E10
with no modifications to the engine. E85 is for
use in a FFV, so some people confuse
"ethanol" with the blend of 85% ethanol and
15% gasoline[7].
Brazil is the largest producer of ethanol and
has set an example of converting their
transport to biofuels. USA along with other
countries is following but with less interest due
large reserves of indigenous fossil fuels.
Ethanol Manufacture
The majority of the ethanol in the U.S. is
made from corn, but it can also be
produced from other feed stocks such as
grain sorghum, wheat, barley, or
potatoes. Brazil, the world's largest
ethanol producer, makes the fuel from
sugarcane.
210
Ethanolcanbemadefromtwoprocess:
a. Dry mill process
b. Wet mill process
Most of the ethanol in the U.S. is made using
the dry mill method. In the dry mill process,
the starch portion of the corn is fermented into
sugar then distilled into alcohol.
The major steps in the dry mill process are as
below:
1. Milling. The feedstock passes a hammer

mill that grinds it into a fine powder called
meal.
2. Liquefaction. The meal is mixed with

water and alpha-amylase, and then passed
through cookers where the starch is liquefied.
Liquefaction is promoted through heat.
Cookers with a high temperature stage of 120150 C
(bacteria control) and a lower
temperature holding period of 95 C are used.
High temperatures reduce bacteria levels in the
mash.
3. Saccharification. The mash from the
cookers is cooled and the secondary enzyme
(gluco-amylase) is added that convert the
liquefied starch to fermentable sugars
(dextrose).
4. Fermentation. Yeast is added to the
mash that ferments the sugars to ethanol and
carbon dioxide. Using a continuous process,
the fermenting mash is allowed to flow
through several fermenters until it is fully
fermented and leaves the final tank. In a batch
process, The time of stay of the mash in one
fermenter, in the batch process is ~ 48 hours
before the distillation process is started. The
fermented mash is called beer.
6. Dehydration. The alcohol passes

through a dehydration system where the
remaining water will be removed. Most
ethanol plants use a molecular sieve to
capture the last bit of water in the
ethanol. This is pure anhydrous ethanol
that is approximately 200 proofs.
7. Denaturing. Ethanol is made unfit for human
consumption, with a small amount of gasoline (2-5%).
This is done at the ethanol plant.
8. Co-Products. The main co-products are
distillers grain and carbon dioxide.
Distillers grain, used wet or dry, is a
highly nutritious livestock feed. Carbon
dioxide is given off in great quantities
during fermentation and many ethanol
plants collect, compress, and sell it for use
in other industries[8].
Fig 1. Production of Ethanol by Dry Mill Process.
SOURCE: http://chooseethanol.com/what-isethanol/entry/how-is-it-made/
Ethanol Manufacture from Molasses
Molasses, a by product of sugar industry which is
broken down into ethanol. The fermentation is is
an exothermic reaction initiated by yeast, which
secretes two enzymes called invertase and zymase
that act as catalyst for converting sugar into
ethanol-releasingcarbon.dioxide.
5. Distillation. The beer contains ~ 10%

alcohol plus all the non-fermentable solids
from the corn and yeast cells. It is pumped in a
continuous flow, multi-column distillation
system where the alcohol is removed from the
solids and the water. The alcohol leaves the top
of the final column at about 96% strength, and
the residue mash, called stillage, is transferred
from the base of the column for further
processing of this desired co-product.
Molasses is heated to about 20 to 30C in an airtight

container. Yeast is mixed in the molasses. Air is
removed as this will tend to oxidize the mixture
resulting in vinegar (acetic acid or ethanoic acid)
which is is undesirable. CO2 is removed from the
airtight container while fermentation proceeds. Ethanol
and water vapours that are formed are collected and
separated by fractional distillation[9].
211
Electricity from Ethanol

The process can be simply given as follows:
Ethanol boiler steam

turbine
generator
Electricity to grid
Ethanol generators could be the future of
electrical power generation. Ethanol generators
provide an ample amount of power, less to
gasoline, but enough to power everything that
gas does and therefore, fueling of ethanol
electrical generators will be cheaper. The idea
of using waste products and turning it into fuel
is a huge plus.
POTENTIAL OF ETHANOL AS FEUL

IN PAKISTAN
Pakistan suffer from a dearth of 4000MW to
meet the country's demand. This has generated
huge pressures on all the industries either to
install their own units or to call for imports of
petroleum and furnace oil. This has caused
unprecedented burdens on economics and has
made almost all the industries to cut their
production capacity that has resulted in loss of
jobs and uncontrollable inflation of all the
commodities. This is dire need of today that
Pakistan moves into all possible solutions to
cut down the import of oil for its progressive
existence at a slow but affirmative pace.
Ethanol seems to be a promising source to
participate in removal of such a looming
desperate crises.
The sugar cane industry of Pakistan has also
suffered like the rest due to the energy and
water crises. Sugar cane crop is an important
cash crop of Pakistan and is grown on area of
more than one million hectares[10]. It provides
raw material to 77 sugar factories besides
indigenous brown Sugar cottage industry
(APcom, 2003). Dwindling export of molasses
shows that the industry is now converting
larger volumes into ethanol which fetches
higher prices with the rise in oil prices in the
world market. In 2007exporters managed to
get higher prices close to $600 per ton for
ethanol when world oil prices touched $60 a
barrel. However, prices are presently hovering
around $560 to $580 per ton in corollary with
world
oil
prices.
There has been a consistent increase in ethanol
exports for the last six years which indicates
that distilleries are converting larger volume of
molasses into value-added product of ethanol
and exporting all the three grades: fuel

(anhydrous), neutral (ENA) and industrial
(REN) to the Europe. The export of ethanol
has increased from 20,841 tons, year 2000 to
165,406 tons in the year 2007. Presently, 16
distilleries are operating in the country with a
total production capacity of 410,400 tons.
Besides, there are four other units in the
pipeline and after their coming into production,
the total ethanol production capacity in the
country would rise to 632,400 tons, and it
would require around 3.162 million tons of
molasses for conversion.
The operating
distilleries are working at 60% of their
capacity. Hence, need exists for more molasses
from raw sugarcane.
Studies have indicated that that E-85 has more
horsepower generating potential than 87 octane
unleaded gasoline, but has a higher
consumption rate[11]. On November 2, 2004
the price of E-85 was $1.81 and the price of 87
octane unleaded gasoline was $1.88 at the
Petro Plus Station in Garnett, Kansas. At these
fuel prices the cost to produce one horsepower
per hour with E-85 is $0.31 and is $0.15with
87 octane unleaded gasoline. Thus, 87 octane
unleaded gasoline is more efficient in small
gas engines. For E-85 to be more efficient the
price per gallon of E-85 would have to be
nearly 50 percent of the price per gallon of
unleaded gasoline.
It is extremely encouraging to note that Pakistan's
Shakarganj Mills has fired up the country's first
sugarcane-waste biogas plant. The 8 megawatt
cogeneration plant in Jhang supports the sugarcane
mill's on-site power and heating requirements. The plant
is powered by eight Jenbacher biogas engines from GE
Energy's Jenbacher gas engine business, based in
Jenbach, Austria. In addition to powering the mill,
electricity from the plant is being delivered to the
national grid through a 22-year power purchase
agreement with the local grid operator[12].
The ministry of petroleum has suggested that
in Pakistan at least 10 per cent blending should
be made in regular fuel for public transport,
but so far it has not been implemented.
Conclusion
Pakistan sugar cane industry is producing good
amount of ethanol from molasses that is
exported to earn foreign exchange. However,
a large sum of foreign exchange is dumped
into buying oil from the international market.
Need exists that people of Pakistan invest in
smaller units preferably on indigenous
renewable resources and ethanol is an
attractive solution.
212
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
S.Vivek, Energy Future fir India and Pakistan, Petroleum Engineering, Indian
School of Mines, Dhanbad, India.
H.Tariq, April 2010, Pakistan Energy Sector Issues, Energy Efficiency and
Energy Environmental Links, The Lahore Journal of Economics, Lahore School
of Economics, 15.
M. Saleem, Technical Efficiency in Electricity generation of Pakistan-The
impact of Private and Public Ownership.
www.pide.org.pk/pdf/psde20AGM/Technical%/20efficeincy%20electricity
%20generation%20Pakistan20Privateand 10%20public%20ownership.pdf.
Alternative Energy Development Board(AEDB), September 2005, Power
Sector Situation in Pakistan, Islamabad.
K.L. Donald, Biomass for Renewable Energy and Fuels, Encyclopedia of Energy,
Volume 1, 2004, Elsevier Inc.193.
Demirbas, A. 2000. Mechanism of Liquefication and Pyrolysis reactions of Biomass.
Energy conversion.Mgmt.41:633-646.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol.
www.ethanol.org
www.wikipedia.com
Muhammad F.H., Anwar S., Hussain Z. Economics of Sugarcane Production in
Pakistan: A Price Risk Analysis, Int. Res. J. of Finance and Economics, ISSN
1450-2887, Issue 4 (2006).
Warnock, K.. Dickinson, A. George W. Wardlow, & Johnson, D.M., 2005 National
AAAE Research Conference Poster Session 556
213

Future Strategies for Oil Shale Development as a New

Indigenous Energy Resource in Jordan
Jamal O. Jaber1, Tarek Tarawneh2 and Thomas A. Sladek 3
11134, Jordan, Email: jojaber@gmail.com
2
Interdisciplinary Research Consultants, Amman, Jordan
3
Ockham Energy Services, 8820 W. Francis Place, Lakewood, Colorado 80215, U.S.A
ABSTRACT
Indigenous oil shale deposits could satisfy Jordans
demand for liquid and gaseous fuels as well as
electricity for many centuries. Markets also exist
for raw and retorted oil shale, spent shale, and for
sulfur recovered during the upgrading and refining
of crude shale oil. Although the potential benefits
of oil shale development are substantial, complex
and expensive facilities would be required, and
these have serious economic, environmental, and
social implications for the Kingdom and its people.
In January 2006, the United States Trade and
Development Agency (USTDA) awarded a grant to
the Jordanian Ministry of Planning and
International Cooperation to support the analysis of
current oil shale processing technologies and the
application of international expertise to the
development of a oil shale industry in Jordan. The
goal of the technical assistance project was to help
the Governement of Jordan (GoJ) establish shortand long-term strategies for oil shale development
and to facilitate the commercial production of shale
oil in the country. This paper discusses the results
of the project. The Kingdoms current energy
situation and its previous work on oil shale are
summarized, and the incentives and restraints on
oil shale commercialization are described.
Impediments to development are identified, and
possible governmental responses are assessed.
Keywords:
Oil Shale, Jordan, Retorting,
Environment, Economic Analysis
landlocked except for about 26 km of shoreline on

the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea. Most of the land
is on an arid desert plateau. Precipitation is sparse.
Less than 4% of the land is capable of growing
crops. The scarce surface water is fully utilized,
and the large groundwater resources are being
depleted.
Jordan is a "lower middle income country"

according to the World Bank. There are about 6
million Jordanian citizens and about one million
Iraqi refugees and/or visitors. The largest cities are
the capital Amman (1.9 million people), Zarqa (0.5
million), and Irbid (0.28). Major economic
activities are agriculture, light manufacturing,
mining and quarrying, commercial services and
tourism. The Jordanian dinar trades at JD 1.0 to
USD 1.41. The exchange rate for Jordanian Dinar
is about USD 1.41. In 2006, the average gross
domestic product per capita was about US$ 2500;
inflation rate approximately 6.25%; and
unemployment reached 12.5% of the total
workforce [1,2].
In 2006, the average daily energy consumption was
about 107,000 barrels of liquid fuels, and electricity
demand peaked at about two GW. Except for a
small amount of natural gas, in the north-eastern
corner near the Iraqi border, almost all of needed
primary energy is imported. This caused a heavy
burden on the national economy, with an energy
bill of more than three billion US$, in 2006 [3].
Electricity,
BACKGROUND
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is about the
size of Indiana in the United States of America or
Portugal or Hungary in Europe. Jordan is
214
reserves and characteristics of main oil shale

deposits in Jordan [5]. At average oil yield of about
9.0% (roughly 22 gallons per ton (gal/t)) the
potential oil yield, from the previous four deposits
only, is approximately 14 billion barrels, which
could satisfy Jordans liquid fuel and electricity
needs for centuries. It is clear that the all deposits
has acceptable stripping ratio of about unity, which
makes open-pit mining attractive, with relatively
low cost. But the sulfur content is high and the ash
yield is about four times that of a medium grade of
bituminous coal with similar sulfur content. This
makes oil shale a difficult and expensive solid fuel.
Compared with Colorado shale oil (see Table 3),
oil from El Lajjun deposit has (i) less nitrogen,
which is good for refining, (ii) a lower pour point,
i.e. flows at lower temperatures, and (iii) a lower
initial boiling point: it may contain lighter
hydrocarbons, which is generally good [6]. It is
also heavier, which is considered relatively bad,
and it contains about 15 times as much sulfur.
Crude oil and some refined products are imported

from neighboring Arab countries through Aqaba
port, and then transported up-north, to the only
refinery, nearby Zarqa. Natural gas comes in a
pipeline, from Egypt and runs up to the Syrian
border, which at present supplies main power
stations. The huge cost of imported energy, as a
result of prevailing high prices of crude oil in the
international market, has encouraged GoJ to exploit
its vast resources of oil shale and renewable
sources, such as solar and wind energy.
OIL SHALE RESOURCES AND THEIR

QUALITY
Oil shale is a rock that contains kerogen, which is a
complex organic substance that breaks down when
retorted (heated) to form crude shale oil, gases, and
char. Four of Jordans best-known deposits, i.e. El
Lajjun, Sultani, Jurf Ed-Darawish, and Attarat Um
Ghudran, are located about 100-120 km south of
Amman, close to the town of Qatrana - see Fig. 1.
These contain more than 22 billion tonnes of raw
oil shale [4]. Tables 1 and 2 summarize estimated
Fig. 1. Oil shale occurrences in Jordan
Table 1. Estimated reserves of the oil shale deposits

ElLajjun
Sultani
Attarat Um
Ghudran
Wadi
Maghar
Jurf Ed
Darawish
EthThamad
Area (km2)
20.4
24
348
660
90.6
66
Av. thickness oil shale

OS (m)
29.6
31.6
45
40
63.8
72-200
Av. thickness of
overburden (m)
28.8
69.3
53.2
40.5
47.3
142-400
1.6
1.2
Geological reserves (Mt)
1196
1130
24500
31600
8000
11400
Calculated & Indicated

reserve (Mt)
1170
989
(24500)*
21600
2500
Av. Stripping Ratio
* NRA current investigation.
215
Table 2. Summary of chemical and physical properties of main oil shale deposits
El-Lajjun
Sultani
Attarat Um
Ghudran
Wadi
Maghar*
Jurf Ed
Darawish
EthThamad*
Av. oil content (wt%)
10.5
7.5
6.8
5.7
10.5
Total organic content

(Wt %)
22.1
21.5
23.16
20.8
18
Calorific value (kcal/kg)
1590
1210
--
7801270
864
CaCO3 (wt %)
54.3
46.96
52.2
48
69.1
S (wt %)
3.1
2.4
2.6
2.6
2.2
3.2
Density (g/cm3)
1.81
1.96
1.8
2.03
2.1
1.8
Moisture (wt %)
2.43
2.6
1.71
2.7
2.8
2.5
El Lajjun
Colorado
Oil yield (wt.%)
10.5
10.34
Oil yield (gal/ton)
26.0
26.7
Oil yield (bbl/ton)
0.62
0.64
* Information is from few boreholes drilled in the area.
The high sulfur content is a very serious defect,

because it makes the oil corrosive and unstable,
increases the cost of refining, and it is almost
impossible for the finished products to meet
modern quality standards. Sulfur also inhibits the
potential use of the crude shale oil as a fuel for
industrial or utility applications [7,8]. When the
crude shale oil is distilled, the sulfur distributes
itself through all of the fractions produced,
especially in heavy cuts. This, would require
further treatment, upgrading and special
configuration in refineries in order to meet more
stringent specifications of refined products,
consequently associated costs are escalated [9].
Item
Properties of shale oil
DEVELOPMENT FACTORS
The principal factors that could affect
commercialization of Jordans vast oil shale
resources are the readiness and costs of available
extraction and processing technologies, the quality
of the markets for the products and byproducts, the
implications of development for the Kingdoms
social and physical environments, and the
compatibility of Jordans laws and regulations
including those related to health and environment.
Specific gravity
(g/cm3)
0.968
0.920
Gravity (oAPI)
14.7
22.3
Nitrogen (wt.%)
0.66 - 0.9
1.96
Sulfur (wt.%)
8.5 to 10.2
0.61
Pour point (oF)
30
75
Pour point (oC)
-1.1
24
Initial boiling
point ( oF)
171
192
Initial boiling
point (oC)
77
89
Table 3. Fischer assays of oil shale from ElLajjun and Colorado

216
single production module. Experiments would be

conducted with that module to ensure that the
employed technology is practical and beneficial. A
commercial-scale plant, containing many modules,
could then be built. The leading technologies
available to the developers are discussed below.
TECHNOLOGY
Power Generation
Tests with Jordanian oil shale, mainly from El
Lujjun and Sultani, indicate that circulating
fluidized bed combustion boilers (CFBC) are more
suitable than traditional pulverized fuel power
boilers because they can burn larger fuel particles
more completely; they tolerate variations in fuel
properties and operating rates; they are less
susceptible to fouling; and they produce less air
pollution. CFBC boilers, in a wide range of sizes,
are now used commercially for various fuels. They
are used to generate electricity from oil shale in
Estonia, and their use with Jordanian oil shale has
been examined by several firms [10]. Jordanian oil
shale has burned well in pilot-scale CFBC plants,
despite the levels of ash and sulfur, and the
technical risk is low. However the estimated costs
for commercial plants are high [11,12]. A large
power plant (e.g. 400 MW) might be practical if
low-cost financing is obtained and the Kingdom
can tolerate higher power prices. Small power
plants (50 MW or less) would be too expensive.
Subsidies would probably be required for any
plant, and these may be difficult to justify, since
low-cost natural gas is available for power
generation. In a previous paper it was reported that
the unit electricity produced from oil shale powered
plant would far exceed those generated from
traditional thermal power stations fired by heavy
fuel oil or combined cycle plants supplied with
imported natural gas [13]. Moreover, when
environmental costs are taken into consideration
natural gas represents the best option, because there
is no need for pollution abatement technologies.
Additional costs will incur in other types of power
plants due to the combustion of heavy fuel oil or oil
shale.
Petrosix Retorting
The Petrosix process was developed by
Petrobras, the national oil company of Brazil,
beginning in 1956. The intent was to exploit
the huge Irati oil shale deposits and thereby
reduce Brazils absolute dependency on
imported petroleum. Today Brazil produces
most of its liquid fuels from offshore oil wells,
ethanol plants, and its two Petrosix retorts. The
Petrosix process heats coarse oil shale in a
vertical cylindrical vessel. Oil shale enters
through the top, is heated with reheated
recycled gases as it moves down, and is
discharged from the bottom. Oil vapors and
gases are discharged through the top. Part of
the gas is burned to heat the other part, which
is returned to the vessel to heat the oil shale.
Oil recoveries are high, and produced shale oil
quality is good see Fig. 2. Fine oil shale and
the solid pyrolysis product are currently
discarded, but they could be exploited in other
projects [15,16].
Liquid Fuels Production
Fig. 2. Petrosix Complex in Brazil
In the retorting area, Jordan is presently engaged

with five potential project developers under
memoranda of understanding (MOUs) initiated in
2006 and early 2007 [14]. Of which four firms are
considering aboveground processing, in which oil
shale is mined and crushed and then heated in
vessels, and one firm is considering heating the oil
shale in situ (i.e. in place). If an MOU study
produces encouraging results, the GoJ could
negotiate a production sharing agreement with the
developer. The latter, would then construct a small
mine and a pilot processing plant containing a
One retort, built in 1981, can process 1600 tonnes

per day. The other was completed in 1991 and can
process 6200 tonnes per day. The facilitys total
production capacity is about 3870 barrels per day
(bbl/d) of shale oil (480 t/d of fuel oil and 90 t/d of
industrial naphtha, 120 t/d of fuel gas, 45 t/d of
liquefied petroleum gases, and 75 t/d of sulfur).
Waste vehicle tires are also retorted to recover
fuels and materials [17]. The Petrosix technology is
217
early 1980s. It pyrolyzes fine oil shale particles by

mixing them with hot spent shale in an inclined
rotary kiln. Oil vapor is withdrawn and condensed
to yield liquid fuel and non-condensable fraction is
considered a medium-energy fuel gas. Retorted
shale is burned, and the hot ash is returned to the
retort as a heat carrier. Surplus gases and some of
the heavier oil fractions, e.g. tar, are burned to
produce electric power. Oil quality is good, thermal
efficiency and oil recovery ratios are high.
However the equipment is complicated and
capacity factors are relatively low. Both the Kiviter
and Galoter retorts have been operated at large
scale for more than 20 years [21]. Their
performance characteristics should be well
understood; therefore expected technical risk
should be low.
advanced and efficient. It has been operated at

near-commercial scale for more than two decades.
Irati oil shale has high sulfur, as does oil shale in
Jordan, so the Brazilian experience is relevant to
Jordans resources.
Estonian Retorts
Estonia has a diverse and vigorous industry that
exploits the Kukersite oil shale to generate
electricity and produce liquid fuels as well as
manufacture alternative and new materials. About
1.5 million tonnes per year of oil shale is retorted to
Alberta-Taciuk Retorting Process (ATP)

The ATP was developed primarily to process
Canadian tar sands. The processor consists of two
horizontal concentric tubes, rotating together. Oil
shale is charged into one end of the inner tube,
moves horizontally to the other end of that tube,
and then it is transferred to the outer tube (where it
burns in air), moves backwards between the tubes,
and is discharged when it reaches the feed end.
Retorting heat is provided by transferring part of
the hot burned shale into the inner tube where it
contacts the incoming fresh oil shale. The wall
between the tubes is heated by contacting the
retorted oil shale and the hot pyrolysis gases. This
heat also is transferred to the feed material [22-24].
produce 8000 bbl/d of shale oil. Utilities burn

approximately 10.5 million t/yr of raw oil shale to
produce almost 90% of Estonias electrical
demand, and 200 thousand t/yr of oil shale is used
in cement industry see Fig. 3 - [18-20].
Fig. 3. Oil shale plant at Narva, Estonia
Two retorting technologies are used. The Kiviter
retort is a vertical cylindrical vessel that heats
coarse oil shale with recycled gases, steam, and air.
Oil shale enters through the top and is heated with
recycled gases flowing across the moving bed.
Pyrolysis is completed in the lower section of the
retort, where the oil shale is contacted with more
hot gas, steam and air to gasify and burn the
residual carbon, i.e. char. Processed shale is
discharged from the bottom. Oil recoveries are
relatively low, but the equipment is rugged and its
availability is high. Thermal efficiency should be
slightly higher than in the Petrosix retort. Fine oil
shale and some of the solid pyrolysis products are
currently wasted. Viru Chemistry Group Ltd.
(VKG) runs two plants that use Kiviter retorts, and
it is planning to increase shale oil production, but
with a different retort. Eesti Energia AS (the
national utility) uses two TSK140 or Galoter retorts
in its shale oil factory. The Galoter was first built in
The ATP was first used in 1989 to clean

contaminated soils. Its first, and, so far, only use in
the mining industry was in the Stuart oil shale
project at Queensland, Australia see Fig. 4. Stuart
was developed by Suncor, the Canadian tar sands
firm, and Southern Pacific Petroleum (SPP), an
Australian firm. Stuarts single ATP retort was
designed to produce 4500 bbl/d of shale oil from
6000 t/d of oil shale. Commissioning began in July
1999. There were problems with the retort and
other equipment, especially the oil shale dryer.
Although operations were difficult at the beginning
of the project, by the end of 2003 the plant had run
for more than 500 days (up to 96 days without
stopping) and produced more than 1.3 million
barrels. Production rates reached about 82% of the
nominal capacity, and oil recovery ratio touched
218
oil shale from different countries, such as Morocco,

Australia, and the United States. Although the
Paraho technology has not been demonstrated at
commercial scale, it has been used in extended
operations, with oil shales from several countries,
for more than 30 years. A detailed engineering
design study was completed for the retorting
section of a commercial plant that would use the
technology. A preliminary design was completed
for a commercial mine and the balance of the
processing plant. These are important steps towards
preparing the technology for commercial
application. However, the project remained on
paper and no actions were taken to make it a
reality.
94% of targeted design [25]. The high quality oil

was sold as feed to refineries and as heating oil.
Fig. 4. 210 ton per hour Alberta Taciuk Process
(ATP) Retort
There were many complaints from neighbors about
odor and noise, and Greenpeace Australia launched
a persistent campaign to stop the project, citing its
environmental effects and especially the release of
greenhouse gases [26]. Suncor withdrew and SPP
continued until February 2004, when SPPs secured
creditor, Sandefer Capital Partners, placed the
project into receivership. Sandefer acquired the
projects assets through a new company,
Queensland Energy Resources Limited. The plant
has been shut down since mid-2004. Just before the
shutdown, a large quantity of oil shale was
carefully crushed and dried to the plants design
specifications. When processing this feed material,
the ATP retort did achieve its design capacity as
well as expected oil recovery efficiency.
Fig. 5. The Paraho 250 t/d Semiworks Plant in

colorado, ca. 1979
Paraho Retort
In Situ Processing
The Paraho retort is a vertical shaft kiln in which

coarse oil shale moves downward through the
vessel and is gradually heated to the desired
retorting temperatures in a rising stream of hot
gases. Paraho has two configurations: direct
heating and indirect heating retorting systems. In a
directly heated retort, the heat-carrier gas is
generated by burning recycled pyrolysis gas and
the retorted shale in the lower portion of the vessel.
The indirectly heated configuration has a similar
mechanical design but uses an external furnace to
heat the heat carrier gas and does not burn the
retorted shale see Fig. 5. It is similar to the
Petrosix retort. In the 1970s, a 25 ton per day pilot
plant and a 250 ton per day semi-works plant were
built in Colorado and tested with Green River oil
shale [27-30]. The semi-works plant was
demolished in 1980s, but the pilot plant has been
used to make additives for asphalt and to process
With in situ retorting, oil shale is heated

underground, and the oil is drawn to the surface
through wells. True in situ processes do no
mining but may fracture the oil shale or drill
boreholes into it to accelerate the rate of heating.
Modified in situ (MIS) processes mine some of
the shale, break the rest, and retort the broken
material underground. MIS processing was tested
in 1970s and 1980s, but results were inconsistent
and not encouraging [27-30]. Three true in situ
processes are currently being developed in
Colorado. The most advanced is the In-Situ
Conversion Process (ICP) of Shell Oil Company.
Shells process involves drilling holes into the oil
shale, inserting heaters, and gradually heating the
entire zone to retorting temperatures. Oil and gas
are drawn to the surface for processing [31,32].
Shell uses a wall of ice to exclude groundwater
from the zone to be retorted see Fig. 6. A ring of
219
conventional crude oil, which costs much less to

produce.
boreholes is drilled around the zone, and a

refrigerated liquid is circulated through the holes to
freeze the water between the boreholes into a
barrier wall. Water is pumped out, and heating
commences. The ICP technology is not ready for
commercial applications, yet. Its potential
advantages include the avoidance of mining and the
aboveground disposal of processing wastes and
very high quality of produced oil. Potential
disadvantages include high demand for electricity
and water, surface subsidence, groundwater
contamination, and difficulty reaching the
underground waste disposal areas in case
something goes wrong.
To assess the implications of capital cost escalation

and financing strategies, authors' updated previous
cost estimates for oil shale power plants and
syncrude facilities in Jordan and for an oil shale
syncrude project in the United States [27-30,33,34].
The product prices needed to cover operating
expenses and debt service are calculated and
compared to prices with current and forecast prices
of energy products in Jordan. The results suggest
that electricity production is not practical right
now, because the breakeven power cost would be
much larger than the present wholesale price of
electricity. Aboveground retorting to produce
synthetic crude oil does seem promising, so that
technology was chosen for further study. An
economic model was developed for a plant to
produce 50,000 barrels per day of high quality
synthetic crude, i.e. shale oil, from the El Lajjun oil
shale deposit. The model was used to test the
sensitivity of the plants performance to the
following key parameters:
Fig. 6. In-Situ Conversion Process of Shell Oil
Company
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The cost of building chemical plants has soared
since 2001, especially in terms of the U.S. dollar.
Most important reasons behind this are (i) general
inflation, and (ii) deterioration of the dollar, which
has lost 47% of its value compared with a basket of
other tradeable currencies (50% against the Euro;
and about 59% against the Australian dollar).
Equally important is the unprecedented demand for
materials, goods, and services by China, India, the
energy industry, and the oil exporting countries.
High capital costs impede the feasibility of capitalintensive projects, as has been well demonstrated
for gas-to-liquids plants in the Middle East. Oil
shales situation may be even more precarious,
because the technologies have not been proven at
commercial scale, and operating problems are
likely. Shale oil will have to compete with
Facility cost
Equity share of investment
Debt interest rate
Debt tenure
Plant capacity factor
Syncrude price
Price of byproduct sulfur
Cost of mining
Other operating costs
Rates of taxation and tax relief schemes
Inflation
A simpler plant, which would ship crude shale oil

rather than syncrude, was also examined. This
would work only if the oil were destined for lowprice markets (such as cement kilns) or if a robust
refinery, capable of processing the poor-quality
crude, will be available in Jordan. Tables 4, 5, and
6 summarize the results of the sensitivity studies.
Efficient aboveground mining can be used in
Jordan, which should reduce the syncrude price
by about $5 per barrel, compared with
underground mining of oil shale in the U.S.A.
Based on previous estimates, it might cost $3.2
billion to engineer and build a syncrude plant
220
with a design capacity of 50,000 barrels per

day. If the project takes 42 months to complete,
the total investment cost might reach $4 billion,
including interest during construction, financing
fees and expenses, taxes, and initial working
capital.
During the first ten operating years of that

industry, GoJ would collect, on average,
approximately US$114 million per year in
royalties, income taxes, and other similar
payments. Also, the Government could
eliminate the subsidies it pays to fund energy
price equalization pool. For 2007, subsidies
paid to that pool are expected to be JD 170
million, equivalent to US$239 million [35]. The
total benefit of a 100,000 bbl/d industry (taxes
plus reduced subsidies) might reach US$ 353
million per year, or nearly US$ 11 for each
barrel of syncrude that would be produced.
Even if Jordan paid the same for the syncrude
as it would otherwise have to pay for imported
crude, US$ 11 per barrel of those payments
would stay in the Kingdom. Much more would
be retained in the form of salaries for the
workers, satellite businesses, taxes on those
salaries, purchases of goods and services to
supply the industry and the satellite businesses,
taxes on those purchases, and so on.
At a high availability factor of about 90.3%

(330 days per year at design capacity), the
facility would mine 68,000 t/d of oil shale and
ship 43,500 bbl/d of syncrude and 675 t/d of
elemental sulfur. Mining might cost $4.48 per
tonne ($4.06 per ton), and other operations and
maintenance activities could cost $284 million
per year.
If the investment were financed 30% with
equity and 70% with a 10-year loan earning
11%, the breakeven price of the syncrude
would be around US$ 53 per barrel. If the oil
were sold for $61.48 per barrel, which is the
average price forecast through 2030 by the U.S.
Energy Information Agency, the after-tax cash
flow would generate approximately 14%
internal rate of return (IRR) on the invested
equity. With a 10% annual discount rate, the
present value of the equity cash flow, which
includes the original equity investment plus
dividends to the owners, is around US$ 512
million over 20 years. The present value of
royalties and other taxes collected by GoJ is
estimated to be about $589 million. The
minimum coverage of the debt service by
operating profit is 1.29.
The tax relief offered by Jordans Investment

Promotion Law (IPL) could enhance returns.
The maximum incentiveexemption from up to
75% of income taxes for 10 years would
increase IRR from 14% to 15%. To raise IRR to
about 16%, this would cost Jordan US$ 926
million in lost taxes over 20 years, the
equivalent of $2.80 per barrel of syncrude
shipped. Exemption from all taxes would raise
IRR to nearly 17.4%.
Jordan has initiated MOUs with five developers
and has released a document that suggests terms
for production sharing agreements.
That
document proposes to replace existing taxes
with a petroleum tax of up to 65% of profits
and a production royalty of up to 7% of
revenues. Compared with the IPL scheme, the
Government would have to give up more tax
revenues to induce the same increase in IRR.
However the Government could share any
windfall profits. Incentives apply for the full
life of a project and not just the first 10 years.
IRR is most sensitive to syncrude revenue,

which is determined by syncrude price and the
plants capacity factor. IRR is less sensitive to
the capital cost and the non-mining operating
costs. It is least sensitive to mining costs and to
the price of the sulfur byproduct. IRR is very
sensitive to the terms of the debt: with 10-year
loan tenure, it varies from 18% with a 5%
interest rate to 10% with 17% interest. But,
with 11% interest, the IRR varies from 14%
with a 10-year term to 17% with a 20-year
term.
Returns are also sensitive to the size of the
equity share. Both dividends and taxes rise
with equity share, but IRR declines. With 10%
equity, the IRR is 21%. With 50% equity, the
IRR is 12%. An all-equity deal would have an
IRR of only about 10.6%.
Inflation could help a project, but only if

revenues inflate as quickly as expenses. This
may not happen, because oil prices do not
respond to inflation. If uniformly applied,
inflation of 3.5% per year would increase the
IRR from 14% to 19.5%. Jordans 2006
inflation rate of 6.5% would raise it to 24%. If
oil prices did not rise as rapidly as operating
costs, a project could soon collapse. If oil
remained at US$ 55 per barrel while costs rose
by 6.5% per year, the project would have to
survive 14 years of negative cash flow. This
A viable oil shale industry could convey great

financial benefits to the Kingdom. A 100,000
bbl/d industry would produce about as much
liquid fuel as Jordan currently consumes.
221
Kingdom has a serious water problem: water

master plan expects consumption in 2020 to be
nearly twice the available supply of renewable
natural water, so supply shortfalls are likely [36]. A
deficit of 320 million m3 is forecasted at year 2010,
when the first small oil shale plants may appear in
the country. Possible mitigation methods include
water reclamation, use of more treated wastewater
in industries and for irrigation, desalination of
seawater and brackish water, and development of
new sources of groundwater and of surface water,
including increased deliveries from Syria [37].
Despite these efforts, shortfalls are likely, and large
investments will be needed to reduce them.
vulnerability is troublesome, because Saudi

Arabia has indicated a preference for a steady
price of about $50 per barrel.
Jordans need for an oil refinery offers an
interesting opportunity. If the new refinery
could process crude shale oil, much of the
market risk would be removed from an oil shale
project. Capital and operating costs would be
substantially reduced for the project, and it
might obtain cheaper financing. However,
revenues would also decrease, because less oil
would be sold and at a lower price. A robust
refinery for Jordan should be investigated,
because even without oil shale, Jordan could
reduce its energy costs by shopping for
inexpensive refinery feed-stocks.
Oil shale facilities will use water in mining,

retorting, upgrading, refining, power generation,
waste disposal, site reclamation, and in the cities
where new workers and their families will live.
They will also produce water, by draining wet
mines and from drying and retorting the oil shale.
Both water production and water consumption vary
with scale of operation and the nature of the
extraction and processing technologies. Large
plants to produce electric power from oil shale will
use about 35% more water to produce the same
amount of energy as a shale oil plant. However
electricity may be considered to be more useful and
therefore entitled to more water. There is
essentially no surface water in the oil shale areas,
except during flash floods. There are two large
aquifers, which are already important water sources
for cities, farms, mines, and industries. If an oil
shale industry emerges in Jordan in the near future,
it will probably use surface mining and indirectlyheated aboveground retorts. The average net water
usage could be approximately 3.2 barrels of water
per barrel of upgraded shale oil produced. A
100,000 barrel per day industry might consume
approximately 18.9 million m3 per year: as much as
0.5 million Jordanians, as many as lived in the city
of Zarqa. If this industry comes to pass, it could
raise Jordans water supply deficit in 2020 by 5%,
at least.
In summary, the economic outlook for an oil shale

syncrude project in Jordan is cautiously optimistic.
There is optimism because fairly conservative
modeling suggests the project could be
economically feasible. There is caution because the
feasibility is delicate, and a project could collapse
if substantial but conceivable changes occur in
investment cost, oil price, capacity factor, or
operating costs; or if the debt is unfavorably
structured. A project could also be destroyed if
several key variables changed by small increments
in the wrong direction at the same time. An adverse
shift of less than 4.5% in capital cost, oil revenue,
operating costs, and debt payments could transform
a good if not spectacular business into a project that
cannot pay its bills and has a present value of
minus US$ 99 million.
ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
ANDF
LEGAL
The Environment
Jordan's renewable natural water resources are 800
to 850 million m3 per year. The water is provided
by precipitation, by the in-flowing Yarmuk and
Jordan rivers, and by renewable and fossil aquifers.
Priorities for water use are human needs first and
then followed by municipal, tourism, industries,
and irrigated agriculture. Despite its low priority,
agriculture used 64% of Jordans water supply in
2006. Agricultural use is declining as well drilling
is restricted, water meters are mandated, and farm
land is converted to other uses. At the same time,
water use by municipalities and tourism is rising
rapidly. Although Jordanians use little water, the
A commercial-scale oil shale project would reshape

the social, economic, and political life of the
communities in the oil shale region. Development
will occur in remote, sparsely populated, and nonindustrialized areas with only limited infrastructure
in place. If development is rapid, the local
communities may suffer from inadequate utility
services and insufficient public services, such as
222
public transportation, education, health care, and

police and fire protection. The GoJ and the
developers should provide resources, such as
planning assistance and money, in advance of
development. Oil shale development could also
have negative effects on air, land, and water in the
oil shale region. Specific concerns include [38]:
Gases combustion controls and selective

catalytic reduction for NOx. Oxidation and
chemical and physical absorption processes for
sulfur compounds. Catalytic thermal oxidation
for hydrocarbons and floating head tanks for
product storage.
Mining release of silica, metallic and organic

salts, mercury, methane, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides (NOx), unburned fuels, and
nuisance dusts during blasting, crushing,
transportation, and materials handling.
Leaching of salts and organic compounds from
disturbed overburden and oil shale.
Liquid and solid wastes conventional

wastewater treatment systems, evaporation
ponds, landfill liners, filters, leachate
collection and treatment systems, compaction
and solidification.
Except for high sulfur content, there is nothing
particularly difficult about managing oil shale
wastes, because they are similar to those produced
in other industries. Scarcity of water and the scale
of operations will complicate matters. Although
standard control technologies may work well, they
have not been validated with Jordanian oil shale at
commercial scale. This concern should be
addressed during pilot plant and modular testing
programs. Another important issue is the quality of
final products from the shale oil which usually
have high contents of aromatics constitute,
especially the light cut, i.e. mainly gasoline and
kerosene produced from shale oil [40-44]. Many
researchers reported that high levels of nitrogen,
sulfur, ash, and toxic inorganic matter in the
derived shale oil by pyrolysis, particularly if they
are present in high concentration, might limit the
use of this fuel as a direct substitute for petroleumderived commercial fuels, since the fuel would
represent a health hazard [45-47]. For example,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons containing sulfur
and nitrogen are important because of their
carcinogenic and/or mutagenic activity. Also,
increased concentrations of such compounds have
been shown to give increased soot and pollutant
emissions in combustion systems, therefore, it
requires more extensive refining, e.g. cleaning and
hydro-treatment, than crude oil [48].
Retorting and upgrading release of hydrogen

sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, carbon disulfide,
sulfur dioxide, polycyclic organic matter, trace
metals, NOx, and particulate matter, especially
from the retorts during discharging and
maintenance. Accidental discharge of process
water condensates. Venting and loss of
hydrocarbon vapors from poorly sealed storage
tanks and pipelines. Discharge of heavy metals
during catalyst regeneration.
Thermal energy and power systems
emissions of sulfur dioxide, NOx, and
particulate matter in stack gases. Discharge of
blowdowns and water treatment chemicals.
Waste management disposal of retorted oil
shale, spent shale, spent catalysts, process
waters and sludge, chemicals from treatment
of water and wastewater, fly ash, and domestic
wastes from worker facilities and related
municipal growth.
Severity of the impacts will vary with employed
technology, scale of operation, and types and
efficiencies of environmental control systems. The
most obvious concerns are air pollution from
mining and processing the high-sulfur oil shale, as
well as the potential leaching of contaminants from
waste disposal areas. Both air-borne releases and
leaching could threaten the aquifers that are
Jordans principal source of potable water [39].
Control methods are available for all of the areas of
concern. For example:
Jordan has endorsed many of the international

conventions that promote environmental protection
and sustainable development. The Ministry of
Environment has central responsibility for
environmental protection, in cooperation with the
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources and the
Ministry of Health. A long series of laws has
Dust water sprays, wetting agents, paving,

enclosures, filters, wet and dry scrubbers,
precipitators
223
Principles. These are voluntary guidelines for

evaluating the social and environmental risks
associated with the financing of projects to develop
natural resources. The Principles evolved from
practices of the World Bank and, as of May 2007,
had been adopted by 51 global financial
institutions, including the great majority of lenders
that might be drawn to oil shale projects in Jordan.
Although there are no specific standards for oil
shale activities, the general standards for social and
environmental assessment, analysis of labor and
working conditions, waste management, pollution
prevention and abatement, occupational health and
safety, indigenous peoples, and other topics would
certainly apply. If an oil shale project does not
comply with the Equator Principles, the
participating financial institutions will not issue
loans.
Those
51
institutions
comprise
approximately 90% (i.e. about $28 billion in 2006)
of the private global project finance capacity for
natural resources projects.
established criteria for protecting the environment.

For oil shale, the most relevant of these are the Air
Protection By-Law No. 28 (2005), the Environment
Impact Assessment (EIA) By-Law No. 37 (2005),
and the Jordanian Emissions Standards for
Electricity Generation (1999). By-Law No. 37 is
particularly important because it requires a
comprehensive EIA for large projects such as oil
shale plants. The framework for Jordans EIA
process is in keeping with global standards.
Regulations have evolved which will likely require
extensive study of the baseline conditions in the
area to be affected by oil shale development. They
will also require thorough definition of the
expected range of gross emissions, evaluation of
proposed control technologies, analysis of
alternatives, atmospheric dispersion modeling,
evaluation of water requirements and impacts on
water quality, consultation with concerned
stakeholders and the public at large, and evaluation
of archaeological, social, and natural values.
Although the assessment process has been
unevenly applied, progress is apparent. The
inclusion of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), which can represent broad-based
community concerns, is especially significant. The
Stuart oil shale project in Australia was subjected
to an intense campaign by an activist organization
because of greenhouse gas releases and their
implications for global warming [26]. Oil shale
projects in Jordan may also be troubled by such
activities. GoJ should pay attention to monitoring
the effects of industrial developments and
enforcing regulations where monitoring exposes
violations. Bonding to guarantee adequate
reclamation and closure at the end of a projects
life are also needed. Although there are no
international standards, many governments require
an irrevocable letter of credit, full cash bond, or
bond insurance policy.
Legal Framework
Jordans emerging oil shale industry will be shaped
by mandates covering mining, environmental
protection, land ownership, property rights
limitations, financial subsidies and other incentives.
The companies that will constitute this industry,
including foreign investors, will be organized and
registered under the Companies Law No. 22 of
1997, as amended. The standard corporate
structures can be accommodated under this law and
its amendments, and other arrangements could
probably be negotiated if in the mutual interest of
the developers and the Kingdom. The mining
sector is governed by the Organization of Natural
Resources Affairs Law (Law No. 12 for the year
1968) and Mining Regulation No. 131 for the year
1966. These establish that all minerals in Jordan are
owned by the Government and may be used in
trade only with the consent of the Government.
Limits are imposed on the geographical extent of
an extraction activity. Procedures are defined for
accessing and using a site and for protecting water
resources, holy sites and other special areas, and
the health and safety of workers as well as the
public.
International mining and energy companies are

becoming increasingly involved in Jordans
minerals businesses. Their involvement in Jordans
oil shale industry is very likely, because of the
complexity, long lead times, and investment
requirements. This is significant, because good
governance is a priority for many of these
companies, and they have the technical and
financial resources to provide for environmental
and social sustainability. Their participation, and
the support of multilateral financial institutions,
may depend on compliance with the Equator
Two new draft laws, (i) the Law for the Minerals
and Petroleum Regulatory Commission and (ii) the
224
Law for the Jordanian Geologic Survey

Commission, are under development. The first
commission will regulate and monitor the industry
and facilitate the establishment of projects,
including those that have MOUs with the GoJ. The
second commission will be responsible for
research, surveys, and the promotion of mineral
products. These laws are intended to overcome
regulatory weaknesses and to clarify the framework
under which projects will be developed. The
principal environmental mandates are provided
under the Environmental Protection Law No. 1 for
the year 2003. In which the Ministry of
Environment is designated to be the responsible
authority in the area of environmental protection
and the competent reference for permitting,
monitoring, and regulating the industry,
specifically as related to waste management,
hazardous materials, and protection of the quality
of soils and water resources.
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
AND
Jordans domestic recoverable energy resources are

limited and lag far behind the demands of
increasing population and economic growth. Thus,
the country at present relies, and will continue to
do so in the near future, almost solely on the
combustion of imported fossil fuels in order to
satisfy its national energy demand. This adds on
pressure on government to act swiftly and adopt
wise plans in order to ensure a reliable and secure
energy supply for economic and social
developments with serious considerations to
minimize adverse environmental consequences
associated with oil shale development [49].
Technology
Currently, the GoJ is engaged with five potential
oil shale developers. Its approach to enlisting
external help to create local oil shale industries
appears sound. This should result in the evaluation
of a broad range of aboveground retorting
technologies for Jordans near-surface deposits,
and in the positioning of a leading in situ
technology for the deeper and thicker ones. The
modular progression, where a developer uses one
retort to generate essential data and then scales up
if appropriate, is sound and prudent. However it
will introduce delays and probably will increase
costs. It also may result in production of a difficult
waste product: small quantities of crude shale oil.
The GoJ could ease this waste problem by
providing a refinery capable of converting that
material into useful products. Jordan should also
build its technical capacity to facilitate and monitor
the industry. It may be difficult to add staff,
improve facilities, and enhance training, given
Jordans limited resources. Many of Jordans
neighbors in the Middle East and North Africa face
similar challenges, in that they have oil shale
resources but lack the expertise and capacity to
benefit from them. The GoJ should consider
leading an international effort to overcome the
constraints, by creating an international oil shale
commercialization center. The primary aims of
such center are (i) to enhance understanding of the
worlds oil shale resources, (ii) to improve the
commercial practicality of existing conversion
technology, and (iii) to explore and perfect new,
beneficial, and sustainable ways to extract useful
An oil shale project is very likely to be affected by

the Equator Principles. Jordans existing laws and
regulations do comply with the Principles, except
in the areas of cumulative impacts and the efficient
production, delivery, and use of energy. Thus, the
GoJ should correct this deficiency. The mining
sector is important to Jordans economy.
Foreigners are allowed to invest in the industry
under special agreements which provide secure
title and rights and assure stability of the fiscal
regime over a projects lifetime. That regime offers
relatively low tax rates, competitive royalties, and
profit sharing on an equitable basis. The principal
concerns of many investors (foreign exchange,
repatriation of capital and profits, ownership rights,
assignation, rights to operate and market,
arbitration of disputes, and regulatory stability) are
included in the regime, which should provide a
reasonable level of comfort to investors in the oil
shale industry. Jordans laws also cover labor and
employment matters, arbitration, protection of
intellectual property, and public and occupational
health.
225
developers. Rates of water use should be

weighed
when
evaluating
competing
proposals. Design changes could substantially
reduce water consumption.
Water should be priced appropriately. A tiered
pricing structure that discourages waste may
be an acceptable solution.
Developers should be encouraged to cooperate
with each other and with other users to develop
non-conventional water resources, such as
treated wastewater. Sharing of resources would
provide economies of scale and could make
water reclamation and reuse much more
practical.
energy and materials from oil shale in Jordan and

elsewhere.
Economics
Oil shale retorting and power plants will be
expensive, and their energy products are likely to
cost more than what can be obtained from
conventional sources which Jordanians are
accustomed to paying. Feasibility of a retorting
facility will be strongly sensitive to oil prices,
availability and capacity factors, which the
Government cannot control. However the
Government can do other things to influence a
projects feasibility, principally by participating in
the emerging industry and helping it to secure a
place in Jordans energy economy and, most
importantly, to obtain low cost financing.
Specifically, the GoJ could:
Environment
The framework and nature of laws regarding
environmental and social sustainability issues is
good. Needed agencies and institutional framework
exist to administer the laws. Proper regulations to
supply details for administering the laws appear to
exist as well. However, improvements are still
needed in the following areas:
Install a refinery capable of handling a plants

output, thereby reducing costs and market risk.
Reduce investment cost by helping developers
secure debt and equity, thereby reducing fundraising fees and expenses.
Take positions in the projects (as done in the
phosphate mining and potash industries),
thereby providing access to inexpensive
multilateral financing, with lower interest rates
and longer terms.
Solicit grants from concerned nations and
foundations to pay for planning, infrastructure
construction, and training programs.
Provide appropriate forms of tax relief to
encourage efficient, profitable operations
without removing technical and managerial
risks, which should be retained by the
developers.
Give more attention to the monitoring and

enforcement of environmental regulation of
major industrial projects.
Strengthen agency staffing, training, capacity
building, data, and tools for effective
regulation.
Improve baseline studies and impact modeling,
which are of uneven quality.
Standardize procedures to bond projects for
reclamation and closure, security, health and
safety, and enforcement.
Carefully consider the Equator Principles in
structuring
environmental
management
programs for oil shale projects.
Water
Strategic Implementation Plan
A sizable shale oil industry would substantially

aggravate the water supply problem in Jordan.
Diversion of water to oil shale development will
impact current users and increase the expected
supply shortfalls. The following activities are
recommended to ease this problem:
The Government has taken an important step by

inviting private firms to participate as developers of
oil shale projects and suppliers of energy to the
Kingdom. Accomplishing the rest of the
Governments goals will require a large number of
discrete tasks, which can be arranged into any
number of strategic plans. The overall process is
estimated to take long time until the first
commercial shale oil is produced: expected to
occur at the end of this decade (i.e. between 20162020). The time could be reduced if the
government decides to provide necessary kick-off
for oil shale development companies. However,
For planning purposes, the GoJ should obtain

water use estimates for Jordanian conditions.
Existing estimates were developed for the
U.S.A. and Estonia. Even if the same
technologies were used in Jordan, substantially
different amounts of water would be required.
Water conservation should be emphasized in
the
Governments
negotiations
with
226
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and Behre Dolbear
& Company (USA), Inc. The contract was
administered by the Jordanian Ministry of Planning
and International Cooperation. The contract was
funded by the U.S. Trade and Development
Agency (USTDA), an agency of the U.S.
Government, under Grant Number GH062127073.
substantial risks of technical and economic failure

and social and environmental damage would result.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on work performed in 2007 by
the authors under a contract entitled Technical
Assistance on Oil Shale Resources Development in
Jordan. The contract was between and the
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Table 4: Summary Results of Sensitivity Studies
Base Case Results:
Base
New
IRR
IRR
PV of AT
Minimum
Value
Value
Value
Change
Cash
DSCR
14.0%
512
1.29
Decrease by 10%
Syncrude price
$/bbl
61.48
55.33
9%
-33%
(73)
1.08
Capacity factor
90.3%
81.3%
10%
-29%
(13)
1.10
M$
3,220
2,898
17%
23%
816
1.43
Non-mining O&M
M$/yr
284
255
17%
19%
836
1.41
Debt interest rate
%/yr
11.0%
9.9%
15%
6%
603
1.35
Equity share
30%
27%
14%
2%
528
1.24
Debt tenure
years
10
14%
-2%
507
1.21
Syncrude price
$/bbl
61.48
67.63
19%
34%
1,100
1.50
Capacity factor
90.3%
99.4%
18%
31%
1,038
1.48
M$
3,220
3,542
11%
-18%
209
1.18
Non-mining O&M
M$/yr
284
312
11%
-20%
155
1.16
Debt interest rate
%/yr
11.0%
12.1%
13%
-6%
420
1.23
Equity share
30%
33%
14%
-2%
497
1.35
Debt tenure
years
10
11
14%
2%
518
1.36
Facility cost
Increase by 10%
Facility cost
Notes:
a. Internal rate of return (IRR) on equity investment from dividends

b. Present value (PV) of after-tax (AT) cash flow at 10% discount rate
c. Minimum debt service coverage ratio (DSCR): operating profit divided by debt service payment
Table 5: Threshold Values for Project Failure (a)

229

Years
with
Change
Negative
PV of
AT
Minimu
m
PV of
Value
from Base
IRR
Cash Flow
Cash, M$
DSCR
Taxes,
M$
Base Case
--
--
--
14%
512
1.29
589
Oil price
$/bbl
61.48
None
--
90.3%
None
M$
4,027
None
Non-mining O&M
M$/yr
284
None
Debt term
years
10
None
Debt interest
%/yr
11.0%
None
$/bbl
53.02
Down 14%
8%
10
(252)
1.00
324
--
76.5%
Down 15%
8%
10
(252)
1.00
322
M$
5,190
Up 29%
8%
10
(326)
1.00
408
4. Non-mining O&M costs up
M$/yr
345
Up 21%
8%
10
(251)
1.00
338
5. Debt term down
Years
Down 4 years
15%
778
0.93
681
6. Debt interest up
%/yr
17.5%
Up 59%
10%
10
(27)
1.00
405
--
--
--
Capacity factor
Investment
Worse Cases
1. Oil price down
2. Capacity factor down
3. Investment up
Notes:
a. Project fails when one or more operating years has negative cash flow
b. Internal rate of return (IRR) on equity investment from dividends
c. Present value (PV) of after-tax (AT) cash flow at 10% annual discount rate
d. Debt service coverage ratio (DSCR) : operating profit divided by debt service payment
e. Present value (PV) of Government taxes and other collections at 10% annual discount rate
230
Table 6: Sensitivity Cases

Years with
Change
Negative
PV of AT
Mini
mum
Value
from Base
IRR
Cash Flow
Cash, M$
DSC
R
9%
(99)
0.95
$/bbl
58.81
Down 4.35%
86.4%
Down 4.35%
M$
4,203
Up 4.35%
Non-mining O&M
M$/yr
296
Up 4.35%
Debt term
years
Down 1 year
Debt interest
%/yr
11.5%
Up 4.35%
Base Case
--
14%
512
1.29
Oil price
$/bbl
61.48
None
90.3%
None
M$
4,027
None
Non-mining O&M
M$/yr
284
None
Debt term
years
10
None
Debt interest
%/yr
11.0%
None
--
22%
1,329
1.71
$/bbl
64.15
Up 4.35%
94.3%
Up 4.35%
M$
3,852
Down 4.35%
Non-mining O&M
M$/yr
271
Down 4.35%
Debt term
years
11
Up 1 year
Debt interest
%/yr
10.5%
Down 4.35%
Pessimistic Case
Oil price
Capacity factor
Investment
Capacity factor
Investment
Optimistic Case
Oil price
Capacity factor
Investment
Notes:
231

a. Internal rate of return (IRR) on equity investment from dividends
b. Present value (PV) of after-tax (AT) cash flow at 10% annual discount rate
c. Debt service coverage ratio (DSCR) : operating profit divided by debt service payment
d. Present value (PV) of taxes and other Governmental collections at 10% annual discount rate
232

UTILIZATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIONAL IN

PAKISTAN A GOLE ORIENTED APPROACH THROUGH
INDUSTRY-CUM-ACADEMIA LINKAGE
Muhammad Shahid Khalil, UET Taxila
And Ajaz Bashir Janjua HMC Taxila
AbstractDue to the recent power crisis in

Pakistan, it is essential to utilize the god gifted
renewable energy potentials in the form of
hydro-power, solar, wind etc. With recent
developments in emerging technologies
globally, it is the basic need for indigenous
development of renewable energy resources. It
can be done through research and development
by bridging the gaps between industries and
technical institutions.
In the world, this approach is being carried out
not only for the development but for
sustainability of the R&D in the field of
renewable energies. Local industries can play a
vital role in using latest computational
techniques in the research and development
areas with the utilization of technical and
engineering institutions. For sustainable
development of renewable energy resources in
the country, local industry have to come
forward and contribute toward the betterment
of the country.
Key words Renewable Energy, Hydropower, Wind energy, sustainability, industry.
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan has enormous renewable energy
resources. Renewable Energy resources and
technologies have the potential to provide
solutions to the long-standing problems
being faced by the country's economy, the
industry, the environment and the masses in
the consumption of traditional sources of
energy. It is only through devising such
solutions that the development of nations
can continue without hindrance, and so
contribute
towards
sustainable
developmental goals.
The renewable energy sources like wind

energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, ocean
energy, biomass energy and fuel cell
technology can be used to overcome energy
shortage in Pakistan.
The issue is of development of renewable
energy. The green activism has influenced
energy policy makers all over the world with
expectation that an era of new energy
revolution is at hand. Government of Pakistan
(GoP) has also lately started taking interest in
the development of renewable energy through
induction of local industry and technological
institutions.
The global trend for electricity from renewable
sources like hydro, wind, solar, etc has been to
remain 'off-grid' or stand alone projects
delivering electricity to households, buildings,
isolated communities and industry for captive
use. There are certain advantages in having a
decentralized structure when electricity is to be
provided to far flung areas where generation
has proximity to consumers.
The implications of renewable energy
technology supplying electricity on a large
scale has important technological and cost
related problems as compared to fossil fuels.
Renewable particularly wind energy
has
shown low levels of power generation of
its installed capacity. While fossil fuel plants
deliver capacity utilization ranging from
seventy to ninety percent, the best available
renewable energy sources
Pakistan has huge potential for exploiting
renewable energy resources. It has a
hydropower potential of 41000 MW, wind
233
346,000 MW and whopping solar energy of 2.9

million MW. All potential (for power
generation) except for hydropower is being
lost.
institutions can play important role for the

proper utilization of the energy potential.
Utilization of renewable energy resources like
hydro-power, wind-power, solar energy etc can
play vital role overcome the existing energy
crisis in the country.
There was an urgency of closing gap between

energy needs and energy supply and renewable
energy was the best guarantee for sustainable
development.
II - DEVELOPMENT OF RENEWABLE
ENERGY :
I - RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL:

Green activism has influenced energy policy
makers all over the world with expectation that
an era of new energy revolution is at hand.
Government of Pakistan (GoP) has also lately
started taking interest in the development of
renewable energy with the establishment of
Alternative Energy Development Board in the
country.
Pakistan has wide spectrum of high potential of

renewable energy sources, conventional and
non-conventional as well, which have not been
adequately explored, exploited or developed.
As a result, the primary energy supplies today
are not enough to meet even the present
demand.
Larger part of the rural areas does not have the
electrification facilities because either they are
too remote or too expensive to connect to the
national grid. Therefore, Pakistan, like other
developing countries of the region, is facing a
serious challenge of energy deficit. The
development of the renewable energy
sources can play an important role in
meeting this challenge.
There are different primary energy sources such as

thermal, nuclear or renewable energy which make
use of different installations and transformation
processes. Investment in technological processes
are generally for the long term and are virtually
irreversible. The global trend for electricity form
renewable sources like wind, solar, and bio-mass
has been to remain 'off-grid' or stand alone projects
delivering electricity to households, buildings,
isolated communities and industry for captive
use. There are certain advantages in having a
decentralized structure when electricity is to be
provided to far flung areas where generation has
proximity to consumers.
Countrys energy demand had grown at an

annual consumption growth rate of 4.8% in the
past five years but now it is expected to grow at
8 to 10% per annum till the end of current
decade. Therefore, need exists for a high and
sustained growth in energy supply and
infrastructure capacity of 7 - 8% per annum to
support the steady growth in the Countrys
GDP. Hydel power being most inexpensive,
needs utmost attention.
The implications of renewable energy technology

supplying electricity on a large scale has
important technological and cost related
problems as compared to fossil fuels.
has
Renewable particularly wind energy
shown low levels of power generation of its
installed capacity.
Potential of the renewable energy resources

must be utilized by the industry to overcome the
energy crisis of the country. Pakistan's private
and public sector industry should take one step
ahead to utilize this potential for the betterment
of the country. It can be done more efficiently
by the industry through cooperation with
academia. The linkage between industry and
As renewable energy technologies are getting

better traction in the world (many US states
now mandate nearly 10-20% of all energy to be
derived from renewable sources), prices per
KwH are coming down. Wind energy is now
almost competitive with natural gas derived
234
electricity, and solar is not that far behind as

well. Germany and Spain have made huge
inroads in both these sectors. But Pakistan will
be left behind if it does not quickly start
climbing the experience curve.
HYDEL POWER AND POWER

GENERATION CAPACITY OF
PAKISTAN
The main sources of electricity generation in
Pakistan are hydel, oil, gas, coal and nuclear
power. Among these, hydel power is the only
renewable source of energy; the others are
mainly fossil fuels. Hydel power is also the
least expensive form of electricity.
III : HYDRO-POWER ENERGY .

Hydropower source of energy is very well
known in Pakistan and there is ever growing
experience in this sector to develop the
hydropower potential indigenously in the
country. The hydro potential was estimated at
about 50,000 MW out of which about 6,500
MW has been developed over the past 50 years
through mega-hydel plants and the remaining
has yet to be exploited. The northern areas of
the country are rich with hydropower
resources.
There are five major hydropower generation

projects in Pakistan: namely, Tarbela, Mangla,
Warsak and Chashma and Ghazi Barotha which
have a capacity of 3478, 1000, 240, 187 and
1450 MW respectively. There are also several
smaller hydel schemes whose combined
capacity is about 108 MW.
Potential of Water-Energy :
Theenergyofwaterhasbeenharnessedasearlyas
the antiquity through the water mill. Nowadays,
thisenergyisusedinhydroelectricpowerstations
to generate electricity. Its working principle is
simple: water drives turbines, which in turn drive
alternators. These alternatorsturn the mechanical
energy developed by the turbines into electrical
energy.Thepowerofahydropowerplantdepends
on the quantum and head of water that is
available.
Hydropower source of energy is very well

known in Pakistan with ever growing
experience to develop Hydropower potential
indigenously in the country. The hydropotential was estimated at about 50,000 MW,
out of which about 4,800 MW has been
developed over the past 50 years through megahydel plants and the remaining has yet to be
exploited.
Hydro energy is a renewable source of energy

based on the natural rhythm of water cycle. It
generates about 15% of the power generated in
Europe. About 80% of all the hydroelectric
production of the world is concentrated in four
regions: North America, Western Europe, South
AmericaandEasternAsia.
Northern areas of the country are rich with

hydropower resources. In the northern areas of
Pakistan, the results of the hydrological surveys
revealed that there are numerous small
streams and waterfalls, with strong and violent
flow, having sufficient potential for electricitygeneration through micro-hydroelectric power
plants. The recoverable potential in microhydropower (MHP) units upto 100 kW is
roughly estimated to be 300 MW on water-falls
in northern Pakistan.
There is a need to develop the hydropower

capacity of Pakistan. The government is
considering large projects like Basha to take
care of future needs. Such projects will also add
to the national storage capacity. Since the
completion of Tarbela Dam in 1977, no major
storage facility has been constructed. However,
to augment the hydropower capacity, additional
power units have been installed at Tarbela and
the Mangla Raising Project is being
undertaken.
WAPDA, PCRET, and other public and

private-sector organizations, like Azad Jammu
& Kashmir (AJK) Electric Board, Sarhad
Hydrelectric Organization (SHYDO), Northern
Areas Public Works Department and Aga
Khan Rural Support Programme, are investing
235
for the development of the hydroelectric plants

of various generating capacities, i.e., very large
hydro plants, small hydro plants, and micro
hydro plants.
19 barrages/headworks, 12 link canals, 45 canal

commands and some 99,000 watercourses. The
total length of the canal-system is about 58,450
km with watercourses, farm channels and field
ditches running another 160,000 km in length.
The canal system has a huge hydropowerpotential at numerous sites/locations on these
irrigation canals, ranging from 1MW to more
than 10MW, which can be utilized for
developing small hydro-power stations, using
low-head high-discharge water-turbines in
Punjab and Sindh provinces.
Besides, there is an immense potential for

exploiting water-falls in the canal network,
particularly in Punjab, where low-head with
high discharge exists on many canals. One of
the largest irrigation systems of the world has
been developed, mainly in the upper and
middle parts of Indus-basin utilizing waters of
Indus and its tributaries for the conventional
flood-irrigation.
Punjab province has an extensive network of

irrigation canals, and at many sites, small
waterfalls
are available, which can be
exploited to employ low-head high-discharge
hydropower plants (Table-1).
In Pakistan, the system presently includes three

major reservoirs (i.e., Terbela, Mangla and
Chashma dams) and several other smaller ones,
Table 1:
Power
potential
Discharge
Fall
(ft3 / Sec)
(ft)
Baloki-Sulamanki Link-1
12500
10.64
10.00
Baloki-Sulamanki Link-2
9000
17.86
10.72
Chanab-Jhelum Link
(Tail)
13527
41.70
40.00
Upper Chanab
16500
8.83
9.70
TP Link Canal (DG Khan)
12000
3.00
12.28
Name of Channel
(MW)
IV : WIND POWER POTENTIAL IN

PAKISTAN
installation of wind farms, as found in UK,

Netherlands and other countries.
Harnessing wind power to produce electricity

on a commercial scale has become the fastest
growing energy technology. Economic, political
and technological forces are now emerging to
make wind power a viable source of energy.
Though apparently Pakistan has tremendous
Pakistan is a late starter in this field. As of

today, we have no significant wind energy
generation project. Even the preliminary wind
power potential of Pakistan are not available. In
the same geographical environment as we have
in Pakistan, India has set up the first of its ten
55 KW plants at Gujrat in 1986. The Ministry
of Non-Conventional Energy Sources has
estimated that the gross wind power potential
of India is about 45,000 MW and has
identified more than 200 sites suitable for
wind potential, but at present the facilities for

generating electricity from wind are virtually
nonexistent in the country. Pakistan has 1000 km
long coastline, which could be utilized for the
236

Some renewable energy project in pipeline in the
country are shown in Table-2, whereas MediumTerm Wind Energy Development Plan 2011-2020 is
given in Table-3.
wind power facilities. Bordering states of

Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Rajas than have the highest
potential. India ranks fifth in the world in the
number of wind power installations. Wind
power installed capacity is now more than
10,000 MW.
Table-2:
Renewable Energy Projects In Pipeline
Expected
Estimated
Cost
Implementation
Capacity
(MW)
Commissioning
Name of Project
Technolog
y
Year
(Million
$)
Zorlu Enerji Pakistan Ltd.
Wind
50
2009
121
Private sector
Green Power Pvt. Ltd.
Wind
50
2010
135
Private sector
Arabian Sea Pvt. Ltd.
Wind
50
2011
161.3
Private sector
Dawood Power Ltd.
Wind
50
2011
133
Private sector
Beacon Energy Ltd.
Wind
50
2011
135
Private sector
Clean Energy
Development
Bio Mass
25
2010
Private sector
237
involved in trading photovoltaic products and

appliances but also manufacturing different
components of PV systems. They are selling
PV modules, batteries, regulators, invertors,
as well as practical low power gadgets for
load shedding such as photovoltaic lamps,
battery chargers, garden lights etc
Table-3:
Capacity
Installed
(MW)
Cumulative MW of
Wind Energy Installed
by Year End
700
Short Term Plan

(2005-2010) 700
2011
100
800
2011
100
800
2012
100
900
2013
150
1,050
2014
200
1,250
2015
250
1,500
2016
250
1,750
2017
300
2,050
2018
300
2,350
2019
350
2,700
2020
300
3,000
Year
Solar power does not make sense for all

locations in the world. The initial cost of
installing solar panels or other sources of
solar energy is high, and that is not easy for
most people to get around. No matter how
much some people would like to get
involved in the movement to independent
energy, it is cost prohibitive. To achieve the
highest level of efficiency, which is the
entire point of going solar in the first place,
you need the proper amount of roof space to
support the panels your house may require.
Not only how much space is available, but
also the location of your home is also
relevant to whether or not you can maintain
solar energy. Some houses simply do not
receive enough sunlight to produce
substantial energy. This could mean that
either your house is not positioned favorably
in relation to a tree or other house.
Source: Board of Investment, Government of Pakist
India is fast gaining serious experience in

renewable energy production not only for
domestic consumption but also to become an
international player in this area. Rural
electrification companies have installed more
than 35,000 solar PV systems, but they have
also figured out a creative way to finance
such projects with small-sized loans from
development organizations. India today has
an installed capacity of over 6.27 GW of
wind power.
V : POTENTIAL OF SOLAR ENERGY

Pakistan being in the sunny belt is ideally
located to take advantage of the solar energy
technologies. This energy source is widely
distributed and abundantly available in the
country. During last twenty years Pakistan has
shown quite encouraging developments in
photovoltaic
(PV).
Currently,
solar
technology is being used in Pakistan for stand
alone rural telephone exchanges, repeater
stations, highway emergency telephones,
cathodic protection, refrigeration for vaccine
and medicines in the hospitals etc. The Public
Health Department has installed many solar
water pumps for drinking purposes in different
parts of the country.
Wind energy is now almost competitive with

natural gas derived electricity, and solar is
not that far behind as well. Germany and
Spain have made huge inroads in both these
sectors. Technologies for renewable energy
industry, from wind turbines to solar panels
to power electronics are being researched at
and implemented at pilot scale in countries
whose problems are not too dissimilar to
ours. While renewables will not provide the
full answer to Pakistans energy crisis in the
Both the private and public sectors are

playing their roles in the popularization and
up grading of photovoltaic activities in the
country. A number of companies are not only
238
short term, a strong and committed push will

set the right foot forward for the countrys
future. There is no reason why we cannot
derive as much or more energy from solar
concentrators, tidal waves, and wind
farms than we already do from natural
gas power plants and large hydro-electric
dams.
VII : INDUSTRY / ACADEMIA

LINKAGE PROGRAMS:
To create industry-cum-academia linkage,
HEC (Higher Education Commission) have
started University Industry Technology
Support Program. It is an important step
towards fostering high level of tangible
cooperation between academia and industry
for capitalizing on emerging international
demands for products and processes in
discrete and continuous manufacturing that
shall contribute to national economy.
VI : INDUSTRY-CUM-ACADEMIA
LINKAGE
For sustainable engineering development and
utilization of renewable energy resources in
the country, it is very important to look at the
contribution of our industry as well as
technical institutions / universities. It is
worth mentioning that our industry can not
grow rapidly to compete global market in
engineering sector without contribution of
R&D. It could only be possible by having a
close and effective industry-university
relationship.
This program is focused on industrial sectors

where the country is already a major
contributor to world trade. It focuses on
harnessing the
potential
of
highly
competitive sectors for international trade
which need developments both for local and
international consumption. The focused
sector wise identification of products and
processes in discrete and continuous as well
as import and export trends is available from
public domain local and international
statistical data.
To check the credibility and to analyze the

sustainable engineering development for
utilization of renewable energy resources,
following activities should be implemented
at all levels ;
To conduct technical refresher courses

in academia / industry.
To utilize skilled manpower in industry

To share technical problems of
industry with academia
To share new research at university
level with industrial experts
To share knowledge of industrial
experts with academia through
lectures/seminars
To encourage research projects at all
levels
This program proposes that the researchers

having
affiliation
with
international
professional bodies should collaborate with
local industry involved in discrete and
continuous manufacturing for utilization of
renewable energy resources. The products
and processes needing improvement should
ideally be in priority areas relevant to
national
needs
for
socio-economic
development of the country.
239
References
Chaudri, Q.U.Z., 2002, Wind energy potential of coastal areas of Sindh & Balochistan: First
National Workshop on PREGA, Islamabad, March 5-6, 19p.
Dawood, R., 2002, Karachi Port Trust Wind Farm Project: Project proposal submitted to
ADB & PECRET, Pakistan Venture Capital Limited, Karachi, 4p.
FBS, 1998,
50-Years
of
Pakistan
in
statistics:
Statistics(FBS),Government of Pakistan, Vol. I, p.124-137.
www.windindia.com
NEPRA Newsletter, April-June 2009
Federal
Bureau
of
240

PROSPECTIVE OF SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY UTILIZATION:

APPLICATIONS FOR RURAL POPULATION OF PAKISTAN
Saqib Nasir
Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ministry of Science & Technology, Lahore-54000, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
Pakistan is energy deficient, where a large fraction
of the population still does not have access to
modern day energy sources. Pakistan lies in an
area of one of the highest solar insulation in the
world. The energy profile of Pakistan makes it
imperative to develop alternate renewable energy
resources such as solar energy. Due to high capital
investment for solar power has a meagre share in
the world total energy out put. The detailed study
of the solar climate of Pakistan, quantifies its
potential for utilization. The technology of solar
thermal energy is sufficiently developed at the
moment and can be applied with immediate effect
as supplementary resource, not an alternative of
other resources. Solar thermal energy can play a
vital role in term of appropriate energy system for
the far flung rural areas. The tenth five year (20102015) plan of Pakistan also endorses the same
approach. The review paper discusses the
prospective utilization of solar thermal energy
devices in the rural areas is quite feasible
supplementary energy option for Pakistan.
Significant efforts are required to effectively
utilize the cheap renewable energy source.
1. Introduction
Pakistan is an energy deficient country with per
capita energy consumption of 0.3 tons oil
equivalent (TOE), one sixth of the world average.
The energy demand in Pakistan is growing at the
rate of 12 percent which over the last decade has
created a backlog of 2000 to 300 MW, while the
production or energy supply remains almost static.
To fill this gap of energy supply and demand, it is
vital that resource mobilization of not only
conventional but also renewable energy resources,
such as solar energy be emphasized in Pakistan.
According to the eighth five year plan, continued
emphases development of solar energy for the
villages and where conventional source of energy

are available has been planned [1-3].
Deposit the promise of limitless clean solar energy
from the sun, solar currently has a meager share in
the world total electricity out put. Solar energy
technology is expensive, undeveloped and need
high capital investment in research and
development. However, at the moment the
technology for direct solar thermal energy is
sufficiently developed and can be applied with
immediate effect [4].
A sun shine distribution map of the world shows
that most of the developing countries of the world
including Pakistan lie near the Sunlet area, where
solar energy potential can have maximum
utilization [4]. Pakistans eights five year plan
policy also emphasized that in view of the high
capital cost and resource constraint the solar
energy utilization demonstration should be
emphasized in the far flung rural areas which get
lot of sensitive and where conventional sources of
energy are not readily available. Through this
strategy the villages in Pakistan in the far flung
areas would be able to utilize solar thermal energy
as
supplementary
resources
for
their
developmental work at a minimum cost resulting
in socio-economic growth. Utilization of solar
thermal devices for heating, pumping, cooking etc.
in the rural areas seems to be quite feasible option
in the future energy economics of Pakistan.
Pakistan like other developing countries of the
region is facing a serious energy deficit and its
energy demand is likely to increase three-fold by
the year 2040. The currently used resources such
as natural gas and oil will not be able to meet its
future energy needs since the fossil fuel reserves
are on the decline [5-6]. The country will face
alarming low levels of natural gas by 2020. With
its commercial energy share in power generation
241

reflected, partly absorbed and partly scattered. The
radiation reaching ground level, or global
radiation, is therefore attenuated and in addition
consists of both direct and diffuse radiation. In
general, somewhat less than half of the solar
energy flux available at the outer edge of the
atmosphere reaches ground level, and only about a
third of this is available on the land masses.
contribution 50.3 and 6 % for transport, the

projected shortage has direct implications for
power and transport sector. On this count, the
power deficit could reach over 6000 MW in 2010
and reduce supply of gas to over two million CNG
vehicles and major industrial units of metropolitan
areas. In order to narrow this alarming deficit
emerging several business and technological
opportunities exist for renewable and alternative
sources such as wind, hydro, solar and biomass
[7].
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
11.2
4.9
2.2. Climatic factories effecting solar radiation

flux:
The solar radiation flux at ground level thus
depends on many factories. (a) geographical
latitude, (b) the time of the year and (c) the time of
the day all go to define the solar angle and the
distance through the atmosphere traveled by the
radiations.
13.7
7.3
Hydro&Nucl
Coal
42.7
48.5
Gas
LPG
Oil
40.8
200203
Commercial
3.7
OtherGovt
1.9
Agriculture
2
Industrial
42.6
30
Transport
29.3
200708
Total: 39.4 Milion TOE
Fig.1.Primaryenergysuppliesbysource
Domestic
20.4
2. Solar Energy Potential and its Dependence

on Climatic Conditions
2.1. Solar radiations as an energy resource:
Fig.2.SectorwiseenergyconsumptionFY200708
The sun is an inexhaustible source of energy. It is

mostly composed of gases and unlike the Earth,
does not have a solid crust. The temperature is the
centre is estimated at between 10 million and 40
million degrees Celsius. It can be thought of as one
huge thermonuclear reactor, emitting energy into
space in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
A fundamental characteristic of solar energy is its

intermittency. The suitability of a site for solar
energy utilization has to be evaluated not only on
the basis average solar radiation flux available but
also on the value of the ratio of average to
maximum attainable flux. The regions with dry
climates close to the equator are much more
suitable for solar power exploitation, since the
percentage of diffuse radiation is substantially less
than at higher latitudes.
The total energy given out by the Sun is enormous,

but Earth, a mere spot on the Suns horizon some
1.5 108 km away, gets only a tiny portion of it.
However, even this results in a solar energy
constant of 1373 W/m2 at the outer limit of the
Earths atmosphere. The incoming solar radiation
passes through the atmosphere and interacts with
the matter present such as, dust, ozone, carbon
dioxide and water vapor. As a result it partly
Maximum solar energy is thus received by the

poorest countries of the world having per capita
242

income less than $ 4051 that lie in the Sunbelt area
[8]. Most of their population (about 2 billion) live
in villages and remote areas where solar energy
exploitation carry a high potential, but can not be
materialized due to resource constraints.
appropriate energy
community.
2.3. Potential
exploitation:
Pakistan is following a systematic program to

develop renewable source of energy. Solar energy
is being taped for heating, drying, water pumping,
cooking and electrification purposes. The
following programs are being planned.
regions
for
solar
systems
for
the
rural
4. Pakistans Government Policies for Solar

Energy Resources Development:
energy
In most, part of the world about 70 % of the

radiation occurs in the summer, while the energy
demand maximum during winter season.
Therefore, for optimum dimension of solar
installation, mean values of the daily insulation
over smaller period must be considered, or it is
better to consider least-month daily solar
insulation. Based on least-month daily solar
insulation, three main regions can be located
where the use of solar energy is economical. These
regions with corresponding climates are:
1. Solar water pumping for irrigation

purposes
2. Solar dehydration
3. Solar heating and cooking
4. Solar thermal for power generation
5. Solar desalination
About one hundred villages located in Makran
Division, Bugti Valley (Baluchistan), D.G. Khan
and Bahawalpur desert areas (Punjab) have been
surveyed for solar system.
a) High solar insulation region-least-month

daily solar radiation well above 20 MJ/m2
arid tropical climate, mainly in the
equatorial region
b) Intermediate solar insulation region
Equatorial region tropical climate with
moon-soon. Least month daily radiation
15 MJ /m2.
c) Loe solar insulation region sub-tropical
climate, least-month daily radiation 10 MJ
/m2.
In view of the high capital cost and the resource

constraint, the policy of the eighth five year plan
(1993-1998) is to put continued emphasis on
demonstration and utilization of solar energy
sources to the flung areas where conventional
sources of energy are not readily available. Pilot
scale systems would be established in far flung
areas rather than small installations near the urban
areas as in the past. Some integrated projects
would be established and operated by the agencies
such as Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA) so that the cost of maintenance can be
reduced. Solar water heating will be promoted by
gas and oil companies. Import of equipment for
renewable energy would be considered for taxies
and duty exemptions.
3. The Solar Climate of Pakistan

The detailed study of the solar climate of Pakistan
quantifies the potential of solar energy in the
country. The annual mean values of insulation lie
between 15-2115 MJ /m2. Major points of the
country receive insulation between 1915 MJ /m2
and 2015 MJ /m2.. The huge parts of the Punjab
and Baluchistan have long hours of sunshine
especially suited for solar energy conversion [9].
Solar energy has been used in many areas of
Pakistan for centuries in a primitive way for
example crop drying and for water heating under
direct sunshine. Besides lying near the Sunbelt
area, Pakistan has also large arid, unusable areas
for solar energy collection like the Thar Desert in
Sindh. Solar forms can be built in these remote
areas and can play a vital role in terms of
In order to attract the private sector, for

commercialization of solar energy technologies in
the country, various incentives have been
approved. Private sector participation in the
renewable energy sources has so far been nonexistent and there is a great need of private sector
involvement in the development of solar
technologies.
243

5. Inherent Limitation of Solar
Exploitation of Developing Countries:
Solar energy can be used for desalination,

converting or seawater to good drinking water.
The technology is relatively simple and well
proven.
Energy
Solar energy was once advocated as a solution to

the energy problems of the developing countries
but the high capital cost and resource constraint
limits its utilization. No doubt, solar radiation falls
free from the sun, like the existence of gold or
minerals or oil in the underground reservoirs. But
it costs money to exploit and develop these into a
usable form, which makes the solar energy, gold,
or oil economics commodities, and the word costfree loses it meaning. Further, solar energy is very
dilute in intensity and intermittent in occurrence,
requiring large areas of collectors and equipment
to change it into a usable form and to store it for
use during its intermittent periods of nonavailability. This factor makes it a capital intensive
energy source, which has to compare with other
energy sources available for considered for use at
the location. The development efforts in the solar
energy are limited to the developed countries.
While due to financial constraint very little
contribution has been made in the poor developing
countries most of which lie in the Sunbelt area and
carry maximum potential for solar energy
utilization.
The principle of the basin type solar still is very

simple. A receptacle filled with water is covered
with glass or plastic. The water is heated by solar
radiation and evaporates. The glazing does not
absorb solar radiation, so it is cooler than the water
and water therefore condenses on it. The glazing is
tilted so that condensed pure water flows to
collecting channels. Solar radiation can also be
used as an auxiliary energy source in other
distillation processes now being used on an
industrial scale for freeze water production.
All the fresh water on earth is, in fact, produced by
natural solar desalination on a massive scale. The
hydrological cycle in which water evaporates from
the oceans, condenses in the atmosphere and falls
as rain (or snow). Man-made imitations of this
natural cycle have a long tradition. As early as
1872 a huge basin type solar still was built at Las
Salinas in Chile to supply drinking water to people
and animals working in nearby nitrate mines.
Currently, important installation is running in
Greece, Spain, Tunisia, the USSR, Pakistan and
Australia.
6. Solar Thermal Energy Utilization:
Solar still is a promising and economically

acceptable way for the production of drinking
water in the remote areas. PCSIR took the
initiative for designed, developed and installed
solar desalination plants for the people living in
interior Sindh and coastal belt of country.
Presently, two plants in Tharparker district are
working with a capacity of 250 gallon / day. The
plant installed at Gwadar for Pakistan Navy has
the capacity of 6.000 gallon / day. Two more
plants in Tharparkar distict with a capacity of 250
gallon / day are under consideration.
There are potentially two ways of using solar

energy at small or large scale. It can be trapped
through collectors as used in greenhouse effect
(thermal systems) or converted directly into
electricity using solar cells (photovoltaic systems).
In this review article we shall mainly concentrated
to thermal systems for rural areas.
The development of alternative energy related
schemes in Sindh hold great potential due to huge
availability of sunlight for extensive exploitation
of solar energy for not only agriculture but also for
the extensive use of environmentally friendly
alternative energy for households and commercial
areas.
6.2. Solar Drying:

Solar open-air drying, which involves spreading
out the commodity thinly in the sun, has a long
tradition, and is a method still widely practiced in
rural areas for improving the storage qualities of
fruits, vegetables, grains, hay and fish. It is,
however, inefficient, with no real control over
244
Some basic thermal energy applications benefiting

the large proportion of the world population living
in the rural areas are discussed below.
6.1. Solar Desalination

processing. It can contribute towards the reduction
in the supplies of electricity and gas. The rural
community can also be benefited where noncommercial fuels are the only energy source
available. Solar water heating is an established
technology; with tens of thousand units being in
use globally. The technology is not just safe and
simple, but carries major economical benefits.
Almost 40-60 % of domestic water heating cost
can be reduced by way of employing the SWH.
Gas and electricity thus saved can be utilized in
the industrial sector. The current consumption of
natural gas by water heaters is estimated to be the
equivalent of 1.4 million tones of oil.
drying rate and quality, and in addition the product

is exposed to rain, dust and insect attack. Modern
dryers are designed to eliminate these
disadvantages, as well as to improve the drying
rate by forced air circulation. As such they have an
important role to play in the improvement of the
food situation in many developing countries. Solar
energy can be used with success in cabinet, tunnel
and shelf-type dryers. In the simpler designs the
dryers behave rather like flat-plate collectors
themselves, solar, whereas in tunnel-type
equipment. Special solar collectors are installed to
preheat the air entering. The solar drying is viable
methodology and economically feasible for many
agricultural products as used worldwide in
advanced and developing countries.
Fig.4. SolarwaterheatingsysteminPakistan
6.4. Solar Cookers:
Fig.3.Solardryersinstalledfordryingofdates
The energy required for cooking represents a

substantial part of the energy demand in the rural
are of some developing countries. Many solar
cooker designs have been proposed and still in the
pipeline while for domestic /industrial applications
some of them tested. Their application in
developing countries has not been a great success
story, however, mostly because their performance
does not conform to the social habits of people in
these countries. Solar cookers supplied with a few
hours worth of thermal storage. In addition, it must
be borne in mind that cooking needs temperature
of the orders of 300 C, a requirement that can
only be met by concentrating solar energy in some
way. Cookers having such features are so far too
6.3. Solar Water Heating (SWH):

The production of domestic hot water with solar
energy began in early 1900s. From economic
point of view, it is the most attractive use of solar
energy. As the collector area is small, 40 to 60 ft2 /
unit and the collectors are used during the entire
year. High temperature up to 200 F (93.3 C), for
industries have been developed in Australia and
the largest installation is currently under
development in Los Angeles, USA.
The application is suitable for urban and semi
urban areas for domestic use. Hot water supplies
can also be maintained partially through, solar
water heating in hotels / motels as in industrial
245

sophisticated and expensive to be an economic
proposition. Solar cookers were also supplied to
Afghan refugees by an overseas company in
Pakistan. However the appliances have not yet
become popular.
6.5. Solar Electric Power Generation:
The existing means of energy in the world rural
areas are non-commercial i.e. wood, animal dung
and agriculture wastes, while the commercial
energy supplies are few percent of the total energy
utilization.
Electricity can be obtained from solar thermal
energy through thermo mechanical conversion,
much as it is from other heat sources, such as
fossil fuels or nuclear energy [10]. Due to the
limitations working temperature have to be the
order of several hundred degrees Celsius, so that
concentrating collectors have to be employed.
A number of experimental plants based on the
solar thermal electric conversion (STEC), principle
have already been built. In the development of the
STEC system, started around 1973, and now has
substantial financial support, two different
approaches have evolved. One is aimed at small
decentralized solar power plants for remote
locations, called solar farms, of the kilowatt range.
The other is concentrated on large solar power
plants, with capacities of several tens of
megawatts, intended to be connected to an
electricity grid. The intention with solar farms is to
produce a simple power plant that is easy to
operate and maintain. Since two-axis sun tracking
requires sophisticated equipment and maintenance,
linear focus, on-axis tracking is normally used.
Moderate temperature of 200-600 C can be
obtained.
Fig.5.Solarelectrificationinruralarea
6.6. Solar Water Pumping:
Several solar farm designs have been proposed and

number of them built for testing purposes. The
main disadvantage is a large reflector surfaces
needed mean that the apparatus become huge. The
technology is at the development stage and can be
a long range option for Pakistan.
The original application of solar water pumping

is still its major practical application. Water
pumping is needed in the rural regions of many
developing countries which are often remote from
electricity grids. The requirement is for irrigation
which has a low load factor over the year. There
are at least 50 such solar water pumping stations
installed in developing countries.
246

persimmon were dried using this dryer. The solar
dryer was capable to process about 1 to 1.5 tones
of fresh persimmon in a month. Later, the gas
firing system was added to increase the drying
capacity of this dryer. A unit of solar-cum-gas
fired dryer was installed and evaluated at Dhaki,
D.I. Khan in August 2003. Experimental results
indicate that the dryer is capable to dry about 544
kg of fresh dates within 5 days. The seasonal
drying capacity of the dryer was predicted about 4
tons. The economic analysis revealed that one
may earn Pak. Rs 72,100/- per season by using the
solar-cum-gas fired dates dryer. It is a small scale
on-farm dates drying technology, and is well
suited to produce quality dried fruit in order to
present them into international market. Pakistan
Agriculture Research Councial (PARC) has signed
an agreement with a local manufacturer to
commercialize this technology at large scale.
Flate-plate collectors running at temperature below

100 C can be used for heating a secondary fluid
such as Freon which is used as the working fluid in
a thermodynamic cycle. Efficiencies are, however,
very low, so that collector area needed is large.
Reasonable efficiency can be obtained with
concentrator-type collectors but the system
become too sophisticated for rural applications and
photovoltaic application is usually preferred.
The escalating cost of diesel and electricity is
making it unaffordable for farmers in Pakistan to
run their tube-wells for extracting underground
water through these sources of energy, and
promoting the idea of using solar energy for
running their machines to irrigate the fields. The
solar-powered tube wells/pumping machines for
extracting underground water and land reclamation
have been installed in a water-logged and salinityhit area in district Thatta near Keti Bandar. The
solar-pumping system has significantly helped
stuck out saline water from the area where
cultivation have been resumed.
Solar drying is largely and effectively being used

in Northern Mountains of Pakistan. The
technology is used to dry apricots and other fruits
that are grown in the area. The dry product is
packed and sold in the market at higher prices. The
community size solar dryers have been planned to
be installed by Pakistan Council of Renewable
Energy Technologies (PCRET) in date growing
areas of Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan.
6.7. Solar-cum-Gas Fired Fruit Dryer

Pakistan is producing about 6 million tons of fresh
fruit annually.
This commodity is highly
perishable in nature as it has an inherent tendency
to spoilage due to physiological reasons, disease
and pest infestation. Due to non-availability of
post-harvest preservation technologies, about 30 %
of this produce is wasted from orchard gate till it
reaches the consumer. The financial implications
of post-harvest losses in fruit by applying
percentage losses on their market value were
estimated to be about Pak. Rs 5.0 billion per
annum. To extend the storage (shelf) life of
perishable fruit, and to increase their commercial
value, an innovative drying technology is vital for
agriculture.
Why Solar Energy Has Contributed Little to

the Energy System of the Poor Developing
Countries?
Financial constraints and lack of national

priorities for the development of solar
appliances and their introduction into the
energy system.
Since there have been few well proven and
demonstrated
solar
appliances
in
developing countries, private industry did
not meet this challenge, as this sector in
the poor nations hardly take risks in the
research and development of new devices.
Due to the lack of competent technical
manpower and industrial base the
developing countries are facing difficult
situation in the solar power field.
The Unemployment rate in Pakistan is increasing
and its effects are particularly severe in rural areas,
where there are few opportunities for alternative
income generation hence the instruction of simple
247
To address this issue, Farm Machinery Institute,

National Agriculture Research Corporation
(NARC), Islamabad has designed and developed a
solar-cum-gas fired fruit dryer. This consists of
eight flat-plate solar collectors, an axial flow fan, a
drying chamber and a supplementary source of
heating e.g. gas. Initially, the performance of this
dryer was evaluated at Nalkot, Swat, where the

solar power technologies can alleviate this
troublesome by providing people with the means
to start up their own small, electricity-driven
enterprises. Solar cookers reduce the time that
people have to spend gathering wood, allowing
more time for them to carry out income-earning
activities. Better health from the cleaner air in
homes has equally beneficial effects, while
reduced deforestation helps to improve agricultural
production by creating healthier soil and better
controlling water flows, thus enhancing the
opportunities that agriculture offers to rural
people.
References:
1. M.A. Chaudhry, R.Raza, S.A. Hayat,
Renewable energy technologies in
Pakistan: Prospects and Challenges,
Renewable Sustainable Energy Reviews
13 (2009) 1657-1662.
2. N.A. Zaigham, Z.A. Nayyar, Prospects of
renewable energy sources in Pakistan. In:
Proceedings of an International meeting
on Renewable Energy Technologies and
Sustainable Development, February; 2005.
pp. 59-64.
3. Pakistan Economic Survey, 20062007,
Government of Pakistan.
4. U.K. Mirza, M.M.M-Valer, N. Ahmad,
Status and outlook of solar energy use in
Pakistan, Renewable Sustainable Energy
Reviews 7 (2003) 501-514.
5. A.A. Shah, S.M. Qureshi, A. Bhutto,
A.Shah, Sustainable development through
renewable energy- the fundamental policy
dilemmas of Paksitan, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews (In press).
6. A.W. Bhutto, Energy-poverty alleviation
in Pakistan through the use of indigineous
energy resources, Energy for Sustainable
Development 11 (2007) 58-67.
7. Assessment of new and renewable energy
resources potential and identification of
barrier to their significant utilization in
Pakistan, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 12 (2008) 290-298.
8. 4. A. Raja, Assessment of Solar radiation
of Pakistan Ph.D Thesis, University of
Strathcylde, Glasgow, UK, 1992.
9. Renewable Energy in South Asia, Status
and Prospects, World Renewable Energy
Council, 2000, 51-55.
10. W.K. Shinwari, F.Ali, A.H. Nayyar,
Electric power generation from solar
photovoltaic technology: Is it marketable
in Pakistan?, The Pakistan Development
Review
43
(2004)267-294.
Conclusion:
Solar energy technology though an obvious choice
have not played a significant role so far in the
developing countries. The high cost of
development prevent their wide spread adsorption,
effort is therefore required in the development of
low cost materials. At present the technologies for
grain drying, water heating, pumping and
production of drinking water from sea are
sufficiently developed and are available for
immediate application. The geographical location
topography and local climate of the Pakistan favor
solar energy utilization. In Pakistan the solar
energy research is at an initial stage. High
priorities should be given for its full development
a national level.
The development of solar energy is not possible
unless the government shows interest in
undertaking projects to help boost solar energy at
all levels with policy to design small loans at
affordable interest rate for promotion of
solar energy power systems to get ride of ongoing energy crisis. Better late than never,
authors concluded.
248

Understanding Ocean Wave Dynamics

For Karachi - Makran coasts
As a case study: Prior to taking up the issue of Ocean Energy
Technology
1
M.Ayub Khan Yousuf Zai, 2Jawwad Baig and 3Jawaid Quamar
Solar-Terrestrial and Atmospheric Research Canter Department of Applied Physics,

University of Karachi, Pakistan
2
Hamdard Institute of Management Sciences, Hamdard University
3
Dada Bhai Institute of Management Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan.
Abstract. We have to face the challenges
for the wise use of the natural resources,
this being especially true of maritime
countries like Pakistan. The modification of
the harbour structure be done with a more
precise understanding of ocean wave
dynamics and the analysis of the energy
harnessing so that the negative effects of
ocean-dynamics are decreased. Marine
environment is preserved the morphological
avenues of our coastline that has been
maintained, protected. The ability to
conduct
efficient
and
profitable
international shipping has been greatly
improved.
This communication presents the study of
modeling of shallow water ocean waves to
appraise the potential in Ocean wave
dynamics for extracting energy. The
countryside of continental shelves peculiar
to Pakistans coastal areas and focusing on
techniques like wave height and its energy
forecast, it also examines the likelihood of
promising ocean wave dynamics through
recent technologies. We have determined
the group speed of waves their powers using
modelling strategies. Correlation among
wave parameters and the limitations of
enlightening coastal ocean waves are also
discussed.
Keywords: Deep sea water, Shallow water,
ocean energies, wave energy, coastal
morphology, OWC, OTEC
1. Introduction:
It has been said that are no two opinions
about an early decision of issues like food
insufficiency and protein deficit; prospect of
depletion of resources such as vital
minerals, variety of chemicals and
biological resources; spiraling price hike in
fossil energy from land; disposal of
dangerous wastes and testing of newly
developed nuclear weapons.[1-3] We may
be witness the growth of an altogether new
variety of industrial activity viz. marine
industries. The absolute size of available
water mass, it covering about 71% of the
earth, further encourages us all. And this is
resulting in an intense interest in the field of
oceanic that is why we strive for the
fundamental research in this area. [4-8]
Pakistan possesses a strategically and
commercially important coastline about
1389 km long limiting the Arabian Sea in
the North East, with a host of prospects as
also problems to communicate. The NE
coastal areas have mixed depth continental
shelves; from very steep (Ormara, Gawader,
etc.) to gradually increasing depths
(Manora, Hawks Bay, etc.). Pakistan is rich
not only in renewable marine resources like
edible fish, shellfish, etc. but also all sorts
of processes for power generation which
can also dilute the acute problem of scarcity
of potable water in the megalopolis of
249

damaging effects. Likewise, as they cause
excessive agitation of moored crafts and
degradation of harbor infrastructure, the
design and operation of a small craft harbor
are critically dependent on the accurate
determination of the existing wave climate
and energy levels both outside and within
the harbor.[18-20]
More serious is the problem of
erosion of harbor, coastal and offshore
structures and conservation of specific
coastline topography and morphology,
marine environment, etc. arising from
coastal and estuarine flooding, tidal waves,
etc. related to natural changes and those
occurring due to ocean-atmospheric
interaction. This is occasioned by factors
such as local geology and geography;
weather and tides (flooding may occur when
storm surges coincide with high tides); and,
in the long-term, land movements; and the
effect of climate change on sea levels.
These may act separately or in combination
to produce the erosion and flooding. Storm
surges (caused by a combination of low
atmospheric pressure and wind stress on the
sea surface) present the major flooding
threat to low lying areas. A storm surge gets
stronger in shell owing water and
converging coastlines. In estuaries and tidal
rivers the problem is worse after prolonged
heavy
rains.
Again,
apart
from
unprecedented storm surges and ever more
powerful tidal waves, another major
consequence of global warming, resulting
from
increasing
concentration
of
greenhouse gases, will be a rise in the mean
sea level globally. Along with its direct
effect on coastal erosion or flooding of
coastal areas, higher mean sea level could
also have an impact on underground water
resources. The zone of mixing of sea water
with freshwater in rivers is dynamic and a
rise in sea level can cause it upstream.[2123]
As regards safety of harbor and
coastal ecosystems against erosion due to
causes
discussed
above,
what
is
conventionally done is the construction of
Karachi and other coastal cities. The ocean

also happens to be a potential source of
supply of a few main types of energy. On
the other hand, sea-level changes, tectonic
movements, and large amount of sediment
movement and the build up of pollutants,
especially by the river Indus, the deltaic
parts of the coast have pro-graded by an
average of 10 to 25 meters per year. Again,
as Pakistan is situated in the vicinity of oil
producing giants of the world and because
they use Arabian Sea as their supply route,
the oil spill from these ships poses a serious
environmental threat to our coastal
environment, marine resource and harbor
structures [9-16]
In the emerging global order, we
can keep up with the challenges only if we
can discover what means are required to
attain optimal balance between use and
protection of very different marine
environments [17]. This shows, in
consonance with more recent trends, that
oceanic should be particularly concerned
with harbor management. Harbor and
coastal conditions are of utmost importance
for any country in the context of its local
and national economic activity. This is
because oceans exert considerable effects
on coastal and offshore structures due to
diverse physical processes such as oceanatmosphere coupling, oceanic circulation,
dynamics of surface mixed layers, currents,
energy flux, etc. studied and evaluated by
recent trends in physical oceanic. Wave
oscillations within the harbors may cause
serious
problems
with
the
ship
loading/unloading and/or ship-mooring.
Similarly, one needs to analyze how
changes in a harbor channel's depth and
configuration will affect the harbor's
resonance characteristics. Likewise, single
and multiple moored-harbors, jetties,
breakwaters, etc. exert significant effect on
coastal morphology. A harbor extension, for
instance, needs to be carried out in
accordance with the coastal wind-wave
dynamics to minimize its effect on coastline
morphology; otherwise it may have
250
En
structures like breakwaters, dikes, etc. But,

obviously, these are themselves continually
exposed to vagaries of coastal environment.
Thus, as is demanded by a more precise
understanding of coastal environment and
as is more profitable alternative, seems to be
the taming of ocean waves, in particular
tidal waves, by shifting attention from them
to their energy content, thus also to a study
of the possibilities of an ocean energy
technology. It is, in principle, an attractive
proposition in that, in contrast to the
traditional methods of extraction for oil, gas
and coal, every version of tidal power
station technology will use the seas
themselves.
However, ocean energy problem
cannot be understood systematically unless
wave climate study is undertaken. This, in
turn,
requires
an
examination
of
characteristics of parameters of ocean
waves. Thus, treating Karachi-Makran
coastal range as a case study, prior to taking
up the issue of ocean energy technology we
consider the problem of modeling of ocean
waves, in particular techniques for wave
height forecast of shallow water waves.
Section 2 looks into the behavior of
shallow-water ocean waves, while Section 3
considers modeling of wave climate
parameters. Section 4 then examines the
current limitations of taming

coastal ocean waves, and Section 5
summarizes and concludes the paper an also
open this effort for some further future
possibilities in the same direction.
2. Analyzing behavior of Shallow-water
ocean waves
There have been several attempts to explore
the dynamics of water wave breaking by
both
mathematical
development
of
theoretical concepts and experimental
studies [22-23] In fact, the very first job in
wave climate analysis is that the data
(which represent the phenomenon under
investigation) need to be cast in a shape
from where further analysis and calculation
could be possible. A wave record being a
representation of energy, it is a random
process and often involves more difficult
analysis,
parameterisation,
etc.
and
consequently harder solution strategies as
also more diverse results than those for
other environmental data (such as
temperature or salinity). This necessitates an
exposure to the data which, in turn, calls for
an innovative analysis approach. Thus we
apply statistical transformation [25] to the
dataset (see Fig. 1),
construct the missing

data (see Fig. 2).
50
6
0
Month
Wave energy
6
ers
Fig. 1
- - - - - - Mean, Peak
wave height
Fig. 2 - - - - - - Data with missing
Data with
cast off the outliers in the

obtained
results
to
251
characteristics.
instance, wave
given by
As is expected,
the final worked-out
dataset shows a strong
seasonal
effect
on
offshore wind speed (see
Fig. 3)
(1)
Ecg ,
wave power : =
manifests a clear such

variation (vide Fig.4).
Here E is the energy per
unit
25
20
Knots
For
power,
15
10
2500
watts/m.sq.
12
11
Months
10
2000
1500
1000
500
area of wave and

(2)
cg : =
c
2kh
1+
2 sinh( 2kh)
is the group speed of waves, with

variables
having
the
following
connotation:
c (celerity of wave or wave
speed) : = L/T,
k (wave number),
h (water depth),
L (wavelength),
T (wave period) = (constant).
Likewise, wave height, H, defined by
(3)
E : = 0.125gH2
(E, , and g respectively being the
Fig. 4 Wave power
energy, water salinity, and acceleration

due to gravity), has a very strong
influence on energy.
As for the nature of shallow waves, when
the wave "feels bottom", it slows and the
accompanying reduction in the wavelength
and speed results in increased height and
steepness as the wave's energy is
condensed in a smaller water volume. The
length and speed of a deep-water wave are
determined by the wave period, the length
(L) and speed (C) of shallow-water waves
(waves in a basin) are mainly controlled
by the water depth, they being given
respectively by
(4) L = gh T = 3.13 h T
and
(5) C = 3.13 h n,
with n being number of nodes present. Observe that
wavelength depends on wind speed besides depth
and period.
252
12
11
10
Months
which, in turn, affects

other
wave
Fig. 3 Wind speed
To be able to appreciate the

different patterns (see Fig. 5) formed by
shallow water waves, we may set h = 10m
in Eq. (4). One such configuration appears
between November to Mid-February and
here wavelength ranges from 30 meters to
92 meters. The second season starts from
here to May, with range from 35 meters to
62 meters. This is the calmest season of
the year. It is followed by a season having
mixed behavior of high and low

wavelengths, ranging from 50 meters to 93
meters, followed in September and
October by a relatively controlled but
widely ranged wavelengths from 36
meters to 84 meters. The same kind of
variation can be observed in wave
characteristics like wave energy, height,
and
period
(Figs.
6-8).
100.0
80.0
meters
60.0
40.0
20.0
Months
12
11
0.0
Fig. 5 Wave length
Energy (J/m.sq.)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
12
11
10
Months
Fig. 6 Wave energy
3.0
2.5
Meters
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
12
11
10
Months
0.0
253

Fig. 7 Wave height
10.0
Seconds
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1
1 2
4 5
5 6 7 8
Months
9 10 10 11 12
Fig. 8 Wave period
refutation of the model, when results

are incorrect, is potentially one of the
most effective ways of learning about
the physics of the model.
In any case, once properly verified
in extended comparisons with
measured data under careful control
of the input data, such as wind,
bathymetry (ocean mapping i.e.
charting the ocean showing contour
lines connecting points of the same
depth below the sea surface; a
prototype of earth's topography giving
lines connecting contours of elevation
on land) and geometry of the basin
within the limits derived from its
formulation, the model is a
representation of the real world,
enabling us to better understand the
relevant phenomena and see how they
interact. This can be achieved by
using the model for numerical
experiments
to
simulate
field
experiments under conditions that
would be difficult to find or expensive
to organize. It can also be used to
study the sensitivity of results to a
change in the input conditions and
From the above discussion one can

have the idea about the potential of
round the year continuous supply
energy from the Arabian Sea for the
neighboring coastal cities. Since this
rise and fall in the oceans is a constant
feature, but not all seas around the
world exhibit such variation in wave
height.
3. Modeling Ocean wave parameters
Now often a system (phenomenon or

a process) speaks for itself, if it is
properly modeled through data of its
influential (decision) factors. For one
thing, this enhances the importance of
proper data acquisition of each
contributing variable of the system in
question, the model being a reliable
tool for scientific practice. On the
other hand, for scientific purposes,
incorrect results force us to look for a
deeper understanding and may lead to
improvement. At the same time we try
to single out parts of the model that
should be improved by studying the
impact that different features have on
the wave response[13-14]. Thus a
254
how a system will behave in longer

terms. In turn, it helps decisionmakers to take the necessary
precautionary measures. Thus we next
examine the problem of coastal wave
climate by resorting to modeling of
the important characteristic of wave
height.
It is understood that, although they
often do exist, correlations among two
or more variables do not per se
preclude their use as independent
characteristic in regression analysis.
Nevertheless, it being much more
flexible than others in that it permits
the independent characteristics to take
virtually any analytical form, we
invoke the principle of pair-wise
correlation to obtain a multiple
regression model of wave height (H).
As a pre-modeling selection criterion
(cf. Table 1), we
255

Table 1. Correlation among wave parameters.
Hmax
Pmax
Pmea
1.00
0.42
0.98
0.1
4
0.22
0.68
0.37
0.42
1.00
0.43
0.38
0.66
0.21
0.1
3
0.98
0.43
1.00
0.1
0
0.27
0.71
0.41
0.1
4
0.38
0.1
0
1.00
0.33
0.1
1
0.2
5
0.22
0.66
0.27
0.33
1.00
0.17
0.1
0
0.68
0.21
0.71
0.1
1
0.17
1.00
0.37
0.37
0.1
3
0.41
0.2
5
0.1
0
0.37
1.00
max
P
max
P
mean
choose the characteristics as independent

which turn out to have high correlation among
themselves, while those with low correlation
(nearly zero) are taken as dependent ones. As
for the specific goal of the exercise, we look
for those variables which could show high
coefficient of multiple determination (R2) and
low standard error of estimators (SEE).
With our symbolization scheme,
H (dependent variable) : = (wave
height),
S (predictor) : = (wind speed),
T (predictor) : = (wave period),
D (predictor) : = (wave direction),
R (correlation coefficient),
R2 (percentage of data accounted for in the
model),
SEE (Std. Error of estimate),
n (total data points),
the model turns out to be
(6)
H = ( 0.951 0.10) + (0.157 0.02)S
+ (0.082 0.01)T + 0.002 D.
After a few iterations guided by criteria given

above, the corresponding regression summary
is found to be as follows:
R = 0.796,
R2 = 0.634,
adjusted R2 = 0.630,
p < 0.05,
(see also Table 2 for further details about
model variables). The following
Table 2. Regression summary for dependent
characteristic.
BETA
St. Err of
p-level
BETA
S 0.353
0
0.0348
P 0.552
0
0.0369
D 0.227
0
0.0363
deductions are immediate: The value of R2

shows that 63% of the variation in
wave height (H) is explained due to
independent characteristics S, T and D, which
is the maximum achieved in all attempts made
with other variables [12,14]. The p-value at
95% confidence interval shows that the model
is significant (cf. Fig. 9), observed and
modeled values of wave
256
Meters
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
J J F M AM J J J A S O N D D
Fig. 9 - - - - - - Obs. wave height, Predicted
wind speed (55%, value of BETA)

plays the leading role along with wind
direction and wave period.
Construction of missing data, computation of
correlations, etc. can be improved in various
ways as suggested in Section 4. Notice too
that we have chosen wave height (H) as our
dependent parameter not only because H
estimates play the major role in wave energy
computations for energy harnessing from
shallow water ocean waves, but also because
H is important, like wind speed (it depending
on solar heating and different pressure
gradients), for safety considerations. The
wave height estimator can, thus, be further
improved if we include the data on coastal
wind speed, etc. In addition, other modeling
techniques can be used in conjunction with the
model constructed here for better estimates of
H. And, obviously, an enriching of the size of
the dataset will also improve the wave height
model given here.
4. Limitations of
Coastal Ocean waves
Enlightening
As we have seen in Sections 1 and 2, wave

climate analysis a rewarding field of oceanics
research. What is more interesting is that
wave
climate
parameter
estimation
methodology considered above can be viewed
as a safety approach in an alternative way. As
shown by Eq. (3), wave height has a direct
impact on wave energy. Thus, as an
immediate byproduct of preceding wave
climate calculations, one can consider the
possibility of ocean energy extraction.
To harness the kinetic energy of waves, today

one generally opts for devices in which
compress air is used to run a turbine
connected to generator. Although deeper
offshore waters can, in principle, provide
more energy, the engineering difficulties in
anchoring a large structure capable of
withstanding incoming waves, energy
transmission to shore, appear to limit the
location of the plant. The simplest device, the
oscillating water column (OWC) turbine,
which works on the continuous wave motion,
has a large chamber in communication with
the sea. The turbine outlet is small compared
to the chamber, which causes a speed-up in
the air motion. Valves control the operation
on the intake and exhaust strokes. OWC has a
variety of uses ranging from small-scale
power for offshore operations [16-17] to
proposals for arrays that will provide power in
quantities similar to those provided by
conventional power-stations. The ocean swells
which are formed in relatively deep water are
also used for generation of electricity. Since at
open sea, there are fewer disturbances by the
coast / coastal structure which help in a high
degree of consistency, and the waves move
towards the coast in form of a large group
(called swell). A few versions in shape of
snakes are already being use as the pilot study
in some places around the world.
Another way consists of extracting tidal energy.
The possibility of obtaining energy from tides
exists in coastal areas with large tidal ranges or
in narrow channels with swift tidal currents.
Although Karachi harbor is not facing Arabian
Sea directly, even then the tidal range at harbor
is significant see Fig. 10 [3]. There are
two systems for
257
2.5
Meters
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
J J F M A A M J
J J A S O O N D
Fig. 10 Tidal Range at Karachi port

extracting energy from the temporal
variations of the tides. Both require building a
dam across a bay or estuary so that seawater can
be held in the bay at high tide. When the tide
ebbs, a difference in water-level height is
produced between the water behind the dam and
the ebbing tide. When the elevation difference
becomes sufficient, the sea-water behind the dam
is released through turbines to produce electric
power. The reservoir behind the dam is refilled
on the next rising tide by opening gates in the
dam. This single-action system produces power
only during a portion of each ebb tide.
Finally, there is the possibility of

ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) that will exploit the temperature
differences between the warm surface
and colder bottom waters of the ocean to
run a turbine in a closed or open cycle
[9]. Seawater or other substances such as
ammonia (or propane) could be used as
the working fluid. Warm fluid under
high pressure expands to run the turbine
and gets condensed by cold deep
seawater.
The
turbine
generates
electricity. The technology involved will
require some massive scaling-up of heatexchanger technology plus, for the larger
plants, the construction and deployment
of a pipe of large dimensions to bring up
the cold water from depth.
As we have pointed in Section 1,
Pakistan
possesses
mixed
depth
continental shelves from very steep
slopes (Ormara, Gawadar, etc.) to
gradually increasing depths (Manora,
Hawks Bay, etc.). In particular, the
Arabian Sea experiences extreme in
atmospheric forcing that lead to the
semi-annual
seasonal
variability
observed in any ocean basin. The
reversing winds of summer and winter
monsoon induce the variation in the

underlying characteristics of mixed layer
depths [23]. The thermal structure during
January and August shows a strong
thermo cline with temperature gradient
of about 0.03 C/m 0.005 C during
summer monsoon, whereas a relatively
weak thermo cline with gradient of
0.007C/m 0.001C is seen during
winter monsoon (cf. Figs. 11a and 11b).
A marked variation in mixed layer depth
is found during summer
Fig. 11
Depth
distribution
and
temperature
profile from XBT station (a) January (NE
monsoon) (b) August (SW monsoon)
and winter monsoons (about 14.6 C and 12.3 C
respectively at 500-600 m depth). Longitudinally,
shallower depths of mixed layer are found in
summer and deep layer in winter [1-2]. The
temperature variation in said depth range and
topography makes NE Arabian Sea a promising
candidate for OTEC. The varying coastal
topography can serve as an alternative to massive
scaling-up in that the heat exchanger could be
kept between the two temperatures.
The continuous recovery of energy from the sea
remains elusive unto today, the technologies
having their own geographical peculiarities and
specific economics yet to see the light of the day.
On the other hand, there are positive indicators
inviting our attention. In contrast to the traditional
methods of extraction for oil, gas and coal,
mentioned ocean energy technologies will use the
seas themselves. Moreover, as they do not
contribute greenhouse gases to the environment
so we can call them green energies source. A
hybrid combination of technologies discussed
here may soon become the sole ocean energy
technology; they are not altogether without
feasibility. For instance, two plants utilizing the
principle of tidal energy are already in operation,
in the La Ranee estuary (France) and Kislaya Inlet
258

(Soviet Union), while a commercial plant based
on OTEC is under construction on the island of
Nauru in the Pacific. What is more is that, with
further exploration and commercialization of the
mentioned technologies, more long-term exotic
ocean energy technologies can be had that will tap
ocean currents like the Gulf Stream.
Last but not the least, the sheer effort to initiate
and go now for an ocean energy technology on a
local scale is expected to boost the climate capable
of generating local and indigenous expertise to
squarely grapple with the challenges of the new
century as an independent people among the
comity of nations.
4. Conclusion
In this paper we have describe that oceans are an
almost unexplored frontier with enormous
potential for the resolution of ever aggravating
myriad-sided socio-economic difficulties, this
being especially true of developing maritime
countries like Pakistan. In the wake of changes
such as globalization, free market economy, and
the like wrought by a turning century and a
moving millennium, there emerges the fresh need
of exploring the alternative means of clean and
green energy, in particular from oceans. As we
have considered that an accurate determination of
the existing wave dynamics with energy levels
both outside and within the harbor/ coastal
structures, specifically modeling of shallow-water
waves and forecasting their characteristics like
wave height.
The problem of ocean wave modeling is a
complex problem. In addition to polishing the
methodology, results obtained in Section 2 can be
improved with improvement in arrangements of
oceanic data collection/registration in the form of
logbooks of ships, ports' records, agencies'
facilities, etc. Further insight can be gained by
addressing issues such as modeling aspects of
different kind of waves, elimination of seasonal
tide and wind effect, reconstruction of an 'average'
sea level influenced by gravity, exploitation of sea
floor morphology, statistical treatment of long
wave histories, testing of statistical models on
subsets of longer data-sets to determine most
robust predictors, etc.
Also it has been observed that the work on ocean
wave modeling can be used to shed light on the
issue of current limitations of ocean wave energy
technologies. Because of its own geographical
peculiarities, this kind of ocean energy technology
may not at present be the sole power technology.
However, the specific topography of the
continental shelves of Pakistan coastal areas
seems to be quite suitable for all types of energy

alternatives available to date. Moreover, in
contrast to the traditional fossil fuel sources of
energy, any version of tidal power station
technology will not contribute greenhouse gases
to the environment, will have a variety of uses
ranging from small-scale power for offshore
operations to proposals for arrays that will
provide power in quantities similar to those
provided by conventional power-stations, same is
true for the harnessing the energy from swells in
deep waters, and finally could serve as the
springboard to move to other possibilities of
generating energy from oceans. As for the
economic and commercial viability of renewable
alternatives for energy discussed in the paper,
demands for low-cost energy in the face of almost
consistently rising fossil fuel costs can set the
stage for further engineering tests for the proposal
made here.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank the organizers of this
International Conference on Power Generation
Systems and Renewable Energy Tecnologies to
give the opportunity to present this piece of
information before an eminent gathering. Grateful
acknowledgement is due to the National Institute
of Oceanography for providing oceanic data sets
that we have used in this communication. Also the
financial support from the funding agencies and
the duty leave from the University of Karachi.
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260

Solar Energy: An Environment Friendly Reliable & Sustainable

Source
Muhammad Abubakar Siddique1 and Waseem Akhtar 2
NESCOM, Islamabad, Pakistan
abu_bakar_7@yahoo.com
Usman Institute of Technology, Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan
wakhtar@hotmail.com
Abstract: The rapid enhancement in consumption of
the world's energy needs. 89 PW of solar power falls
fossil fuels in order to meet the day-to-day increasing
on the planet's surface [3]. While it is not possible to
energy requirements has blown a danger sign for all
capture all, or even most, of this energy, capturing
nations. Global warming effect has compelled
less than 0.02% would be enough to meet the current
researchers to discover other techniques of energy
energy needs. Globally, solar generation is the fastest
generation instead of traditional ways in order to
growing source of energy, seeing an annual average
reduce adverse effects on global terrain. Renewable
growth of 35% over the past few years [36]. Japan,
energy resources have got attention of global
Europe, China, U.S. and India are the major growing
entrepreneurs due to their long lasting availability and
investors in solar energy. Advances in technology and
environment friendliness. Solar technology is finding
economies of scale, along with demand for solutions
increased application in both domestic and military
to global warming, have led photovoltaics to become
application. This paper discusses the ideas behind the
the most likely candidate to replace nuclear and fossil
art of design of solar cells and their historical
fuels [36].
developments. It also covers the kind of techniques/
methodologies used for solar energy conversion into
2.
SOLAR ENERGY
electrical energy with comparison between different
Solar energy is radiant energy that is produced by the
renewable technologies and solar technology. This
sun. The peoples have used energy since the
paper gives the brief review of world energy resources
beginning of the time is less than the energy radiated
and their consumption v/s Solar energy production
by sun in one second. The radiant energy of the sun is
percentage. Researchers in the field of energy
transmitted by the nuclear fusion process. It takes
generation have impressed by the Prodigious results
millions of years for the energy in the suns core to
of Renewable Energies. Todays most of the high
make its way to solar surface, and then just little over
ranked international universities of developed
8 minutes to travel the 93 millions miles to earth. The
countries in collaboration with government/ industries
solar energy travels to the earth at the speed of
have been carrying on advance researches in the field
186000 miles per second, the speed of light. Only
of renewable technologies.
small portion of energy radiated by the sun into the
space strikes the earth, one part in two billions. Yet
Key Words: Solar energy, Photovoltaic Cell,
this amount of energy is enormous. Every day enough
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP), Renewable energy,
energy strikes the United States to supply the nations
Renewable Technologies,
energy needs for one and half year. About 15% of the
suns energy that hits the earth is reflected back into
1.
INTRODUCTION
space. Another 30% is used to evaporate water,
which, lifted into atmosphere produces rainfall. Solar
Peoples have harness solar energy for centuries. As
energy also is absorbed by the plants, the land and the
early as 7th century B.C., peoples used simple
oceans. The rest could be used to supply our energy
magnifies glasses to concentrate the light of sun into
needs [1].
the beam so hot they would cause wood to catch fire
[1]. Beginning with the surge in coal use which
3.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
accompanied the industrial revolution, energy
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that
consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and
converts light into electric current using the
biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of
photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was
solar technologies starting in 1860s was driven by an
constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s [4].
expectation that coal would soon become scarce.
Although the prototype selenium cells converted less
However development of solar technologies stagnated
than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst
in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing
Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell
availability, economy and utility of coal and
recognized the importance of this discovery [4].
petroleum [2].
Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s,
Renewable energy sources are even larger than the
researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl
traditional fossil fuels and in theory can easily supply
Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954 [4].
261

These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached
efficiencies of 4.56% [4].
4.
SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES
Solar technologies can be categorized into two types

based on solar energy conversion methodologies.
Direct Conversion Technology and Indirect
Conversion Technology
Direct Conversion Technology
The best way to utilize solar energy is through
photovoltaics, which convert the sun energy directly
into electricityundoubtedly the most convenient
form of energy.
There are fourteen types of photovoltaic cells, such as
thin film, monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline
silicon, and amorphous cells. The difference is due to
separate fabrication processes.
Indirect Conversion Technology
Indirectly solar energy is converted through
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP), which normally
focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then
used to provide power, and other technologies, such
as the sterling engine dishes which use a sterling cycle
engine to power a generator.
all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the

concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power
generation or energy storage [5]
5.
SOLAR APPLICATIONS
The earliest significant application of solar cells was

as a back-up power source to the Vanguard I satellite
in 1958, which allowed it to continue transmitting for
over a year after its chemical battery was exhausted
[4]. The successful operation of solar cells on this
mission was duplicated in many other Soviet and
American satellites, and by the late 1960s, PV had
become the established source of power for them [4].
Photovoltaics went on to play an essential part in the
success of early commercial satellites such as Telstar,
and they remain vital to the telecommunications
infrastructure today [4].
Photovoltaics were initially used to power small and
medium domestic applications, from the calculator,
wrist watches powered by a single solar cell to offgrid homes powered by a photovoltaic array.
Several kind of domestic appliances have been
designed and available in the market, some examples
are as follows:
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses

or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area
of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat
is then used as a heat source for a conventional power
plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies
exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough,
the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling
dish and the solar power tower.
Figure 1: Solar Tube well [31]
Solar Collectors [1]
Various techniques are used to track the Sun for

capturing sun light e.g. Solar Collectors, CSP etc. In
262
Figure 2: Building integrated photovoltaics [27]
Figure 3: Solar Street Lights [31]

Traffic
[31]
Figure 5: Nellis Solar Power Plant, the largest Photovoltaic Power

Plant in North America [27]
Figure 4: Solar
Signal
Figure 6: Worlds second largest Solar Energy Project,

Brandenburg, Germany [6]
The annual International Conference on Solar

Photovoltaic Investments, organized by EPIA notes
that photovoltaics provides a secure, reliable return on
investment, with modules typically lasting 25 to 40
years and with a payback on investment of between 8
to 12 years [25].
6.
SOLAR POWER PLANTS
Following is the list PV Power Plants that shows the

trends of development countries for competing future
energy challenges.
7.
WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION
In 2008, total worldwide energy consumption was 474

exajoules (4741018 J) with 80 to 90 percent derived
from the combustion of fossil fuels [12]. This is
equivalent to an average power consumption rate of
15 terawatts (1.5041013 W). Huge investment for
renewable technology by the developed countries has
started after 2004 as the graph below indicates.
Solar power is by far the Earth's most available energy

source, easily capable of providing many times the
total current energy demand. The largest solar power
plants, like the 354 MW SEGS, are concentrating
solar thermal plants, but recently multi-megawatt
photovoltaic plants have been built. Completed in
2008, the 46 MW Moura photovoltaic power station
in Portugal and the 40 MW Waldpolenz Solar Park in
Germany are characteristic of the trend toward larger
photovoltaic power stations. Much larger ones are
proposed, such as the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm, and
the 600 MW Rancho Cielo Solar Farm.
263
Name of PV
Power Plant
Country
DC Peak
Power
(MW)
Notes
Completed September
2008
Olmedilla
Photovoltaic Park
Spain
60
Strasskirchen
Solar Park
Germany
54
Lieberose
Photovoltaic Park
[6][7]
Germany
53
2009
Puertollano
Photovoltaic Park
Spain
50
2008
Moura
photovoltaic
power station [8]
Portugal
46
Completed December
2008
Kothen Solar Park Germany
45
2009
Finsterwalde Solar
Germany
Park
42
2009
Waldpolenz Solar
Germany
Park [9][10]
40
550,000 First Solar

thin-film CdTe
modules. Completed
December 2008
Vepek Solar Park Czech

[11]
Republic
35.1
186,960 modules,
completed September
2010
Planta Solar La
Magascona & La
Magasquila
34.5
2004 World wide Energy Sources Graph [13]
Due to the serious consideration and focus for

acquiring renewable resources, just within four years
span of time up to 12.2% of total consumed energy
was renewably produced as elaborated by pie chart.
Spain
8. COMPARISON
Renewable Energy Sources Worldwide at the End of 2008 [14].
Providing enough energy to foster economic growth

and social development is also critical to closing the
gap [28]. At present, coal, oil and gas are the main
sources of energy globally. The total reserves of all
these sources are limited and, being non-renewable,
will run out eventually. The energy demand will
further increase because of the industrial development
264

and the rapid increase in population. Nuclear power
was believed to be the replacement of fossil fuels in
its early days but so far this hope has not materialized
due to proliferation concerns and problems with
radioactive waste management. The ever-increasing
threat to the environment due to the burning of fossil
fuels is another challenge to be taken seriously.
Therefore, there is now a worldwide growing interest
in alternative and renewable energy resources. [15].
There are several losses of power transmission which
has to be faced due to the distant consumer that may
be observed in the following diagram.
Figure 7: Transporting Energy, in this case electricity, from one

place to another [35].
Losses propensity can be observed by calculating

losses (losses at each node, line losses etc). High
medical concerns of World Health Organization
(WHO) regarding severe effects of electric magnetic
fields on human physiology have been noted. In
process of power generation through fossil fuels, high
carbon dioxide (CO) is emitted that adversely affect
the ozone layer which is the only source of protection
of the earth against ultraviolet and other harmful rays.
While in case of solar energy for house, Power
production and the consumer are available at the same
place so transmission losses will be not applicable and
secondly renewable technologies are environment
friendly. The effects of the new technology are: [21]
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
reduced deforestation;
improved environmental conditions;
better health for many rural people;
less rural to urban migration;
enhanced agricultural development; and
Poverty alleviation.
The trend of adopting alternative technologies for

renewable energy has remarkably enhanced as per the
data gathered by different international agencies as
discussed earlier and shown in the above mentioned
graphs. However it will take time to shift from
traditional energy to renewable energy generation.
9.
LIMITATIONS
now replacing other sources in the developing world

[17][18].
Some highly recommended measures according to the
World Energy Council [19] are as follows:
a)
Formulate long term strategies to include,

progressively, the renewable/solar energy
technologies in the national energy policy;
b) Provide adequate funds for R&D and for
transforming
lab-scale
products
into
commercial products;
c) Motivate entrepreneurs through policy
initiatives such as tax breaks, reduction/
exemption from import duties and taxes;
d) Provide soft loans/subsidies to the end users;
e) Motivate through mass media, exhibition,
field demonstration, education and training;
f) Encourage installation of solar lights and
other appliances on public buildings, parks,
streets etc; and
g) Provide funds for renewable energy
demonstration community projects.
10.
CONCLUSION
Energy plays a role as a backbone for the

development of the country. Todays socio-economic
development, technological enhancement, competitive
advantage to international markets, sovereignty
empowerment and strengthening wastage & pollution
management became the great challenges for the
survival of the nations due to reduction of energy
resources. Generation of energy resources more than
the consumption ratio and keeping the availability of
resources constant is the thumb role for the sustenance
of progression and growth. Renewable technologies
have the capability to overcome and fix the rising
issue well in manner. Rapidly adaptation for
acquirement of renewable techniques by the
developed countries have proved the worth and
necessity of this era.
Enormous experiences of utilization of Solar Energy
have compelled the decision makers of the countries
for promptly adaptation of this technology due to its
significant role. According to the latest research,
covering 4% of the world's desert area with
photovoltaics could supply all of the world's
electricity. The Gobi Desert alone could supply
almost all of the world's total energy demand [20].
Emancipated nations never beg their gasp from others.
All the nations should adopt renewable technology
specifically solar technology (where applicable) in
order to keep our globe clean from hazardous effects
and cooperate each other for promotion and
sovereignty of peace.
The only significant problem with solar power is

installation cost, although cost has been decreasing
due to the learning curve [16]. Developing countries
in particular may not have the funds to build solar
power plants, although small solar applications are
265

11.
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266

Nuclear Power and Mitigation of CO2 Emissions

Pakistan Case Study
#
G.R. Athar#1, Rehana Tariq#2 and Ijaz Ahmad#3
Applied Systems Analysis Division, Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission,

P.O. Box No. 1114, Islamabad, Pakistan
asag@ntc.net.pk, asag@comsats.net.pk
1, 2 and 3
Abstract When a nuclear power plant of 137 MW connected to
national grid in 1971, Pakistan became a pioneer developing

county in use of nuclear technology for electricity generation.
Now, two nuclear power plants are in operation while the third
plant is in final stages of construction. Owing to scarcity of
conventional energy resources and 34-year excellent experience
of nuclear power industry in the country, Government of
Pakistan allocated 8,800 MW electricity generation capacity for
nuclear power by the year 2030 in its Energy Security Plan,
formulated in 2005. The expanded use of nuclear power would
help the country in enhancing availability and security of
electricity supply along with additional benefits of mitigation of
carbon and other atmospheric emissions.
CO2 is a main contributor of climate change. The CO2
emissions of Pakistan during 2007-08 were about 167 million
tonnes; on per capita basis, one-fourth of the world average.
Despite a low level of CO2 emissions, Pakistan fully shares the
global concern of climate change. As the world is moving
towards a shared global future, it is imperative that there
should be global efforts to reduce the global threats like
climate change. In Pakistan, the high carbon emissions of
planned indigenous coal based power plants will be offset by
hydro, nuclear and wind based electricity generation.
Two nuclear power plants in operation are annually avoiding
about 1.6 million tonnes of CO2. Until now, the cumulative
avoidance of CO2 by these two nuclear power plants is around
17-24 million tonnes. The envisaged 8,800 MW nuclear capacity
by the year 2030 would avoid additional 19-48 million tonnes of
CO2 per annum in 2030 while the cumulative additional CO2
avoidance would be 135-345 million tonnes by 2030. The lower
and higher values in the range correspond to equivalent
generation by alternative electricity generation sources natural
gas and indigenous coal, respectively.
Keywords Pakistan, CO2, Nuclear Power
I. INTRODUCTION
Electricity production has environmental concerns of various
domains; emission of particulate maters from coal fired power
plants, causing respiratory diseases to nearby population is an
issue of local nature while emissions of Greenhouse Gases
(GHGs) contributing to climate change, is a global concern
(Table I). Scientific development has eliminated or reduced most
of the local and regional impacts of emissions from electricity
generation, i.e., more than 99.5% of particulate maters from

coal-fired power plants can be controlled by electrostatic
precipitators, over 90% of sulphur emissions can be reduced by
installation of flue gas de-sulphurisation equipment on power
plants while DeNOx systems also reduce above 90% emissions
of nitrogen compounds [1]. However, scientists, policy makers,
international organizations and governments are still struggling
to control the emissions of GHGs.
While there is a long list of GHGs, the key contributors to
global warming are Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and
Nitrous oxide (N2O). Though Global Warming Potential of CO2
is small, but its quantities are much larger compared with other
GHGs. Out of 49.0 billion tonnes of total worldwide GHG
emissions in 2004 (in CO2 equivalent), 76.7% were of CO2 only,
while the contribution of three major gases, CO2, CH4 and N2O
accounted for 98.9% of the global emissions of GHGs [2].
Though nuclear power avoids CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions, its
contribution to CO2 mitigation is of prime significance. Hence
this paper focuses only to analyze the role of nuclear power in
CO2 mitigation.
TABLE I
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Level
Concern
Causes
Local
Urban air quality Dust (coal based plants)

and water quality
Heat, Radiation, etc.
(coal, oil, gas and nuclear power plants)
Regional
Acidification
SOx from coal and oil based power plants

NOx from coal, oil and gas based power
plants
Global
Climate change
GHGs emissions from coal, oil and gas

based power plants
Loss of biodiversity
Large hydro power plants
II. FUTURE SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, ENERGY,

ELECTRICITY AND CARBON EMISSION SCENARIO
A. Socio-economic Development
Pakistan is the 6th most populous country in the world with
167 million people those are increasing at the rate of 1.7% per
annum. It is expected that Pakistan will become the 5th most
populous country by 2030 after China, India, USA and
Indonesia, with the population between 230-260 million [3].
267

On 30th June 2010, per capita income of the country in
current prices was Rs. 86,551 equivalent to US $ 1036 [4].
Over the last three decades (1973-2010), economy of the
country has grown at average annual rates of 15.8% in
nominal terms and 5.1% in real terms. During late 1990s, the
conomic growth performance of the country has been
exceptionally low and the growth of Gross Domestic Product
2005-30 [7]. The power generation mix of the Energy Security

Plan is given in Table II.
(GDP) decreased to 1.7% per annum in 1997 and 2.0% per

annum in the year 2001. Then GDP growth rate of the country
started increasing and achieved a level of 9.0% per annum in
2005. However, during the financial year 2006-07, the
economic growth slowed down to 6.8% per annum which
decreased to 3.7% in the year 2007-08 mainly because of high
international oil and food prices along with low production of
food crops in the country. The global financial crisis coupled
with law and order situation in the country has further slowed
down the economy to 1.2% in 2008-09. The economy of the
country slightly rebounded in 2009-10 and grew by 4.1%.
1) Oil: As on 30th June 2009, the proven oil reserves of

the country are 314.4 million barrels having life of only 13
years with the current production level of 65,845 barrels per
day. Pakistan has been relying heavily on imported oil, which
constituted upto 80 90% share in the total oil supply. During
2008-09, 8.1 million tonnes of crude oil, 4.4 million tonnes of
diesel, 5.1 million tonnes of furnace oil and 0.25 million tonne
of motor spirit were imported [6]. Owing to low level of
proven reserves and high growth in demand, it is expected that
import of crude oil and petroleum products will continue in
future to meet the gap between supply and demand. At
present, furnace oil is the largest source of electricity
generation in Pakistan which is a major cause of increase in
cost of electricity and distortion of balance of payment. In this
situation, the country cannot afford additional capacity on
furnace oil.
Because of heavy floods during July-August 2010, it is

expected that the GDP growth will be around 2.8% in 201011, mainly because of sharply lower agricultural output.
Analysts foresee that the economy of the country will recover
gradually and economic growth will reach upto 6% by 201415 [5].
B. Electricity Demand
At present, installed electricity generation capacity is
21,450 MW. The power sector of Pakistan is dominated with
oil, gas, and hydro. During the financial year 2008-09, grid
supplied electricity generation was 91,843 million kilowatthours comprising: Oil; 35.3%, Gas; 32.3%, Hydro; 30.3%,
Nuclear; 1.8%, Coal 0.1% and imported 0.2% [6].
Diversification of electricity generation sources is needed for
sustainable development of electricity sector. Reduction in the
share of oil and increase in the shares of hydro, domestic coal,
nuclear and renewable will enhance security of electricity
supply.
The per capita electricity consumption of the country is 422
kilowatt-hours per person that is one-sixth of the world
average. Assuming population of 230 and 260 million by
2030 and long-term economic growth scenario of 8.0% per
annum during 2005-30, Planning and Development Division
of Government of Pakistan prepared Energy Security Plan
Nuclear
Hydel
Coal
Renewable
Oil
Gas
Total
2005
400
6460
160
180
6400
5940
19540
Addition
2010
1260
900
700
160
4860
7880
2015
900
7570
3000
800
300
7550
20120
2020
1500
4700
4200
1470
300
12560
24730
2025
2000
5600
5400
2700
300
22490
38490
2030
4000
7070
6250
3850
300
30360
51830
Total
8800
32660 19910
9700
7760
83760
162590
TABLE II
POWER GENERATION PLAN (MW)
Source: [7]
C. Electricity Supply Options
2) Gas: The proven reserves of natural gas are 29.2

trillion cubic feet having life of 20 years on the basis of its
production level of 4,002 million Cubic Feet per Day in 200809. The demand of natural gas in the country is continuously
increasing. Currently, the country is facing shortage of natural
gas in the whole year but its shortage in winter is of severe
nature. A shortage of 6.11 Billion Cubic Feet per Day (BCFD)
of natural gas is projected to arise by 2020 which will further
buildup to 16.74 BCFD in the year 2030 [7]. To overcome the
shortage, import of natural gas from neighboring countries is
being considered to supplement the indigenous supplies and
replacement of imported oil with imported gas. Four options
for import of natural gas have been investigated; (i) IranPakistan (IP) gas pipeline, (ii) Iran-Pakistan-India (IPI) gas
pipeline, (iii) Turkmenistan Pakistan gas pipeline, and (iv)
Qatar Pakistan gas pipeline. Among these options, only the
import of natural gas through IP gas pipeline is in final stages.
Government has also planned to import of Liquefied Natural
Gas (LNG) through private sector.
3) Coal: While the total coal resource of the country is
reported to be 186 billion tones, measured reserves are only
3.5 billion tonnes. The production of coal during 2008-09 was
only 3.7 million tonnes which was used by the brick kiln
industry, a power plant of 150 MW, cement industry and few
other small industries. Major coal resource of Pakistan (about
94%) belongs to Thar coal field alone that is of lignite quality
with high moisture content (in the range 29.6% - 55.5%) and
heating value in the range of 6,244 - 11,045 BTU/lb [6].
Government has planned to exploit the indigenous coal
resources on large scale for power generation. According to
Energy Security Plan, the coal based electricity generation
will increase from present level of 150 MW to 19,910 MW by
2030. The Plan envisaged 900 MW capacity by 2010 that is
unlikely as no plant is under construction.
Sindh Government has established Thar Coal Energy Board
to act as a one-stop organization on behalf of all ministries,
268

departments and agencies of the Federal and Provincial
Governments in matters relating to leasing at Thar, mining,
development of clean coal technologies, R&D activities,
and other allied matters to attract investment for coal mining
and/or coal gasification at Thar and other areas of Sindh
province. Sindh government has a joint venture with Engro
Powergen Ltd. to develop open cast mining facility with
annual capacity of 3.5 to 6.5 million tonnes of coal. Planning
Commission is also working on a 50 MW power project at
Thar coal field based on underground coal gasification
technology.
In the year 2008-09, 4.7 million tonne of coal was imported,
mainly for steel and cement industry. The option of imported
coal based power generation was considered in early 1990s
but could not be realized. Now, this option is being
reconsidered.
4) Hydro Power: The identified hydro power potential of
Pakistan is about 55,000 MW, of which 13% has been
exploited so far. Government has planned to maximize hydro
power generation capacity through a sequence of hydro power
projects on all the rivers. Besides high investment involved in
construction of major hydro power projects, other barriers in
the country are socio-political issues which arise mainly due
to water allocation among provinces. Feasibility and design
engineering work on some major and several small hydro
projects is in progress and their construction will possibly start
in near future. The work has been initiated on 4,500 MW
Basha hydro power project at Indus River. Climate change,
which is likely to enhance the variability of water in
reservoirs, is a growing concern of water availability for hydro
power development in Pakistan.
5) Renewable: Energy Security Plan targeted at least 5%
of total electricity generation capacity of the country in 2030
(about 9,700 MW) to be based on renewable resources i.e.
wind, solar, micro hydro [7]. Target of Energy Security Plan
was of 700 MW renewable capacity by 2010. However up till
now, only a wind farm of 6 MW has been connected to the
national grid. It is expected that the wind capacity will reach
to 50 MW by the end of 2010 against envisaged 700 MW in
the Energy Security Plan.
6) Nuclear Power: Pakistan took an early initiative for the
development of nuclear power. Pakistan Atomic Energy
Commission (PAEC) was established in 1955 with the
responsibility of acquisition and development of nuclear
technology. PAEC took a bold step in 1964 to construct
Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP); a Pressurized
Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) of 137 MW. The construction
of KANUPP started in 1966 and completed in 1971. The plant
was designed and constructed by Canadian General Electric.
When in mid 1970s, Canada imposed an unjustified ban on
supply of fuel, spare parts and technical services for
KANUPP, the PAEC was successful in manufacturing nuclear
fuel and some spares of the plant. Since then, the operation of
this plant has been based on indigenously produced nuclear
fuel and locally fabricated spare parts. KANUPP, completed
its design life in 2002, is now operating on extended life of 15
7) years after necessary upgradation and improvements

made by PAEC.
Despite keen interest of Pakistan in building additional
nuclear power plants, it took about two decades to start
construction of its second nuclear power plant due to various
factors such as unfavourable international environment, lack
of indigenous technological and industrial capability for
independent design and construction of nuclear power plant.
The construction of Pakistans second nuclear power plant
started in 1992 with the help of the Peoples Republic of
China. The plant called CHASNUPP unit-1, a 325 MW
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), commissioned in
September 2000. Both KANUPP and CHASNUPP unit-1 are
working under safeguards of International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) and have excellent safety and security
records. The third nuclear power plant of Pakistan, a PWR of
340 MW capacity, is under construction and is expected to be
commissioned in mid 2011.
As nuclear power development requires high investments,
sound industrial infrastructure and long lead times for project
planning and construction compared to fossil fuel fired plants,
only a gradual nuclear power development programme can be
considered for the next few decades. Energy Security Plan
envisages a gradual development of nuclear power to 8,800
MW nuclear capacity by the year 2030. According to this
Plan, share of nuclear electricity is expected to increase form
3.3% in 2005 to about 8.0% in 2030. It is planned, in the short
term, to construct a few nuclear power plants with foreign
assistance and to meet the relatively longer term requirements
through gradually developing an indigenous capability to
design and construct nuclear power plants together with their
components and fuels. The nuclear power programme of the
country is summarized in Table III.
TABLE III
NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME OF PAKISTAN
Cumulative
Year of
gross generation
commissioning
(end July 2010)
Nuclear power
pants
Capacity
MW
Type
In operation
KANUPP-1
137
PHWR
1972
325
PWR
2000
325
PWR
2011
8,800
by 2030
CHASNUPP-1
13.0 billion
kWh
19.8 billion
kWh
Under-construction
CHASNUPP-2
Total planned
capacity
269

III.
CO2 EMISSIONS; CURRENT STATUS AND POSSIBLE

GROWTH
Until now, Government of Pakistan has prepared GHG

(including CO2) inventories of the country twice. The first
inventory of the country was prepared during 1995-98 for the
Asia Least-cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy
(ALGAS) under a project executed by the Asian Development
Bank [8]. The inventory was prepared for the fiscal year 198990 in accordance with Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) guidelines of 1995 on reporting the GHG
inventory. For the second time, the GHG emission inventory
was prepared, during 1999-2003 [9], with the support
provided by Global Environment Facility (GEF) through
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) for
preparation of Initial Communication to United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The
inventory was prepared for the fiscal year 1993-94 in
accordance with revised guidelines issued by the IPCC in
1996.
In 2006, IPCC again revised its guidelines for preparation of
national GHG inventories. Applied Systems Analysis Division
of PAEC prepared the GHG (including CO2) inventory of
Pakistan for the fiscal year 2007-08 [10] in accordance with
2006 guidelines of IPCC using UNFCCCs Software, Version
1.3.2 [11].
The CO2 emissions of Pakistan, estimated in abovementioned inventories, have been listed in Table IV. The total
CO2 emissions increased from 76.2 million tonnes in 1990 to
166.6 million tonnes in 2008 at an average annual growth of
4.4%. The Table IV shows that energy related emissions has
lions share in total CO2 emissions of the country.
Furthermore, the energy related emissions are increasing at a
higher pace than the overall CO2 emissions.
Sectoral energy related CO2 emissions have been given in
Table V. The growth rate of CO2 emissions of energy supply
(electricity generation, refineries, etc.) were the highest, 5.6%,
showing growing importance of the power sector in total CO2
emissions of the country.
TABLE IV
INCREASE IN CO2 EMISSIONS (MILLION TONNES)
Source
Energy supply
and use
Industrial
processes
Land use, land
use change and
forestry
Total
1990
1994
62.6
77.2
2008
140.2
Average annual
Growth (1990-2008)
TABLE V
1990
Million
Share
Tonnes
9.8
76.2
Sources: [8], [9] and [10]
11.3
6.5
95.0
17.6
16.5
26.4%
44.3
31.6%
5.6%
Manufacturing
industries and
construction
20.7
33.0%
42.4
30.3%
4.1%
Transport
14.0
22.4%
30.7
21.9%
4.4%
Other sectors*
11.4
18.2%
22.7
16.2%
3.9%
Total
62.6
100.0%
140.2
100.0%
4.6%
CO2 EMISSIONS OF ENERGY SECTOR

* Includes residential, services and agriculture.
IV. NUCLEAR POWER AND MITIGATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS

Nuclear power is a low carbon technology (Table VI).
Currently, 441 nuclear power plants in the world are annually
avoiding 2.3 billion tonnes of CO2 [12 & 13].
The two operational nuclear power plants of Pakistan,
(KANUPP and CHASNUPP unit-1) are contributing to global
efforts for mitigation of CO2 by annually avoiding about 1.6
million tonnes of CO2. Until now, the cumulative avoidance of
CO2 by both the nuclear power plants is around 17-24 million
tonnes.
The planned nuclear capacity of 8,800 MW will avoid
additional annual 19-48 million tonnes of CO2 in 2030. The
cumulative additional CO2 avoidance by the planned nuclear
power programme will be 135-345 million tonnes during
2010-2030. The lower and higher values in the range
correspond to equivalent generation by natural gas and
indigenous coal, respectively (Table VII).
Nuclear power plants also avoid other GHGs (i.e CH4, N2O,
CO, NMVOC). Avoidance of GHG emission of nuclear power
programme of Pakistan is also shown in Table VII. The
cumulative GHG avoidance of the envisaged nuclear power
programme will be 142-411 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
The upper value of the range is 1.3 times of the total GHG
emission of Pakistan during 2007-08 (i.e 309 million tonnes of
CO2 equivalent) from all sectors.
TABLE VI
AVERAGE CO2 EMISSIONS BY ENERGY CHAINS (KG CO2/KWH)
4.6%
8.9
166.6
9.0%
-0.5%
4.4%
Growth rate
(1990-2008)
Energy industries
Energy chain
3.7
2008
Million
Share
Tonnes
Lignite
Average CO2 emissions

1.2
Hard Coal
1.07
Oil
0.9
Natural Gas (Combined Cycle)
0.4
Solar PV
0.060
Wind
0.011
Nuclear
0.008
Hydro
0.005
Sources: [14]
270

TABLE VII
EMISSIONS AVOIDANCE BY NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME OF 8,800 MW
(MILLION TONNES)
Operating
plants
CO2 GHG
Annual (2030)
If nuclear generation
replaces
Coal
Gas
Cumulative by 2030
If nuclear generation
replaces
Coal
Gas
Planned plants
Total
CO2
GHG
CO2
GHG
1.6
0.8
2
0.8
48
19
57
20
50
20
59
21
45
20
54
21
345
135
411
142
390
155
465
163
In a study [15] carried out by ASAD, with technical

assistance of IAEA, a scenario was developed to analyze the
impacts of expanded use of nuclear power (50% higher than
envisaged in the Energy Security Plan by 2030) on GHG
emissions of Pakistan. It has been observed that the additional
nuclear capacity reduces 112 million tonnes of CO2 emission
by 2030 with no additional cost to the energy system. Rather,
it reduces the total energy system cost and the cost of CO2
reduction is US $ -5.0 per tonne [15]. The cost of per tonne
CO2 reduction of different scenarios of that study has been
given in Table VIII.
TABLE VIII
CO2 REDUCTION COST OF ALTERNATIVE SCENARIOS IN COMPARISON TO THE
REFERENCE
Scenario
Emission
reduction
(2012-2030)
(Million Tonne)
Cost of
reduction
($/Tonne of
CO2)
Reduction in CO2 intensity (gram/unit

value added) of the country by 2% per
year after 2012
415
6.2
Electricity CO2 intensity of electricity

generation(gram/kWh) constant after
2020
174
3.3
112
-5.0
Nuclear installed capacity 50% higher

than envisaged in Energy Security
Plan
Source: [15]
V.
fossil fuel based capacity. The planned nuclear power

programme of 8,800 MW will avoid additional 19-48 million
tonnes of CO2 annually by 2030, while total cumulative CO2
avoidance of the programme can be upto 345 million tonnes.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
CONCLUDING REMARKS
For socio-economic development, energy and electricity

requirements of Pakistan will increase substantially in future.
According to Energy Security Plan, electricity requirement
will increase by 8 times by 2030 to its current level of
consumption. Pakistan has good coal and hydro resources.
Exploitation of these indigenous resources to enhance security
of electricity supply is feasible but these sources are
associated with various technical, institutional and sociopolitical constraints.
In view of large requirements of electricity in the coming
decades, the expansion of power sector in the country will
require the use of all available fuels and technologies.
Whatever the mix of different sources is chosen for future
electricity system, the carbon emissions from the power sector
will increase substantially. However, the use of nuclear power
can significantly help to reduce the future carbon emissions of
[13]
[14]
[15]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The Future of Coal;

Options for a Carbon Constrained World, 2007, USA, ISBN 9780-615-14092-6.
Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of Working Group III of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change
2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland.
Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan, Vision 2030,
Islamabad, Pakistan, August 2007.
Economic Advisors Wing, Finance Division, Government of
Pakistan, Pakistan Economic Survey 2009-10 (and earlier issues),
Islamabad, Pakistan, June 2010.
International Monetary Fund, Country Report No. 10/295,
Pakistan: Use of Fund Resources-Request for Emergency
Assistance-Staff Report; Press Release on the Executive Board
Discussion; and Statement by the Executive Director of
Pakistan, Pakistan, September 2010.
Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan, Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Resources, Government of Pakistan,
Pakistan Energy Yearbook 2009 (and earlier issues), Pakistan,
Islamabad, December 2009.
Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan, Medium Term
Development Framework 2005-10, Pakistan, Islamabad, May
2005.
Asian Development Bank, Global Environment Facility,
United Nations Development Programme, ,Asia Least-cost
Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy, ALGAS, Pakistan,
Manila, Philippines, October 1998, ISBN 971-561-186-9.
Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan, Pakistans
Initial National Communication on Climate Change, Pakistan,
Islamabad, November 2003.
Ijaz Ahmad, G.R. Athar and Ahmad Mumtaz, Greenhouse
Gas Emission Inventory of Pakistan for the year 2007-08,
Applied Systems Analysis Division, Pakistan Atomic Energy
Commission, Islamabad, July 2009.
UNFCCC, Manual for the UNFCCC Non-Annex I Greenhouse
Gas Inventory Software, Version 1.3.2, January 2007.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy, Electricity and
Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2030, Reference
Data Series No.1, 2008 Edition, Vienna, Austria.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Climate Change and
Nuclear Power 2009, Vienna, Austria.
Nuclear Energy Agency, Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development, Nuclear Energy Outlook 2008,
Paris, France.
G.R. Athar, Rehana Tariq, M. Imtiaz, Ijaz Ahmad, Jawad Bashir,
Evaluation of Sustainable Energy Development Strategies for
Pakistan for Addressing Climate Change Issues, Report of
IAEA/RCA Project RAS/0/045, Applied Systems Analysis
Division, Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Islamabad,
March
2009.
271

THERMAL ANALYSES OF SOLAR SWIMMING POOL

HEATING IN PAKISTAN
Zafar Ullah Koreshi,
Department of Mechatronics,
Air University, E-9
Islamabad.
Dr. Irshad Ahmad

and
Department of Mechatronics,
Air University, E-9
Islamabad.
Irshadahmed42@yahoo.com
losses from an underground pool located in the open

to receive direct solar radiation and covered with a
transparent plastic sheet to eliminate evaporation heat
loss from the pool surface. Convective and radiative
heat losses from the pool surface are calculated to
estimate the area of the unglazed solar collectors
required to keep the pool at comfortable temperature.
ABSTRACT
Hotels and swimming clubs in Pakistan pay huge
gas bills for heating Swimming pools in winter.
Winter days in most parts of Pakistan remain sunny
and unglazed low cost solar collectors may be used
to extend the swimming season. Installing the pool
in a wind-protected area, which receives
unobstructed solar radiation, may further reduce the
size of the solar collectors required to heat the
swimming pools. The pools should be covered with
plastic sheet to eliminate evaporative heat losses and
to prevent dust and tree leaves falling in the pool.
The results of the thermal analysis show that in
some parts of the country, a solar exposed pool can
maintain comfortable temperature simply by using a
plastic sheet on the pool surface. On the other hand,
there are cities where solar collector array equal to
twice the surface area of the pool is required to keep
desired temperature in winter.
Over 30 years average value of relative humidity, dry

bulb temperature and solar radiation (Table-1) for
selected cities of Pakistan are used to estimate heat loss
from the pool surface for the winter months of January,
February, march, October, November and December.
The table-1 shows the data for three main locations.
However, weather data for eight locations widely
distributed in the country were used in the study. These
data have been taken from different sources (Ref-4 & 5)
TABLE 1: METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR
DIFFERENT CITIES OF PAKISTAN
INTRODUCTION
Islamabad
This study uses local climatic data to calculate the

heat
46 12.5 3.5 48.3 21.2
Mar
37
Oct
29 23.5 4.8
65
12.8
3.22
58
15.4
3.98
5.9
51
20.5
28.2
5.3
53
25.6
Nov
26 18.5 3.6 52.5 23.7
4.5
61
19.5
3.8
Dec
39 11.5 2.6 55.4 19.7
68
14.2
17
Average Monthly
Temperature
4.2
Months
Average Solar Radiation
Feb
Average Monthly
Temperature
Average Relative Humidity
44
Lahore
Jan
Average Monthly
Temperature
and therefore, many countries have legally banned the

use of fossil fuels for pool heating (Ref-3). A major
problem in heating an open pool is that large quantities
of energy are lost from the pool surface by evaporation,
convection and radiation. A significant reduction in the
heat loss rate is achieved by using pool covers. Further
increase in water temperatures is achieved by sheltering
the pool from the high speed winds while exposing it
to solar radiation.
Karachi
There is an acute shortage of fossil fuels resources in

Pakistan. Therefore energy is very expensive, still most
five stars hotels heat their swimming pools using natural
gas and pay high energy bills. Solar energy, being
abundantly available throughout the country all the year,
should be used (Ref-1).
Heating of swimming pool water is the simplest and
most economic application of solar energy. Desired pool
temperature varies from 240C to 320C (Ref-2).
Swimming pools are generally heated with fossil fuels.
Supply of large amount of heat even at low temperature
is very expensive
CLIMATE OF PAKISTAN
1.
2.
2.9 45.3 18.4
4.5 50.3 25.4

49
3. WORKING OF THE SOLAR SWIMMING

POOL
Water from the swimming pool enters the pump, which
forces it through the filter to the inlet of the solar
272

collectors. The solar collectors are located on the roof of
the house and exposed to the sun during the day. The
water entering the lower header of collectors, heats up
while passing the solar collectors. This hot water from
the upper header of the collectors exits and flows into the
swimming pool. The pump capacity is such that it pumps
water in the pool two to three times during typical sunny
days. (Fig-1)
heat losses from the pool. Solar radiation data from

NASA website was used in the calculation of energy
received by solar collectors.
The equations used for calculating the heat losses
through radiation, evaporation and convection are given
in the Appendix-1 (Ref-6)
5.
METHOD OF THERMAL ANALYSIS
The heat loss from the pool has been calculated using the
following assumptions.
a. Negligible heat loss occurs by conduction to the
ground from bottom and sides of the pool
b. The pool is located in the open sun and is covered
with a transparent plastic sheet.
c.
A minimum temperature of 250C is maintained in
the pool.
d. The pool is reasonably wind sheltered and an
average wind velocity of 1m/s prevails in the pool area.
e.
A basic area of 45m2 of pool surface area for
calculations.
f.
Solar collectors are assumed to be 60% efficient as
these operate at low temperatures.
Fig. 1: Operation of a solar heated swimming pool
system
6.
4.
The result of the analysis for 8 cities for percentage of

evaporative loss, radiative and convective losses, total
losses from a covered pool and the area of unglazed solar
collectors required to maintain comfortable pool
temperature are given in the (Table-2). The evaporative
losses range from 64% to 58% in Karachi and Peshawar
respectively. The other cities fall within this narrow
range. Therefore, covering the pool reduces the heat loss
from the pool by more than 50% and thus the area of
solar collectors and cost of heating the swimming pool is
drastically reduced. Locating the pool in the sun further
reduces the solar collector area. The radiative loss for
winter months varies from 31GJ in Karachi to 13.6GJ in
Hyderabad, while the convective heat losses vary from
79GJ in Islamabad to 13.6GJ in Hyderabad. The total
losses vary from 144.5GJ in Quetta and 29.3GJ in
Hyderabad, the reason being very low ambient winter
temperatures in Quetta and relatively high winter
temperatures in Hyderabad.
HEAT FLOWS IN THE SWIMMING POOL
Heat flows to and from an underground pool occur

through the following processes (Fig-2).
a. Heat gain/loss to the ground by conduction.
b. Heat gain/loss through radiation to the sky from the
pool surface.
c.
Heat gain/loss through evaporation from the pool
surface.
d. Heat gain/loss through convection from the pool
surface.
e.
Solar radiation incident on the pool surface if
exposed to the sun.
Fig. 2: Swimming pool heat loss

It is generally accepted that heat losses to the ground are
minor therefore; these are neglected in calculation of
RESULT OF THE ANALYSIS
The unglazed solar collector required to maintain

comfortable pool water temperature is shown in the Fig3. The vertically shaded area in the Quetta and Northern
region of Pakistan require solar collector area equal to
twice the surface area of the pool. The slantingly shaded
area comprising of Peshawar and Islamabad region
needs solar collector area equal to 1.5 times the pool
surface area. The unshaded region consisting of coastal
area of Sindh, Balouchistan and Central area of Punjab
and the horizontal shaded area consisting of the Southern
Punjab and Northern Sindh up to Hyderabad need no
solar collectors due to relatively high winter ambient
273

temperatures. Only the plastic sheet on the pool surface
collects enough solar radiation to compensate for the
heat losses from the swimming pool.
Fig. 3: Solar Collector Area required for Winter Heating

of Swimming Pools in Pakistan
Radiative
Losses (GJ)
Convective
Losses (GJ)
Total Losses
(GJ)
Collector
Required (m2)
Islamabad
59
22.5
56.3
78.8
67.5
Karachi
64
31.5
17.6
49.1
45
Lahore
61
23.2
38.4
61.6
45
Peshawar
58
22.5
55.7
78.2
67.5
Quetta
59
28.5
116
144.5
90
Multan
60
23.2
39.1
62.3
22.5
Faisalabad
60
23
43.6
66.6
45
Hyderabad
66
15.7
13.6
29.3
Cities
Evaporation
Losses (%)
TABLE 2: COVERED POOL HEAT LOSS FOR

SELECTED LOCATIONS IN PAKISTAN
7.
CONCLUSION
Pools should be located in the sun and

covered with a transparent sheet to reduce the cost of
solar heating of swimming pools.
Winter heating of the swimming pools using

natural gas or other fuels is expensive and solar energy
should be used instead.
The unglazed solar collector area required for

100% winter swimming pool heating varies from 0% and
200% of the pool surface.
8.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Mr. Hasnat Ahmed for typing

the manuscript and all others who have helped us in
gathering data for the study.
APPENDIX - 1
HEAT LOSS MECHANISMS FROM THE POOL
Three important mechanisms through which heat is lost
from the pool to the environment are radiation,
evaporation and convection.
274

A.1
Radiation Heat Loss:
The radiative heat loss qr, from the pool to the sky used
in the calculations is
--------------------------------qr = A (Tw4 Ts4)
(1)
Where:
Tw = Temperature of water in the Pool, K
Ts = Temperature of the Sky, K
= Stefans constant S=5.6703x10-8 W/m2K
= Emissivity of the pool.
The pool surface acts like a blackbody for radiation
losses and measured the outgoing radiation with covered
pool and with uncovered pool (Ref-6). Therefore, pool
emittance equal to 1 has been used in the calculations.
A.2
Evaporation Losses:
qe = Pa [35V + 43(Tp - Ta)1/3] (Wp - Wa) ----------------(2)

Where:
V = Wind speed in meters per second in the vicinity of
the pool, m/s.
Pa = Ambient air pressure, Kilopascals.
Tp = Pool temperature, K
Ta = Ambient temperature, K
Wp = Saturation humidity ratio at the temperature of the
pool.
Wa = Humidity ratio of the ambient air above the pool.
A.3
Convection Losses:
qc = qe x 0.0006 (Tp - Ta) / (Wp - Wa) --------------------(3)

Where:
qe = Evaporation losses, W/m2
Tp = Pool temperature, K
Ta = Ambient temperature, K
Wp = Saturation humidity ratio at the temperature of the
pool.
Wa = Humidity ratio of the ambient air above the pool.
9.
REFERENCES
1. Ahmad, I, Zaidi, Z.I and Akhtar, P, Solar Radiation

Over Pakistan, Applied Solar Energy, Vol. 31. No.3, pp.
41-50, 1996.
2. John A.Duffie & William A. Beckman, Solar
Engineering of Thermal Processes 3rd Edition (2006).
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey.
3. H P Garg, J Prakash, Solar Energy Fundamentals
and Applications 1st revised edition.
4. http://www.pakmet.com.pk/,
http://www.met.gov.pk
5. http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgibin/sse/homer.cgi?email=na
6. Wei, J., H.Sigworth, Jr., C. Lederer, and
A.H.Rosenfeld, A Computer Program for Evaluating
Swimming Pool Heat Conservation. Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory Report
275

Modeling and Simulation of Syngas Purification and Power

Generation in Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
(IGCC)
Nasir Mahmood, M. Zafar-uz-Zaman, Muhammad Taqi Mehran*
National Development Complex,
Islamabad, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
(IGCC) is one of the most promising
technologies for power generation; The
environmental benefits and the higher
energy conversion efficiency distinguish it
from
traditional
coal
generation
technologies. This work presents a
structured and validated conceptual model
of purification of coal gas produced during
the Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)
of coal containing high sulfur contents.
Gas cleaning operations for CO2, H2S and
moisture removal have been modeled in
steady and dynamic state. The power
generation from combined cycle is also
modeled. The model has been developed
using Aspen HYSYS and Aspen Plus
simulation software. Predicted results of
clean gas composition and generated
power present a good agreement with
industrial data and efficiency parameters.
This study is aimed at obtaining optimal
assessment of an integrated gasification
combined cycle (IGCC) power plant
configurations.
Keywords: IGCC power plant, process
simulation, gas purification units, syngas,
Aspen HYSYS
INTRODUCTION
The worlds electricity generation is
dominated by fossil fuels out of which
about 40% is generated using coal. At the
same time the electricity generation stands
alone for approximately a third of the
global CO2 emissions. The use of coal as
primary fuel is expected to increase by
approximately 30% the next 20 years and
the worldwide capacity of coal fired power
stations is expected to increase by over

40% between 2010 and 2030 [1].
The efficient utilization of nonrenewable energy sources (coal, natural
gas, nuclear power etc.) is being
emphasized due to strong dependency on
crude oil and natural gas and the
associated prices and due to increase in
supply chain risk. The emission of green
house gases and different pollutants also
urge the environmental regulation to be
strong driver for the new development in
the utilization of fossil fuels. In this
context coal has to be considered as energy
source for power generation because of its
availability and relatively wide geographic
distribution [2]. These developments
include coal based electric power
technologies, where the integrated
gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is an
alternative to pulverized coal (PC)
combustion systems [3]. The integrated
gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is an
electrical power generation system which
offers efficient generation from coal with
lower effect on the environment than
conventional coal power plants. In
comparison with modern coal combustion
technologies pulverized coal combustion
(PCC), fluidized bed combustion (FBC),
supercritical
and
ultra-supercritical
technologies),
IGCC
systems
are
characterized by lower SOx and NOx
emissions, comparable vapor organic
carbon (VOC) emissions, 20% less CO2
emissions and use of 2040% less water.
They operate at higher efficiencies, thus
requiring less fuel and producing less
emission [4]. Commercially available
IGCC power plant technologies produce
substantially smaller volumes of solid
276
stages of produced gases and power

generation from the combined cycle.
wastes than conventional coal plants.

Furthermore, IGCC solid wastes are less
likely to cause environmental damage than
fly ash from conventional coal plants
because IGCC ash melts in the gasification
process [5].
IGCC has higher fuel flexibility
(biomass, refinery residues, petroleum
coke, etc.) and generates multiple products
(electricity, hydrogen and chemicals like
methanol and higher alcohols) and byproducts (sulfur, sulfuric acid, slag, etc.)
[6]. In IGCC, as coal is not combusted, the
relatively small volumes of synthesis gas
(syngas) are easier to clean up than the
much larger volumes of flue gases at coal
combustion plants [7].
Pakistan has gigantic reserves of
coal in Sindh and Blochistan provinces
and IGCC is the most promising
technology for the efficient utilization of
these coal reserves. IGCC provides higher
energy conversion efficiency which leads
to the better use of coal resources and
contributes to reduction in greenhouse
gases and other pollutants.
This paper presents modeling and
simulation of syngas cleaning and
purification operations to remove the
solids and gaseous components. Also
combined cycle for power generation is
modeled and simulated. The aim of this
work is to build a decision support
platform in order to obtain a wholly
integrated
and
optimized
process
operation, including modeling and
simulation of cleaning and conditioning
IGCC PROCESS DESCRIPTION

IGCC technology is a power generation
process that integrates gasification process
with combined cycle power plant. The
gasification system converts coal into
synthesis gas which consists primarily of
hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
The synthesis gas is then used as fuel on a
combined cycle power plant for electricity
generation.
IGCC system mainly consists of 4 major
sections, air separation, gasification,
cooling & clean up system, and combined
cycle power plant. Air separation unit is
responsible for separating air into its
constituents and supplying pure oxygen
into the gasifier. Underground Coal
Gasification (UCG) takes place in the
presence of controlled air/oxygen and
steam which maintaining a reducing
condition.
Underground Coal Gasification
(UCG) is a physico-chemical process
wherein air or oxygen and steam are
introduced through an injection well to the
natural coal seam location, for in-situ
reaction in the coal seam, to obtain a
product gas mixture of combustible
(CO+H2 +CH4) and non-combustible gases
(CO2, N2, H2O), and other impurities (dust,
tar, sulphur compounds) which are
extracted to the surface through a
production well for further processing and
utilization [13].
Figure 1 : Simplified IGCC diagram [2]
In addition to its chemical energy

(heating value), the hot raw synthesis gas
contains sensible heat which may be
recovered in heat exchangers to produce
steam for the steam turbine. The use of
synthesis gas coolers for this purpose
increases efficiency, but adds capital costs.
In theory, it would be desirable to clean
the raw synthesis gas without cooling (as
the sensible heat would be utilized most
efficiently when delivered to the gas
turbine), but the proven technologies for
277
gas clean up operate at near ambient

temperatures. In the gas cleanup process,
particles, sulfur and other impurities are
removed. Because of the high partial
pressures of the species and the low
volume flow of synthesis gas, the gas
cleanup process is very efficient and low
cost compared to traditional flue gas
cleaning [14].
The purposes of purification of UCG
syngas are to reduce the temperature of
syngas, remove impurities like tar, sulfur,
ash, water etc. in order to improve quality
of syngas to meet the requirements of
subsequent power generation. Then, the
clean syngas drives a gas turbine after
being combusted in the combustion
chamber of the gas turbine. The heat from
the gas turbine exhaust is used to generate
superheated steam in the heat recovery
steam generator (HRSG). The generated
superheated steam drives a steam turbine,
producing additional power [2].
METHODOLOGY
The flow sheet has several naturally
grouped sections: coal preparation,
gasification, gas cooling and cleaning, acid
gas removal, gas turbine, HRSG, steam
cycle, etc. All these sections were
rigorously modeled using Aspen Plus [8].
Process modeling and simulation
of the gas cleaning and purification
operation is carried out with concentration
on whole process design. The model is
implemented using two main chemical
flow sheeting environments: Aspen
HYSYS and Aspen Plus, which are
flexible tools for process simulation by
providing thermodynamic models for the
estimation of chemical properties and unit
operation models for many processes.
Aspen HYSYS has been chosen
as the platform for the overall process
simulation because of its capability of
accepting custom models as extensions.
These models could be complex chemical
reactions (COS hydrolysis) or complicated
unit operation (pyrolysis). It also allows
creating new chemical components not
included in its database, such as non

stoichiometric solids for raw material and
char definition.
Alternatively, Aspen Plus is used
for calculations involving water systems
and electrolytes. These ionic models are
required to solve the phase equilibrium
problem for unit operation systems such as
venturi scrubbers, sour water strippers or
DEA absorbers.
3.1
Assumptions
Several assumptions throughout this work
are made regarding the physical behavior
of the industrial plant and others related to
the representation of such behavior in the
simulation software. In the first case, real
plant operating conditions have been
adapted to the simulation environment and
in the latter case they refer to assumptions
adopted within the same software.
It is assumed that synthesis gas has been
produced
by
underground
coal
gasification and we are getting raw
synthesis gas from UCG.
The composition of synthesis gas is shown
in Table 1 adopted from reference [9]
and this composition is in the range of
syngas expected to be produced from
UCG of Thar Coal reserves.
Suspended solids are separated from the
synthesis gas (syngas). Thus, no solids
are assumed to be present in all
downstream units, simplifying the
model since only two fluid phases,
liquid and vapor, are considered.
Emphasis is given on study of sweetening
and dehydration of gas, so the auxiliary
operations like solid removal and air
separation units are not discussed.
The assumptions adopted within the
software are:
All solid species considered, raw
materials, ashes and char, are treated as
Hypo-Components in Aspen HYSYS.
Raw materials and char are defined using
their ultimate analysis and heat of
formation.
Thermodynamic properties for phase
separation are calculated using PengRobinson equation of state.
278
Table 1: Composition of UCG gas [9]
UCG gas
CO2
CO
H2
CH4
H2S
O2
N2
Heating Value, MJ/m3
17.6
15.2
1.8
1.2
0.5
57.7
3.36
Component
%
3.2
Unit Operation Models
The most important unit operation represented by Aspen Plus and HYSYS Models are described in
Table.
Table 2: Representative unit operations used in the simulation of the IGCC process
Unit Operation
Aspen Plus Model
Comments/Specifications
Dust removal
Sep
Simplified simulation of
gas/solids separation by fixed
split fraction specification
Syngas dehydration
Knockout vessel, absorber,

stripper
Simulation of syngas
dehydration and recovery of
TEG
Syngas sweetening
Absorber, Distillation
Column, RStioc
Rigorous simulation of H2S,

CO2 removal
Syngas combustor
RGIBS
Combustion of syngas
Air, O2 and N2 compressor
Compressor
Power required calculated
Boiler
Heater
Simplified simulation of
generation of HP,IP and LP
steam
Gas and steam turbine
Compressor
Calculated power produced
SIMULATION MODEL
DEVELOPMENT
Syngas Cleaning & Purification Model
Development
Figure 2 represents the sequence of
operations involved in the handling and
purification of syngas obtained from

the UCG. Major units are syngas
dehydration unit with TEG and syngas
sweetening unit. The solids are removed
by cyclone separator.
279
Figure 2 : Block Diagram for Handling and Purification of Syn. Gas
The specification of syngas being utilized for modeling is shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Syngas Inlet conditions
Syngas from UCG
UCG gas
Vapor fraction
0.9673
Temperature
50 oC
Pressure
1017 kPa
Actual Volume Flow
1008 m3 / hr
Heating Value
3.36 MJ/m3
CO2
CO
H2
CH4
H2S
O2
N2
H2O
Component
Mass
0.318196 0.101261 0.007288 0.002900 0.02094 0.115682 0.405076 0.028655
fraction
4.1.1
Syngas Dehydration with TEG

The gas obtained from the cyclone
contains a large amount of water in condensed
and vapor phase. So a complete model for the
dehydration of syngas is developed along with
the recovery of TEG stripping out water from
it. Figure 3 shows a simulated flow sheet for
the dehydration of syngas with TEG. The flow
sheet developed and simulated on Aspen
HYSYS solved for the steady state
dehydration of syngas and the water removed

by the knockout vessel and than by stripping
through TEG in a column.
4.1.2 Syngas Sweetening
Syngas sweetening is very expensive
process which is necessary for the long term
normal operation in order to meet
environmental regulation and control
corrosion to equipments. Gases like H2S and
CO2 are removed by very efficient process
280

and simulated flow diagram is shown in Figure
5. The process of desulfurization and
sweetening of syngas resulted a converged
solution of complex flow processes. Amine
recovery is also crucial and it is also
considered for recycling amines to reduce the
cost of raw materials.
4.2 Combined Cycle Power Plant
Model Development
Preheated, moisturized syngas and
compressed air are supplied to the combustor
of the combustion turbine. The hot gas leaving
the combustor flows to the turbine, which
drives a generator and air compressor. Hot
exhaust gas from the turbine is sent to the
HRSG. The HRSG superheats the 1,600-psia
HP steam produced by the gasifier, reheats the
IP steam, and generates HP steam. Figure 4

represents the simulated flow diagram of the
combined cycle with HRSG.
The simulation of power generation cycle
with both steam turbine and gas turbine gives
an enhance efficiency of the system and most
of the power can be extracted. The turbines are
modeled in Aspen HYSYS as compressor
because no specific model for the turbine is
available in software while the heat exchanger
is modeled as HRSG.
The simulation of processes in IGCC
using Aspen HYSYS for dehydration,
sweetening and power generation units give a
confidence that these processes can be
modeled more rigorously for process design of
IGCC.
Figure 3: Simulated flow sheet of Syngas dehydration unit with TEG recycling
281
Figure 4: Combined cycle with gas urbine and steam turbine simulated flow sheet.
Figure 5: Simulated flow sheet for syngas sweetening
282
SIMULATION RESULTS
The rigorous simulations of IGCC
syngas purification and power
generation units in Aspen HYSYS are
conducted. Syngas handling operations
involving dehydration and sweetening
of syngas and than power generation in
combined cycle is studied. The results
of the simulations are described
briefly.
5.1
Syngas
Purification
and
handling
The
main
objective
of
purification and handling units is to
remove the unwanted species from the
gas stream so that gas turbine can
utilize it in a more economical and
environment friendly manner.
Figure 3 represents the

simulated flow diagram of syngas
dehydration with TEG. Firstly the
major amount of water is removed by
knockout vessel and the water mass
fraction in the dry syngas at the outlet
of knockout vessel reduced from
0.028655 to 0.008294. About 72 % of
moisture present in the syngas is
removed by knockout vessel. The
remaining moisture is removed by
TEG and TEG is recovered and
recycled for reuse. Table 4 shows the
composition of streams resulting
dehydration of syngas. Table 4 reveals
that moisture is totally removed from
the syngas when comes out as V Dry
Syngas. The TEG used for water
removal is recovered completely in the
proposed simulation.
Table 4: Syngas dehydrated stream composition on component mole fraction basis.
Component
H2S
H2O
H2
CO
CH4
O2
N2
CO2
Syngas (from
UCG)
0.01760
0.04555
0.10352
0.10352
0.00518
0.10352
0.41408
0.20704
Dry Syngas (Out form

knockout vessel)
0.01819
0.01335
0.10702
0.10702
0.00535
0.10701
0.42806
0.21401
Figure 4 shows the flow

diagram of syngas sweetening process
and recovery of the solvent DEA. Gas
sweetening process simulation resulted
reduction of H2S and CO2 in syngas.
Table 5 presents the effect of
sweetening on gas composition. The
absorber utilizes amines for the H2S
V Dry Syngas (Out from

stripper)
0.01822
0.00000
0.10860
0.10854
0.00543
0.10847
0.43414
0.21659
and CO2 removal and this is recovered

back by distillation column to separate
the absorbed gases and recycle the
DEA to absorber for reuse. The sulfur
from H2S can be recovered in solid
form by Clause process but not shown
in present simulation.
Table 5: Sour and sweet gas compositions
Component
H2S
H2O
H2
CO
CH4
O2
Sour gas
0.01822
0.00000
0.10860
0.10854
0.00543
0.10847
Sweet Gas
0.0000
0.0000
0.10860
0.10652
0.00532
0.10846
283

N2
CO2
0.43414
0.21659
5.3
0.43415
0.00152
Power generation in combined cycle
Simulation results of combined cycle in Aspen HYSYS are given in the Table 6, 7, 8.
Table 6: Power generated from combined cycle
Generated Energy in kilowatts

Gas turbine
64880 kW
Steam turbine
19150 kW
Total
84030 kW
Table 7: Auxiliary Power for combined cycle
Auxiliary Energy in kilowatts

Compressor
14320 kW
Recycle HP pump
150 kW
Total
15820 kW
Table 8: Net Energies and Efficiency
Net Energies and Efficiency

Net Energy
68210 kW
Plant Efficiency
49.4 %
Syngas Consumption
34055.7 Kg/hr
Table 9: Performance Summary
Performance Criteria
Value
Syngas Capacity
34055.75 Kg/hr
Net Power
68210 kW
Plant Heat Rate
6396 Btu/kWh
284
Syngas Heating Value (LHV)
3.36 MJ/m3
Syngas Sulfur Content
<100 ppm
Sulfur removal efficiency
>98 %
The performance summary Table 9

shows that proposed IGCC power
generation system has potential to
generate power more economically and
efficiently.
CONCLUSIONS
A validated conceptual model of an
IGCC power plant of underground coal
gasification has been performed. The
purification and sweetening of syngas
utilizing proper dehydration and
sweetening unit results moisture free
and desulfurized syngas. This

treatment caused significant reduction
in NOx and SOx emission and also
increase in the efficiency of combined
cycle. Syngas produced from Thar
Caol can directly be used in these
simulation models to get a picture of
power generation from combined
cycle. Future work will be envisaged to
further improve the model
simplifications and optimize the
process based on economical and
environmental considerations
NOMENCLATURE
Zheng, L., & Furinsky, E. (2005).
ASU
BFW
CGCU
CSC
DEA
air separation unit

boiler feed water
cold gas cleaning unit
convective syngas cooler
di ethylene amine
GT
HRSG
IGCC
LHV
PC
gas turbine
heat recovery steam generator
integrated gasification combined cycle
lower heating value of component
pulverized coal
FBC
fluidized bed combustion
UCG
underground coal gasification
REFERENCES
Statistical Review of World Energy
(2008). BP.htm.
Jimnez, L., et al.(2009) Integrated
gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
process simulation and optimization.
Computers and Chemical Engineering
(2009),
doi:10.1016/j.compchemeng.2009.04.
007
Mar Prez-Fortes, et al.(2008) Enhanced
modeling and integrated simulation of
gasification and purification gas units
targeted to clean power production,
18th
European
Symposium
on
Computer Aided Process Engineering
ESCAPE 18, Spain
Comparison of shell, Texaco BGL and

KRWgasifiers as part of IGCC plant
computer
simulations.
Energy
Conversion and Management,46,
17671779.
Shilling, N. Z., & Lee, D. T. (2003).
IGCCClean
power
generation
alternative for solid fuels. PowerGen
Asia.
Jay, A. R.-B., Lynn, M. M., Jeff,W. H, &
Massood,
R.
(2002).
An
environmental assessment of IGCC
power systems. In Proceedings of the
nineteenth annual Pittsburgh coal
conference.
Descamps, C., Bouallou, C., & Kanniche,
M. (2008). Efficiency of an integrated
gasification combined cycle
285

(IGCC) power plant including CO2
removal. Energy, 33,874881.
Aspen Technology. (2008). Aspen Plus
2006 reference manual. Cambridge,
MA: Aspen Technology Inc.
A Khadse, M Qayyumi, S Mahajani, P
Aghalayam.
Underground
Coal
Gasification : A New Clean
Utilization
Technique
for
India.Energy,vol 32, no 11, 2007, pp
2061-2071.
Agarwall, R., Li, Y.-K., Santollani, O.,
Satyro, M. A., & Vieler, A. (2001).
Uncovering the realities of simulation.
Part
I.
Chemical
Engineering
Progress, 97, 42.
Booras, G., & Holt, N. (2004). Pulverized

coal and IGCC plant cost and
performance estimates. In Proceedings
of the gasification technologies
conference Washington, USA,
Christopher, H., & Zhu, Y. (2006). Improved
system integration for integrated gasification
combined cycle (IGCC) systems. Environment
Science and Technology, 40, 16931699.
Paterson McKeough & Esa Kurkela (2008), Process
evaluations and design studies in the UCG
project 2004-2007, VTT Tiedotteita . Research
notes 2434.
Ordorica-Garcia, G., Douglas, P., Croiset, E., &
Zheng, L. (2006). Technoeconomic evaluation
of IGCC power plants for CO2 avoidance.
Energy Conversion and Management, 47,
22502259.
286

ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES IN MEDIA

M. Sarfraz Alam
Abstract:
Increase energy resources.
Reduce cost of energy production
Transmission and distribution.
Per Capita Energy consumption, an
indicator of a countrys development and
economy.
Measures to be taken to reduce energy
bill.
Introduction:
In
world
advanced
economies for their people it is a matter
of great pride that their per capita energy
consumption is the highest in the world.
They are right in their
thinking because it is a well established
indicator of a stable economy and
peoples prosperity.
Having a Birds eye view
of our own history we can see that 50
years back most of the houses could
afford only lighting circuits or / & fans.
Electric Fan manufacturing units could
be seen along the G.T. road from
Rawalpindi to Lahore.
But there is a complete
change now. The same road is crowded
with the manufacturing units of Electric
appliances like washing machines, room
coolers, Air Conditioners, Heaters etc.
80% of the house in the town are
equipped with these appliances. Central
heating / Air Conditioning system is also
being adopted. Satellite TV, Internet,
Cable, Communication Networks, fast
banking techniques are common.
On the one side these are
all indicators of prosperity. Per capita
consumption of electricity has increased
many fold.
This is a heartening story
of my Nation. While the other side of the
picture is quite gloomy. . We are
lacking in Power generation & Energy

saving measures. At present we are not
able to meet increasing energy demand.
We need two prong strategy. More
power production and introduction of
energy efficient technology at a very fast
rate.
Only those appliances
should be encouraged which are most
energy efficient and have minimum
losses.
I would like to talk about
energy saving techniques in media. Most
efficient sound broadcasting system is
Frequency Modulated Transmission. The
same area can be covered with the best
signal quality by low powered F.M
transmitters. At present National Public
Radio
has
33
Medium
wave
Transmitters Consuming 2470 KW
average power. Details on Annex-I. The
same area can be covered by 230 F.M
transmitters each of 2 KW power. Thus
consuming only 460 KW power. Huge
energy
consuming
short
wave
transmitters can be replaced by Satellite
or internet. PBC short wave transmitters
consume 1031 KW details Annex-II.
Satellite broadcasting would need only
50 KW Annex-III. Studio Transmitter
links need to be replaced by wi fi.
TV transmitters can be
replaced by Satellite TV. Tube type TV
receiver, should be replaced by L C D
Sets. Arrangements can be made to
make the payment in installments. As a
result energy bill would reduce. This is
not a bad deal.
Replacement of analogue
equipment with digital equipment would
also result in 50% cut in energy
consumption. Proper openings in the
roofs helps in improving luminosity &
temperature of rooms.
Direction of buildings
according to the position of the sun can
287
help to maintain a better temperature and

light. Use of Energy efficient appliances
like LCD screens, monitors, TV, electric
lamps, operation of A/Cs and geezers at
optimum temperature & at off peak

timings can also reduce energy
consumption.
Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation

Modium Wave Transmission:
S.No. Station
Power
1.
Abbottabad
250W
2.
Bahawalpur
10 KW
3.
Chitral
250W
4.
D.I Khan
10 KW
5.
Faisalabad
10 KW
6.
Gilgit
10 KW
7.
Hyderabad-I
120 KW
8.
Hyderabad-
10 KW
S.No.
Station
Power
17.
Lahore-I
50 KW
18.
Lahore-II
50 KW
19.
Lahore -III
100 KW
20.
Loralai
10 KW
21.
Mirpur
100 KW
22.
Multan
120 KW
23.
Muzaffarabad
150 KW
24.
Rawalpindi HPT
100 KW
Total:- 680 KW
S.No. Station
Power
9.
Islamabad
1000 KW
S.No. Station
Power
10.
Karachi-I
10 KW
25.
Peshawar-I
300 KW
11.
Karachi-II
100 KW
26.
Peshawar -II
100 KW
12.
Karachi-III
100 KW
27.
Peshawar -III
100 KW
13.
Khairpur
100 KW
28.
Quetta-I
150 KW
14.
Khuzdar
300 KW
29.
Quetta-II
10 KW
15.
Larkana
10 KW
30.
Quetta-III
100 KW
16.
Hyderabad-II
10 KW
31.
Sibbi
250 KW
32.
Skardu
10 KW
33.
Turbat
250 KW
34.
Zhob
10 KW
288

SHORTWAVE TRANSMITTERS OF PBC
Total No. of T/rs. = 12
Total Power = 1041 KW
S.No. Station
Power
1.
Rawalpindi
10 KW
2.
Peshawar
10 KW
3.
Muzaffarabad
1 KW
4.
Quetta
10 KW
5.
Islamabad
200 KW
6.
Islamabad
10 KW
7.
Rawalpindi-III
100 KW
8.
Islamabad
500 KW
9.
Islamabad
200 KW
289

Renewable Energy the Best Remedy

For Electrical Load Shedding in Pakistan
By
S.M. Bhutta
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
International Islamic University, Islamabad.
Abstract
Average 33% time of daily electrical load
shedding in Pakistan is most serious as it has affected all
activities. Industries are crippled, commercial, official
activities and daily life is being detoriated! Total loss to
Export is $1.3 and oil import bill is $ 9Billion. If
appropriate actions are not taken immediately; the
situation is going to get worse when people will fight for
every watt of electricity! The impounding crises are not
foreseen and its gravity is not yet properly realized by the
decision makers! Politics and several lobbies work
against construction of major projects of hydel power and
baseless controversies have been created. Pakistan is
blessed with abundant renewable energy i.e. 2.9 million
MW solar, tidal, wind 346,000MW and 59,000 MW
potentials of hydro electricity. Analysis of the reasons for
the slow and no growth of these vital renewable
potentials in Pakistan indicate that there are barriers
which need to be mitigated to take immediate benefits to
overcome menace of load shedding.
Local R&D, Design, manufacturing, installation
and feasibility study capabilities are negligible.
Institutional capabilities in most of the organizations can
at best be ranked as average or weak. Other impediments
and barriers that continue to hamper the load shedding are
losses, attitude in the promotion of renewable and hydro
power projects include: lack of serious attempts to
mitigate the barriers, integrate the programs with
profitability; inadequate evaluation of resources; nonavailability of reliable baseline data; and lack of
coordination among the relevant agencies; weak
institutional arrangements for renewable energy
promotion; absence of fiscal and financing mechanisms;
lack of understanding, awareness, information and
outreach; uneven allocation of resources; lack of
appropriate quality management, monitoring and
evaluation programs; and need of attractive policy
framework and legislative support, building consensus
among people and provinces, right person for right job,
capacity building of relevant institutions, for promotion
of hydro electric power and other renewable sources.
designing, manufacturing, quality assurance, achieving

cost effectiveness, reducing import dependence,
promotion of self-reliance and minimizing environmental
degradation is one of the objectives to be achieved.
Electricity pilferage and technical losses, non payments
of bills & corruption need to be seriously addressed.
The governments policy towards renewable
especially hydro and other energy balances would not
only help the country to meet growing demand for
electricity, but would also provide additional benefits by
increasing fuel diversity or our electricity generation
portfolio, reducing our exposure to fossil fuel price
spikes, security and supply interruptions, deforestation,
development of rural areas, minimize migration to cities,
increasing economic development activity from a
growing renewable energy industry and improving our
environment etc.
I. Introduction & Background

It is very unfortunate that we are having load
shedding varying from 4-12 hours daily for the last
several years depending upon the supply and demand gap
of electricity. These energy crises have crippled the
economy, commercial daily activities and if appropriate
actions are not taken immediately, the situation is going
to get worse when people will fight for every watt of
electricity!
Public and private efforts in building a strong

indigenous base for renewable energy technologies,
1.1) Installed Capacity of Power
WAPDA Thermal
Hydel
[2,3]
6441 MW
6464 MW
290

Nuclear
IPPS(Thermal )
Total
462 MW
6154 MW
19521 MW
Utilization of various sources of power

Gas
Oil
Coal
Hydel
Nuclear
-
33%
34%
1%
-
2%
33%
WAPDAs RESTRUCTURING
NTDC
(1)
POWER WING
GENCOs
DISCOs
(4)
(9)
GENERATION
Thermal Power
Stations
The electricity is generated by various

sources using oil, gas, hydel, coal, nuclear, and
micro renewable energy by various generating
companies e.g. WAPDA, GENCO, Independent
Private Power Producers (IPPs), KESC etc.
Average demand during 2009-2010 was
varying in the range of 14,000-20,000MW
depending upon weather conditions and holidays,
while average generation was about 12,000MW.
Although total installed capacity is 19,521MW but
available was about 11,000-15,000MW depending
upon various factors. Therefore there was an
average short fall of 3,000-5,000MW. All the
generation is picked up at High voltage by
National Transmission and Dispatched Company
(NDTC) and then transmitted and dispatch to
Distribution Companies (DICOS) as shown in the
above diagram.
TRANSMISSION
Grid Station/Trans. Lines
Operation & Maintenance
DISTRIBUTION
Area Electricity Boards
(1.2) Reasons of Load Shedding
Losses due to technical & pilferage

Most of the thermal plants of GENCO and
KESC are very old which need repair and
rehabilitation. Their availability is low.
System faults & over loading.
After restructuring of power sector except

Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA) all are registered as private companies
and are being co-ordinate by Pakistan Electric
Power Company (PEPCO).
291
II. Energy Generation Plan [4]
(2.1) Pakistan Energy Resources [5]
III Renewable Energy Resources

Pakistan is blessed with vast resources of renewable energy i.e. hydro, solar, wind and ocean as discussed in tabulated form below:Important Characteristics of Renewable Energy Sources
Resources
[6]
Hydro
Solar
Wind
Ocean
Biomass
Geothermal
Magnitude
Large
Extremely Large
Large
Very Large
Very Large
Very Large
Distribution
Variation
Intensity
Country Wide
Seasonal
Moderate to low,
micro & small
Country Wide
Daily, Seasonal
Low
1 kW/sq m peak
Coastal mountains
High variable
Low average
0.8 MW/sq km
Coastal, tropical
Seasonal tidal
Low
Country wide
Seasonal
Moderate to low
Tectonic boundaries
Constant
Low average
Up to 600C
Hydro
low to high
turbines and dams,
proven technology
Solar
Low to high temp
thermal systems,
photovoltaic
Mostly
Commercial
Developmental
some commercial
Ocean
Low temp
thermodynamic
Mechanical
wave
Developmental
Biomass
Combustion,
fermentation,
liquefaction,
gasification
Some Commercial
more development
Geothermal
Steam and binary
thermodynamic
cycles
Status
Capacity Factor
Intermittent to
base Load
Turbines, cost,
design
25% w/o storage,

Intermediate
Materials, cost
efficiency
Wind
Horizontal and
vertical-axis wind
turbines, wind
pumps
Many
commercial, more
development
Variable most
15% - 30%
Materials design
sitting
Intermittent to base
Load
Technology,
Materials, cost
As needed with
short-term storage
Technology
agriculture
Clean Dissolved
gases
Hydro
Solar
Wind
Ocean
Biomass
Geothermal
Technology
Options
Key Improvements
Characteristics
Many Commercial
,More Development
High, base load
292

Environmental
Very Clean Impact

on local aquatic
environ., land use
Very clean visual

impact local
climate, PV
manufacturing
Very clean Visual

impact, noise, bird
mortality
Very clean, impact

on local aquatic
environ., visual
impact
Clean impacts on
fauna and other
flora toxic residues
Clean dissolved
gasses, brine disposal
These Recourses are environment friendly without using any fuel. Different Organization and Provincial
Power Departments, Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy Technology (PCRET), Private Power and Infrastructure
Board (PPIB) and Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) are working to harness these resources.
Unfortunately no big break through is achieved so far, as their contribution has been negligible except of Sarhad
Hydel Development Organization ( SHYDO) who install 80MW in Malakand III and 1MW near Mardan.
(3.1) Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy Technology (PCRET)
Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET) has been acquiring and updating know how
imperative for the promotion and mass propagation of Renewable Energy Technologies in the field of
Solar, Microhydel, Wind etc. Various technological knowhow have already been adapted and indigenized
by the Council. so far, in the field of Renewable Energy Technologies. The technologies being promoted
developed and disseminaon by the Council are not only technical time tested but are economical as wefl. In
fact all the projects undertaken by the Council intend to promote and supplement Government efforts in
solacing the vital energy defidt.
[
PC RET is basically a research organization with aim behind to evolve renewable energy technologies
beneficial to the masses.
Standard test procedures for testing of flat plate sdar absorber and PV panel has been drafted and
submitted to PSQCA for regtration
On compleon of project the testing services for solar products will be provided to partiesl private sector
for quality producon of PV and solar thermal products.
One of the bac objectives of the Council is promatn of renewae energy technogies. In order to create
awareness in the public for the use of the renable energy techndies developed by the CounI, a number of
training programs were arranged, which were attended by varus trainees (both in group or individually)
from different walks of Ie. About 13400 trainees were impaed training on economic cook stoves1 income
generating technues, solar water heater, solar cooker, solar dehydrator, solar geyser 1micro hydro per
generation, solar system etc. through 140 training prrams.
(3.2) The Private Power and Infrastructure Board

(PPIB)
The Private Power and Infrastructure Board
(PPIB) was created in 1994 to facilitate private sector in
the participation of power generation in Pakistan. PPIB
provides a One-Window facility to private sector investors

in matters concerning establishing power projects and
related infrastructure.
PPIB is working to attract and facilitate FDI in
Pakistan power sector. A number of foreign investors have
293

expressed interest in setting up power generation projects
that would exploit our indigenous resources including
hydel, wind, natural gas, and coal. Their proposals have
been evaluated and the prospective investors facilitated and
encouraged to come up with power projects focusing on
maximum utilization of available local resources including
renewable.
No renewable plant has been installed so far!
(3.3) Alternative Development Energy Board (AEDB)

Alternative Development Energy Board (AEDB)
was established in 2003-2004. Its objective is to facilitate
the private sector for installation of renewable energy plants
on commercial basis. It has claimed many achievements but
mainly is able to establish parts of 250 MW wind power
generation project at Gharo Sindh, 100 Solar homes
program near Islamabad, 100 solar homes in Sindh and
Baluchistan. AEDB also installed 2 Micro Hydro Kaplan
Turbines for demonstration on canal near UET Taxila and
executed pilot project for installation of indigenously
developed Micro Wind Turbines.
IV. Discussion & Analysis

Identified hydro power potential of 55,000MW (3)
yet to be exploited, including mega projects having dams
future planned Diamer Bhasha, Kalabagh, Dasu, and
Munda etc. Other large, medium and small run of the river,
mini as well as micro hydro power plants are renewable.
Although some of the people consider major storage dams
not to be under the category of renewable energy but even
then we have hydel potential upto 45,000MW available as
renewable. While for the other resources proper
identification and feasibility studies to estimate reliable
potentials in MW are needed.
Pakistan current policies scenario leads to the
conclusion that the new & renewable will continue to play a
minor role in the energy supply picture until bold and
drastic steps are undertaken by the government, otherwise
this will result in greater dependence on oil & fossil fuels,
with increased pressure on the global environment and
import bill. Depletion of oil and natural gas along with
political instability of supply security will bring major
increases and justification in the use of renewable.
The accelerated introduction and expanded use of
renewable energy could be one component of a more
optimistic view of the future. Through sustained effort and
dedication to preserving our energy options, a more flexible
future can be achieved, but it will still take time to increase

our dependence on renewable substantially. By 2020 the
optimistic view concludes that as remedial measure we can
achieve a higher penetration with the change in the current
policies and approaches.
Renewable are well suited to distribute
applications, providing the opportunity to enhance
economic growth in the rural areas and reduce the pressure
of migration of these people towards the already
overcrowded major cities. Potential renewable supplies are
very large, and their distribution allows for use of some
types in our country. The environmental advantages of the
renewable are real. Another important asset of the
renewable is that the public opinion is very much in favour
of expending our use of renewable where it makes sense.
(4.1) Barriers in the Development of Renewable
A.
Technology and Information
B.
Regulatory
C.
Tariff.
D.
Policy
E.
Institutional
F.
Financial
G.
Interconnection
H.
Procedural impediments.
I.
To achieve consensus among people
and provinces
Technology and Information Barriers.
We lack knowledge & information about the
technology of renewable. Need for proper on mass scale
education of renewable technology is not only for the
students & engineers but also for general public
Strategy to achieve five Es
E----- Education
E----- Energy
E----- Employment
E----- Equity
E----- Enterprise
International Islamic University Islamabad has
taken a lead in starting education for post graduate students
about Energy Engineering to implement the most important
Es of education in energy & for employment on equity
basics for enterprises.
(4.2) Strategy Proposed to Develop Consensus about
renewable energy in Pakistan
294
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Inter Provincial Agreements for New Water

Storages
National Comprehensive Law for Water as Accord
Need of Reliable Telemetry System to win
confidence of all
National Provincial Assemblies, Senate to Play
Leading Role
Council of Common Interest (CCI) to play due
role
Net Profit of Hydel Plants to be reviewed as per
constitution
Wastage of 21 MAF of Water to Sea to be fully
utilized
Feasibilities reports need priorities
Self Reliance to be achieved
Departments & Organizations to be Made Active
R&D Institution & Study Groups to be
Established
Metrology Office and forecasts need to be more
reliable
Every Drop of Water Must be Used Fruitfully
(4.3) Constraints for Pakistan Renewable Use

Extensive penetration of renewable into the
Pakistan energy markets is not likely to happen quickly.
There is a natural time lag between success of the
prototypes and demonstrations, leading to a few initial
commercial applications, and then incorporating learning
into the next generation, and so on. There is a of R&D need
to deploy significant manufacturing industries which
require time for planning, financing, and training. The
diversity constrains of the renewable resources are many a
few common are discussed here:i) Resource Definition
The magnitude of each renewable recourse is
dependent on local conditions. To optimize the use of these
recourses, better data is needed, especially on their
variation. The comprehensive understanding of local
conditions throughout the year will take extensive effort.
Comprehensive national energy planning is emphasizing
the maximum use or renewable needed.
ii) Technology Development
Many (but not all) of the technologies necessary to
make efficient use of the renewable are quite immature, and
/or relatively costly. Some renewable have a relatively low
energy density in their raw form, and this either leads to
high cost for concentration ( if possible), or for structure to
capture the energy in useful form. Therefore, material costs
are often a high percentage of the capital cost, even for
relatively simple designs. Further development, covering

the range from basic R&D, will need to take place for users
to invest the equivalent of future fuel costs with confidence.
The areas for development include not only the design, but
also manufacturing, installation, operation and maintenance
of these systems. The success of renewable at higher
market penetrations will also depend to a certain extent on
the development and application of both improved energy
storage and transportation system.
iii) Economic and Institutional Policies
Renewable energy systems typically have higher
capital costs than fossil-fuelled systems, since all the fuel
equivalent over the useful life time is purchased at the
beginning of the system life. Emphasis on life cycle costs
and reduction of the risks of high capital investments will
be necessary for the success of renewable.
iv) Environment
Much of the recent enthusiasm for developing
renewable energy has been propelled by fears of climate
change. However, one unfortunate consequence has been
that the emphasis given to potential climate change has far
outweighed the emphasis which should be given to the
local adverse environmental impacts which in some forms
and scales of new renewable energy can have.
v) Public Education
The energy user takes for granted the supply of
conventional energy unless this supply is disrupted as it is
happening now! The average user does not understand the
systems. This is one of the reasons that achievement of
substantial gains in energy conservation or efficiency is
very difficult. The widespread use of renewable will require
even greater understanding of energy systems, and
application of knowledge in making compromise in many
aspects of daily life.
vi) International Co-operation and Sharing
The developed countries have most technology
and the financial resources for utilizing renewable
resources. There is need of time for international Cooperation with a different set of priorities and techniques
for Pakistan.
V.
Recommendations
i). Increase the priority for funding of renewable energy

projects among financing institutions and for bilateral aid
programs, especially those programs that will lead to
sustainable development based on indigenous resources.
295

These programs will principally increase the flow of
technology and financial resources
because of safety and electricity Act 1910, but it is

noted that there are thousand generating units
without any such a license. We want the citizen to
be law & safety abiding and to be able to install
their own generating units should in addition to
their own use inject electricity in the LT system.
There should be effective & simple license free
from any major paper work and fee for renewable.
ii). Encourage private sector investment and involvement

in the programmes for training and implementation of
renewable. Promote the establishment of joint-venture
manufacturing plants for local production of renewable
energy systems.
iii).
Establish or designate a single organization to give
international focus and leadership to the increased use of
renewable energy.
e)
Renewable need to be awarded reasonable

up-front tariff.
iv).
Establish in universities and provinces centers of
excellence for renewable energy, to provide training,
technology support, and resources databases appropriate to
the local needs.
f)
NEPRA
should
have
competent
professionals and future vision of renewable to
guide the nation.
v).
Increase R&D funds for renewable, eliminate
subsidies on conventional energy, and reduce barriers that
exist for the introduction of new different (especially small
and distributed) energy systems.
vi).
Review and update economic decision-making
methodology to include the external impacts of the options
under consideration.
VII).
There is need for amendments in NEPRA Act,
Rules, Regulations based upon the following issues to
promote renewable energy.
References: -
[1] State of the Economy, IPPs Report.

Institute of Public policy, Beacon House
National University, Lahore.
[2] Pakistan Energy Year Book 2009
By Hydrocarbon Development Institute of
Pakistan, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural
Resources
a)
Net Profit according to Article 161 of

Constitution of Pakistan for hydro power projects
needs to be worked out properly because AGN
Qazi formula is defective.
[3] Role of Hydel Power in Energy Sector of Pakistan

And Hydel Power Potential & Development
By Engr. Masood Shafique Qureshi, GM, WAPDA,
LAHORE
b)
Need to have legal coverage for all the energy

policies.
[4] Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan,

Islamabad
c)
Escalation and review formula of tariff for

hydel power plants needs to be given legal
protection.
[5] Pakistans Energy Sector,

By Asim Riaz, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural
Resources.
d)
Need to facilitate the micro/mini renewable

electrical generating units (solar, hydel, wind) to
get generation license without any fees and paper
work. Accordingly to Clause 15 of NEPRA Act
No person shall, except under the Authority of a
license issued by the NEPRA subject to the
conditions specified in this Act and as may be
imposed by the Authority construct, own or
operate a generation facility This was necessary
[6] New Renewable Energy Resources,

By World Energy Council, London, UK
[7] Pakistan Hydel Power Potential
By PPIB, Ministry of Water and Power,
Islamabad.
[8] Web Sites
296

GREEN ELECTRICITY
Aamir Rasool Dar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
eng07aamirdar@gmail.com
Abstract Waste is no more treated as the valueless garbage. It is
rather considered as a resource in the present time. This paper
identifies the different sources of waste production in Pakistan
and how efficiently we can use it to generate electricity. It
emphasizes on the Gasification process to generate electricity
from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to overcome our country
present energy crisis. It also clarifies the difference between
Gasification technology and other conventional means of
electricity generation. The environmental changes caused as a
result of adopting gasification of MSW and a little introduction
of the present gasification plants working in other countries are
also discussed here.
Keywords Waste production, Gasification, Difference from
Conventional means, Environmental Effects, Future
I. INTRODUCTION
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is useless or unwanted
material discarded as a result of human or animal activity.
Most commonly it is solids, semisolids or liquids in containers
thrown out of houses, commercial or industrial premises.
Changing lifestyles, the increasing use of disposable
materials and excessive packaging are all contributing to an
increase in the amount of waste being created. Waste
management is now a global concern. The problems
associated with MSW management are complex because of
the quantity and diversity of the nature of waste and financial
limitations on public services in large cities. The problem is
not only confined to land, it includes air and water as well.
Pakistans population has increased to more than 160
million and Lack of adequate infrastructure is creating
environmental hazards. Solid waste generation in Pakistan
ranges between 0.283 to 0.612 kg/capita/day and the waste
generation growth rate is 2.4% per year [1]. In Pakistan,
sources of waste mostly include households, commercial
areas, institutions, construction and demolition sites, industrial
areas and agricultural disposals [1]. Due to availability of such
a huge amount of waste, that is practically doing nothing other
than polluting our environment can be used in an effective
way for the production of electricity to reduce the energy
crisis of our country. Waste to Energy (WTE) technique is not
in competition with recycling, but rather its complement in an
integrated waste management plan.
WTE plants can use several different technologies, but
Gasification Technology is one of the most efficient and
effective one. Municipal Solid Waste is considered as a
renewable source of energy, because we are not going to stop

producing garbage. Waste gasification plants can take the
garbage and turn it into electricity for our homes and also
make our surrounding environment clean.
II. WASTE PRODUCTION IN PAKISTAN
Solid domestic waste is typically dumped on low-lying
land. Then it is burnt to reduce its volume and lengthen the
life span of the dumpsite. However, refuse does not burn well
and smouldering dumps produce clouds of smoke that can be
seen from miles away, smell bad, and create a breeding
ground for flies and rats.
The result is unsightly and unsanitary conditions. This
land could be used for more productive purposes and
potentially valuable recyclable materials are lost. This
situation is generated due to following few reasons of waste
management system.
There is no proper waste collection system.
Waste is dumped on the streets.
Different types of waste are not collected separately.
There are no controlled sanitary landfill sites.
Due to improper controlling of landfill sites, the methane
gas (CH4) is being generated in the land fill sites. The
uncontrolled emission of greenhouse gas (CH4) effects the
environment crucially.
Citizens are not aware of the relationship between ways
of disposing-off waste and the resulting environmental and
public health problems.
A. Sources of MSW
1) Houses: Appliances, newspapers, clothing, disposable
tableware, food packaging, cans, bottles, food scraps, yard
trimming.
2) Commercial buildings: Corrugated boxes, food wastes,
office paper, and disposable tableware.
3) Institutions: Office paper, cafeteria and restroom waste,
classroom wastes, yard trimmings.
4) Industries: Corrugated boxes, lunchroom wastes, and
office papers, wood pallets.
Table.I shows waste production in some big cities of Pakistan
and also in fig.I shows the few possible ways for the
management of waste.
297
TABLE I
WASTE GENERATED IN BIG CITIES OF PAKISTAN
Name of City
Solid
waste
Population
genera
(million)
tion
2004
rate
Census
(kg/C/
Day)
10.818
0.613
Waste
generated
(tons/day)
Tons/year
6632
2420680
Faisalabad
2.307
0.391
902
329230
756
275940
Karachi
Hyderabad
1.343
0.563
Gujranwala
1.312
0.469
615
224475
Lahore
6.4
5000
1800000
Peshawar
1.153
0.489
564
205860
Quetta
0.654
0.378
247
90155
SOURCE: (DRAFT) GUIDELINE FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT JUN 2005,
It is estimated that the top 10 cities of Pakistan produce

50,000 ton waste, which can be used to generate 6,000MW
energy [2]. In the city Faisalabad alone, 7,14,000 households
produce 714 ton garbage (1 kg/household at minimum), which
can be consumed for the production of 86 MW (this estimation
does not include factories and textile industries waste, which
is more than 50 percent of the total waste and has high heating
worth) [2].
Fig.2: A Road side view in Pakistan
B. Components of MSW
High-grade paper: Office and computer paper.
Mixed Paper: Mixed colored papers, magazines, glossy
paper, and other paper, not fitting the categories of high grade
paper, newsprint, and corrugated.
Corrugated: Corrugated boxes, corrugated and brown
(craft) paper.
Yard Waste: Branches, twigs, leaves, grass and other
plant material.
Food Waste: All food waste excluding bones.
Glass: Clear and colored glass.
Plastics: All types of plastics.
Ferrous metals: Iron, steel, and tin and metal cans.
Non-ferrous metals: Primarily Aluminium, Aluminium
cans, copper, brass and lead.
Wood: Lumber, wood products, pallets and furniture.
Rubber: Tyres, footwear, wire cords, gaskets.
Textiles: Furniture, clothing, and footwear.
Miscellaneous: Other organic and inorganic materials,
including rock, sand, dirt, ceramics, plaster, bones ashes, etc.
III. GASIFIER DESIGNS
Fig.1: Waste Management Hierarchy
Around 40% of MSW remains either at collection points

or in streets. Residential waste is usually collected and
transported directly to a landfill site. However, these landfills
are not designed properly in Pakistan causing problems like
incomplete decomposition of MSW, methane production and
leachate that contaminate the groundwater [11]. In the waste
management system, the Authorities try to follow the 3Rs
which are Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
Town or Tehsil Municipal Administrations (TMAs) are
responsible for solid waste collection, transportation and
disposal. TMAs due to lack of funds, rules and regulations,
standards, equipment and vehicles are unable to handle the
continuously increasing volumes of municipal waste in the
country. [3]
The reactors used for the gasification process are very

similar to those used in combustion processes. The main
reactor types are:
Fixed Bed Gasifier
Fluidized Bed Gasifier
A. Fixed Bed Gasifier
Fixed bed gasifiers typically have a grate to support the
feed material and maintain a stationary reaction zone. They
are relatively easy to design and operate, and are therefore
useful for small and medium scale power and thermal energy
uses.
It is difficult, however, to maintain uniform operating
temperatures and ensure adequate gas mixing in the reaction
zone. As a result, gas yields can be unpredictable and are not
optimal for large-scale power purposes (i.e. over 1 MW) [4].
The two primary types of fixed bed gasifiers are updraft and
downdraft.
298
1) Down Draft Gasifier: In a downdraft gasifier, air is

introduced into a downward flowing packed bed or solid fuel
stream and gas is drawn off at the bottom. The air/oxygen and
fuel enter the reaction zone from above decomposing the
combustion gases and burning most of the tars. As a result, a
simple cooling and filtration process is all that is necessary to
produce a gas suitable for an internal combustion engine.
Downdraft gasifiers are not ideal for waste treatment because
they typically require a low ash fuel such as wood, to avoid
clogging. In addition, downdrafts have been difficult to scale
up beyond 1MW because of the geometry of their throat
section.
2) Up Draft Gasifier: In updraft gasifiers, the fuel is also
fed at the top of the gasifier but the airflow is in the upward
direction. As the fuel flows downward through the vessel it
dries, pyrolysis, gasifies and combusts. The main use of
updraft gasifiers has been with direct use of the gas in a
closely coupled boiler or furnace. Because the gas leaves this
gasifier at relatively low temperatures, the process has a high
thermal efficiency and, as a result, wet MSW containing 50%
moisture can be gasified without any pre-drying of the waste.
Moreover, size specifications of the fuel are not critical for
this gasifier.
Ash is removed from the bottom, where the gasification air
and steam are introduced. However the product gas exits at
low temperatures, (typically less than 500C), yielding a tar
rich gas. For heating applications, this is not a problem as long
as blocking of pipes can be overcome. However, the high tar
content makes this gasifier an unlikely candidate for power
applications because of the extensive tar cleaning required.
on top of the bed through a feed chute or into the bed through
an auger.
Fluidized-beds have the advantage of extremely good mixing
and high heat transfer, resulting in very uniform bed
conditions and efficient reactions. Fluidized bed technology is
more suitable for generators with capacities greater than
10MW because it can be used with different fuels, requires
relatively compact combustion chambers and allows for good
operational control. It reduces the amount of sulfur emitted in
the form of SOx emissions. Limestone is used to precipitate
out sulfate during combustion, which also allows more
efficient heat transfer from the boiler to the apparatus used to
capture the heat energy. Fluidized bed gasifiers have been the
focus of appreciable research and development and there have
been several commercialization projects over the last ten
years. The two main types of fluidized beds for power
generation are:
Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) Gasifier
Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Gasifiers
Fig.3: Fixed Bed Gasifiers

Source: Scottish Agricultural Web Site 2002
1) Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) Gasifier: In a BFB, the

gas velocity must be high enough so that the solid particles,
comprising the bed material, are lifted, thus expanding the bed
and causing it to bubble like a liquid. A bubbling fluidized bed
reactor typically has a cylindrical or rectangular chamber
designed so that contact between the gas and solids facilitates
drying and size reduction (attrition). The large mass of sand
(thermal inertia) in comparison with the gas stabilizes the bed
temperature.
The bed temperature is controlled to attain complete
combustion while maintaining temperatures below the fusion
temperature of the ash produced by combustion. As waste is
introduced into the bed, most of the organics vaporize
pyrolytically and are partially combusted in the bed. The
exothermic combustion provides the heat to maintain the bed
at temperature and to volatilize additional waste. The bed can
be designed and operated by setting the feed rate high relative
to the air supply, so that the air rate is lower than the
theoretical oxygen quantity needed for full feed material
oxidation. Under these conditions, the product gas and solids
leave the bed containing un-reacted fuel. The heating value of
the gases and the char increases as the air input to the bed
decreases relative to the theoretical oxygen demand. This is
the gasification mode of operation. Typical desired operating
temperatures range from 900C to 1000 C [4].
B. Fluidized Bed Gasifier

Fluidized bed gasifiers offer the best vessel design for the
gasification of MSW. In a fluidized bed boiler, inert material
and solid fuel are fluidized by means of air distributed below
the bed.
A stream of gas (typically air or steam) is passed upward
through a bed of solid fuel and material (such as coarse sand
or limestone). The gas acts as the fluidizing medium and also
provides the oxidant for combustion and tar cracking. The
fluidized bed behaves like a boiling liquid and has some of the
physical characteristics of a fluid. Waste is introduced either
2) Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Gasifier: As the gas

velocity increases in a turbulent fluidized chamber, the bed of
solids continues to expand, and an increasing fraction of the
particles is blown out of the bed.
A low efficiency particle collector can be used to capture
the larger particles that are then returned to the bed. This
suspended-combustion concept is a called a circulating fluid
bed. A circulating fluid bed is differentiated from a bubbling
fluid bed in that there is no distinct separation between the
dense solids zone and the dilute solids zone [4]. The particle
size distribution, attrition rate of the solids and the gas
299
velocity determine the optimal residence time of the solids in

a circulating fluid bed.
Bubbling fluidized bed gasifier
Circulating fluidized bed gasifier
Fig.4: Fluidized Bed Gasifiers

Source: Scottish Agricultural Web Site 2002
In general, gasification technology is selected on the basis

of available fuel quality, capacity range, and gas quality
conditions [4].
TABLE II
ELECTRICITY GENERATION CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF GASIFIERS
Gasifier Design
Downdraft
Updraft
Bubbling fluid bed (BFB)
Circulating fluid bed (CFB)
SOURCE: MORRIS, 1998
Electricity Capacity
1kW 1MW
1.1MW 12MW
1MW-50MW
10MW-200MW
IV. GASIFICATION PROCESS

Producing electricity from MSW through
gasification is accomplished in three stages:
thermal
MSW Handling and Processing: Raw MSW is delivered

in garbage trucks, commercial collection bins and by
various other means. The material is processed into a form
that can be accepted by a gasifier.
Conversion of MSW into a Synthetic Gas: Processed
MSW is heated to high temperatures in a gasifier with no
oxygen, or a carefully limited amount of oxygen, to
chemically convert it to a synthetic gas.
Electric Generation: The synthetic gas is used instead of
natural gas to generate electricity.
Gasification process is thermally self-sustaining, i.e. little
or no external heat supply is required.
A. Gasification of MSW
The basic system of gasification of MSW usually consists
following few components:
MSW Processing
Primary Chamber
Secondary Chamber
Cyclone
Energy Recovery System
Emission Control System
1) Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Processing: MSW
processing begins with tipping MSW onto a receiving floor.
Unlike tipping facilities at many conventional MSW transfer

stations, the tipping floor in a thermal MSW gasification
power plant is fully enclosed inside the building where
subsequent processing takes place. This largely eliminates the
odors and litter often associated with conventional transfer
stations. The MSW processing function depends on the
requirements of the gasifier, which are specific to each
vendor.
The common elements of MSW processing include
additional sorting, recycling, shredding, sizing and drying.
Sorting and recycling remove material from the MSW that
cannot be gasified, such as metals, glass and other inert
materials. Heating these inert materials in a gasifier would
waste energy, reducing the efficiency of gasification. Metals
and much of the glass that are sorted out of the MSW can be
recycled. Paper and plastic that are suitable for recycling can
also be sorted out in this stage. All of the materials that are
recycled in this step represent additional recycling that takes
place after source recycling. The shredding and sizing
functions reduce MSW to a size that allows it to be processed
in the gasifier.
2) Primary Chamber: The MSW after shredding process is
fed into the top of the primary chamber of the gasifier. In the
top half of the primary chamber the waste goes through three
distinct phases; drying, pyrolysis and gasification, to form the
synthesis gas (CO+H2). The top half of the chamber is
oxygen starved and temperatures are controlled to prevent full
combustion from occurring and as a result the synthesis gas
and the char are formed. The primary chamber operates at a
negative pressure. The fuel enters the gasifier at the top
through a controlled pressure lock to ensure that no false air
enters into the gasification chamber.
The char drops to the bottom of the primary chamber, where
just enough air is added for a controlled combustion of the
char. The heat from the char is used to provide the energy for
the drying, pyrolysis and gasification process in the top half of
the primary chamber in order to make the process self
sustaining and also make use of char which is a byproduct.
In the drying process we reduce the moisture contents of
waste, in order to reduce the amount of heat provided during
the gasification process of waste. In the pyrolysis zone waste
is heated in the absence of air or oxygen to partially
disintegrate the waste, where as in the gasification zone or
burning zone controlled combustion of waste takes place in
the presence of air or oxygen. Gasification can also take place
in the presence of steam, because it increases the amount of
hydrogen in the synthesis gas and reduce the quantity of
nitrogen gas which in later process forms NOx. In normal
operating conditions, the primary chamber temperature is
typically below 600C [5].
3) Secondary Chamber: The synthesis gas is drawn out of
the primary chamber into the secondary chamber. In the
secondary chamber a mixture of air and inert gas (exhaust gas)
is injected and the synthesis gas is combusted. The amount of
fresh air and inert air is carefully controlled to ensure that the
temperature stays within the operational guidelines and to
300
minimize NOx formation. In normal operating conditions, the

secondary chamber temperature is about 1,000C [5].
During a cold start-up process, the primary and the
secondary chambers are heated by firing diesel burners to
bring the operating temperatures up to 600C and 1,000C, in
the primary and secondary chambers respectively, prior to
combustion of the synthesis gas. This controls emission levels
from the gasification of the waste during start-up in order to
meet the air emissions criteria. There is no requirement for
auxiliary fuel apart from the start-up of the plant [5].
As in this technology gasification and synthesis gas
combustion processes are separated and controlled
independently from each other. The volume and mixture of
fresh air/inert gas and the temperature in both the primary and
the secondary chambers is very closely controlled to optimize
the respective gasification and combustion processes, and to
minimize the production of air emissions.
4) Cyclone: During the process we use cyclone between the
secondary chamber and boiler to remove the remaining ash
which did not remove in the primary chamber. Actually
cyclone is used to remove different particles from air. But
here we remove ash from the flue gas. Ash is accumulated in
the bag of the cyclone whereas the flue gas passes through it
and enters into the boiler for the production of steam. That
steam we can use for the production of electricity by using gas
turbine. We can also produce electricity from synthesis gas
after purification process by treating it as a natural gas. In this,
we did the combustion of synthesis gas by using engines then
electricity is generated, which can be used to overcome energy
crisis.
5) Energy Recovery System: Hot inert flue gas is
discharged into a boiler at about 850C. Depending on that
how the energy will be used: different boiler designs are
utilized:
Fire Tube for low pressure steam or hot water
Water Tube boiler for high pressure steam
The primary purpose of the boiler is to recover energy and to
reduce the flue gas temperature prior to lime and carbon
injection and the bag filter. Boiler design is done to minimize
the reformation of dioxins and furans during the cooling of the
flue gas [5].
6) Emission Control System: One of the fundamental
philosophies of the gasification system is to control the
emissions in the gasification and combustion process and to
minimize the amount of emission control equipment
necessary. Most hazardous materials such as dioxin and furan
are destroyed in the secondary chamber in high temperatures
of about 1,000C, and reformation is minimized through
boiler design.
The low temperature in the primary chamber minimizes the
amount of volatile heavy metal in the flue gas, and the very
careful control of air in the primary and secondary chambers
minimize the formation of CO and NOx. After the boiler, the
flue gas goes through a dry reactor where activated carbon
MSW
Shredding
Feeding
Start up
Burner
Primary Chamber
Primary Fan
Start up
Burner
Secondary Chamber
Secondary
Fan
Cyclone
Boiler feed water
Lime /carbon
Boiler
Steam
Lime/Carbon
Injection
Bag Filter
Fly Ash
ID Fan
Bottom Ash
Stack
Fig.5: Block Diagram of Gasification Process [5]
and lime are injected into the flue gas and thoroughly mixed
before entering into the bag-filter system for final clean-up
before going to the stack.
Waste to Energy (WTE) plant is the lowest impact power
plants [6]
Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal or activated
coal, is a form of carbon that has been processed to make it
extremely porous and thus to have a very large surface area
available for adsorption [7].
Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed
air and gas purification to remove oil vapors, odors, gaseous
ammonia and other hydrocarbons from the air. The most
common designs use a 1 stage or 2 stage filtration principle in
which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media.
In bag filter system, it use bags which have different size of
pores and when the flue gas passes through these bags and if
there is any impurity in the flue gas then it can be removed
from it, so the gas which is being injected into the atmosphere
becomes pure and did not affect the environment as it did
without using this technique.
301
The exhaust gas which is being sent to the atmosphere can

be used because it has the temperature around 400C to 500C.
If it is blew into the primary and secondary chambers of the
system then it can reduces the use of diesel consumption or
any other source of energy need at the start and can make the
gasification process self sustaining.
During combustion, dioxins/furans form in the flue gases as
they leave the combustion chamber and cool to 650-300C.
These dioxin/furan emissions are the primary catalyst for
political and environmental opposition to the expansion of the
WTE industry. Over the past decade, progress has been made
in reducing dioxins/furans release, U.S. WTE plants
lowering them from 4000 g/year in 1990 to 400 g/year in
1999 [6]. The most effective capturing techniques have been
adsorption on activated carbon and the use of bag-house filters
instead of electrostatic precipitators.
WTE project is cost effective and not only for industries but
Government and private investor should also take initiative for
this.
Other methods of producing electricity such as solar, wind
and atomic energy need specific conditions to produce
electricity. Availability of raw material will be available
throughout the year; but as hydel power projects did not
produce the same amount of energy in summer and winter, in
summer the electricity generated by hydro power is of
3000MW and 500MW in winter.
Biomass/waste to Energy project has the benefits over
conventional energy resources projects that they do not emit
any effluents, pollutants, and residue. This technology is a key
to develop environment healthier and a better place to live.
As Gasification generates synthesis gas that can be
integrated with combined cycle turbines, reciprocating
engines and potentially fuel cells that produce electricity more
than twice as efficiently as conventional steam boilers. [4]
Today WTE plants are also preferred over conventional
means because the pay-back period of WTE plants is small i.e.
about 3 to 4 years and profit is high. Whereas the pay-back
period for solar power plants is about 20 to 25 years, 9 to 10
years for hydel power plants and the initial investment for
conventional technologies to generate electricity is very high.
Also conventional techniques require specific environmental
and geographical conditions for their plant setups.
TABLE IV
OVERALL COMPARISON BETWEEN WTE AND CONVENTIONAL TECHNIQUES
Fossil
W2E
Fuel/Natural
Hydel
Gas Plants
Raw material
Fig.6: Emission Control System
Easy
The whole gasification plant diagram is shown at the end

of paper along with the references to show the different
portions of plant in fig.8.
V. COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL MEANS
availability
Environment
friendly
Operational
A comparison between costs per unit to produce electricity

from different methods is given in the following table:
Units
TABLE III
produced
RATE COMPARISON BETWEEN WTE AND OTHER CONVENTIONAL TECHNIQUES
WTE
Methods
Fossil Fuel
IPPS
Method
Rs/unit
13
16
2.5-3.0
cost
Technology
cost
1*
0*
*1 is used for good and 0 is used for bad or not easily

available.
VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES BY GASIFICATION PROCESS
To generate 1 unit of electricity from fossil fuel in

government sector, the cost is Rs 13 per unit, where as it
becomes Rs 16 for IPPS. But for Waste to Energy (WTE)
method, it costs just Rs 2.5 to 3.0. This comparison shows that
Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) from landfills are

approximately 2.5 pounds for every pound of carbon in the
landfill due to the fact that a large percentage of the emissions
are in the form of hydrocarbons. [8]
302
In order to overcome these GHG emissions to make the

environment healthier and safer, the utilization of gasification
technology is the best option. It takes place in a low oxygen
environment that limits the formation of dioxins, SOx and
NOx. Reduce CO2 equivalent greenhouse gases generation
that results from land filling. It also saves the expenses of
transporting waste by long-haul heavy truck, train
transportation or through ships.
A. Clean power
The US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) has
stated that waste-to-energy plants are a clean, reliable,
renewable source of energy that produces electricity with
less environmental impact than almost any other source of
electricity.
B. Less dependence on imported fuels
For every ton of waste processed in a W2E facility, it
avoids the need to import 1 barrel of oil or mine one quarter
ton of coal.
C. Net Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Reduction
For every ton of waste processed in a Waste to Energy
facility, almost one ton of Green House Gas is avoided.
D. Reduction of waste
By using the gasification process, a lot amount of waste,
which cant be recycled and pollute the surrounding
environment by just staying in the landfill, can be removed.
E. Increment in Land Area
It can reduce the number of landfills in the country by
generating electricity from waste, because waste is no more
waste now. Due to decrease of land filling sites, the threat of
waste to contaminate the underground water also reduced.
F. Improve the Composting Process
It also allows the composting of waste by separating the
green waste for the gasification process and the waste that can
be recycled. Therefore gasification process also improves the
waste management system.
VII.
ESTABLISHED GASIFICATION PLANTS IN OTHER

COUNTRIES
Currently, 33 million tons of MSW are combusted

annually in the US, accounting for the energy equivalent of
1.6 billion gallons of fuel oil.
Fig.7: U.S Renewable Electricity Generation
Europe plans to achieve an objective of 12 percent of

domestic energy consumption and 22 percent of electricity
from waste by 2010. Similarly USA aims to produce 5 percent
of its power, 20 percent of its transport fuel, and 25 percent of
its chemicals from bio-mass from farm, forest and municipal
solid waste [3].
UKs first gasification plant is Isle of Wight. It will generate
2.3MW of green electricity from non-recyclable waste,
enough to power more than 3,000 homes. [9] The Isle of
Wight project uses Energos own patented gasification
technology.
The TPS Termiska plant in Italy has an annual waste
management capacity of 642,400 tons of MSW by
gasification process in controlled supply of air [10].
The Essex County Mass Burn Waste-to-Energy facility is
New Jerseys largest resource recovery facility and is owned
and operated by American Ref-Fuel. The Essex facility
combusts about 2800 tons of MSW per day and generates
approximately 65 MW of electricity for sale.
VIII.
FUTURE OF GASIFICATION OF MSW
Gasification represents a future alternative to the waste

incinerator for the thermal treatment of homogeneous carbonbased waste and for pre-treated heterogeneous waste.
Gasification should be considered as an option for the thermal
treatment of wastes in an integrated waste management
system. For example, co-firing and co-gasification
(gasification of solid waste with coal or biomass in the same
gasifier) are interesting solutions for both decentralized
energy systems and waste management systems in rural
communities.
Due to high prices of oil in the market, investors are now
more appreciated the technology in which the usage of oil is
minimum or in which the risk factor is less as compared to the
conventional methods of energy generation. Therefore the
future of gasification process is brighter and has a very
positive edge to pull the foreign investment in to the country
and to reduce our country energy crisis. Also the fuel which is
being used by this process is very cheap and produced daily.
This technology can also be used in integration with the
conventional technologies. Now a day search is being done on
the technique of Plasma Gasification of Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW). This technology is one step ahead than simple
gasification process because in this it uses the electric arcs for
the gasification process to produce synthesis gas. Only a pilot
plant of plasma gasification is established up till now, this
technique is not yet commercialized as the gasification
technique is being used by various countries to become less
dependent on fossil fuels.
It is difficult to compare the costs of gasification processes
with conventional combustion on a direct basis. This is due to
the fact that the costs available refer to different specifications
of plant, for example to meet different emission standards or
have a varying ash content or water treatment requirements.
303
REFERENCES
Moreover it is incorrect to compare the cost of new

technology with the cost of old technology, because the
former also includes the R&D cost.
[1]
Pakistan Environment Protection Agency (PEPA).
[2]
http://www.globaliamagazine.com/?id=978
IX. CONCLUSION
[3]
Special Section 1: Waste Management: Recent Developments in
Gasification process offers considerable energy recovery

and reduces the emission of hazardous pollutants. Different
types of gasifiers can be used according to our energy
production level. It is considered an interesting alternative to
the conventional technology for the thermal treatment of solid
wastes. The one of the biggest misconception about the
gasification of MSW is that this process is not environment
friendly is absolutely wrong. There are many methods
mechanical (Cyclone) or chemical (using activated carbon and
lime) by which GHG emissions can be controlled and the
emissions of SOx and NOx can be reduced up to the allowable
limit. Also electricity generated by gasfication of MSW has
very low per unit cost as compared to per unit cost of our
conventional means; this factor is also a plus point of
gasification process. Because due this profit margin for any
investor is very high and also pay back period is small for this
technique.
The one of the universal benefit of Gasification plant is that
it can be integrated with pre-existing industrial and
thermoelectric plants, because of their flexibility and
compactness. At the end Waste is no more waste.
[4]
Klein, A. (2002). Gasification: an alternative process for energy
Pakistan by The State of Pakistans Economy.

recovery and disposal of municipal solid wastes. Fu Foundation School
of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, M.sc thesis
report.
[5]
GASIFICATION OF MSW IN SOUTH KOREA By Mr. Jan dAilly,

OE Gasification, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada & Mr. Sung Chun Kim,
Kentec Engineering Anyang, South Korea. Proceedings of the 17th
Annual North American Waste-to-Energy Conference, NAWTEC17
May 18-20, 2009, Chantilly, Virginia, USA.
[6]
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
[7]
www.wikipedia.com
[8]
Taylor biomass energy. http://www.taylorbiomassenergy.com/
[9]
www.energos.com
[10]
CASE STUDY ON WASTE-FUELLED GASIFICATION PROJECT

GREVE IN CHIANTI, ITALY By D.L. Granatstein, Natural
Resources Canada/CANMET Energy Technology Centre (CETC) June
2003.
[11]
http://www.wwfpak.org/factsheets_mswf.php
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am very thankful of my teachers Prof. Dr.Yunus jamal
and Dr. Asad Naeem Shah for their guidance in the writing
of this paper and to point out mistakes during its
preparation.
Source: ENERGOS [9]
Fig.8: Overall Plant view
304

Design, Analysis and Prototyping of a Hydraulic Ram Pump

M. Abid, A. Ahmad, H. A. Khan and R. Saleem
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology,
Topi, KPK, Pakistan
Abstract
Provision of adequate domestic water
supply for scattered rural populations is a
major problem in many developing
countries. Fuel and maintenance costs to
operate conventional pumping systems are
becoming prohibitive. The hydraulic ram
pump (hydram) is an alternative pumping
device that is relatively simple technology
that uses renewable energy, and is thus
durable and sustainable. This paper
presents a case study for the design,
analysis, manufacture and testing of a
prototype model of a hydraulic ram pump
to be implemented on suitable locations for
sustainable, low cost, and environment
friendly water delivery for irrigation and
other purposes from low level to high levels.
Introduction
A hydraulic ram (also called hydram) is a

pump that uses energy from a falling
quantity of water to pump some of it to an
elevation much higher than the original
level at the source [1-9]. No other energy
is required and as long as there is a
continuous flow of falling water, the pump
will work continuously and automatically.
Hydram utilizes the phenomenon of water
hammer to pump water at a higher level
than the source level. It works
continuously without any break downs and
monitoring. Therefore this kind of system
can be installed on a number of
applications to supply a constant source of
water. Hydram is principally designed for
the supply of water in terrain such as cliffs
or mountainous area. In such terrain a
stream of water in the depth could be used
to raise water to a community on top of the
cliff or hill. This water can be used for
irrigation, drinking and other use. Hydram
system can be used to sprinkle water onto
fields, farms or even small kitchen
gardens. Similarly hydram systems can be
used in the supply of water in the multi

storey buildings without any energy input.
Based on the simplicity of its design,
manufacturing, installation and operation it
has low capital cost and virtually zero
operating costs. Thus it perfectly suitable
for localities which are located at higher
altitudes than natural water sources and
thus do not have the direct access to it.
A typical hudram and its operation is
shown in Figure 1. Regarding operation of
the hydram system, at first waste valve (4)
is opened and delivery valve (5) is closed.
Water in the drive pipe (1) starts flowing
under the force of gravity and pick up
speed and kinetic energy until it forces the
waste valve to close. The momentum of
the water flow in the supply pipe against
the closed waste valve causes a water
hammer, raises the pressure in the pump
and opens the delivery valve (5). Due to
this some water flows into the delivery
pipe (3). Since this water is being forced
uphill through the delivery pipe farther
than it is falling downhill from the source.
The flow slows down and when it reverses
the delivery check valve closes. If all of
the water flow is stopped, the loaded waste
valve reopens against the static head,
allowing the process to begin again. A
pressure vessel (6) containing air, cushions
the hydraulic pressure shock when the
waste valve closes, and it also improves
the pumping efficiency by allowing a more
constant flow through the delivery pipe.
Although, in theory, the pump could work
without it, the efficiency would drop
drastically and the pump would be
subjected to extraordinary stresses which
would shorten its life considerably. A
schematic of the water delivery through
hydram is shown in Figure 2.
305
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: (a) A typical hydram, (b) Parts of hydram system. 1. Inlet - drive pipe, 2. Free flow
at waste valve, 3. Outlet - delivery pipe, 4. Waste valve, 5. Delivery check valve, 6. Pressure
vessel
Figure 2: Schematic for water delivery through hydram
Design, Manufacturing and Installation

The pump was designed to be
manufactured by readily available of the
shelf and easy to use plumbing parts.
Initially pump for the head difference of
more than 5 meters, using a fall of 2.3
meters with a pipe length of 7.5m was
considered and tests were performed. Test
site is shown in Figure 2.
For the above operating conditions, a drive
pipe of 1.25 inch diameter and a delivery
flow pipe of 0.75 inch were selected with
compatible fittings and valves. To utilize
the full flow coming from supply tank, the
weight of the waste valve (spring check
valve) was adjusted using spring loading,

which was provided to the spring check
valve using an adjustable leaf spring to
apply the downward force. The hydram
pump was installed and connected to the
125 gallon water storage tank (reservoir of
water) providing the natural flow. A 26 ft
long 1.25 inch dia commercial steel pipe
was used as the drive pipe. The flow of
water in the delivery pipe was controlled
by a ball valve near the supply tank. An
acrylic sealed enclosure was built around
the main body to avoid splashing and
wastage of water. A pressure gauge was
attached at the delivery side of the pump to
measure pressure [Figure 4].
306
Figure 3: Test site showing supply head (2.3m), delivery head (6.6m) and drive pipe length (7.5m)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4: (a) Hydram system setup developed for experimentation, (b) installation site, (c)
pump enclosed in acrylic box
Experimentation
Experiments are performed on the basis of
drive pipe length, angle of inclination of
drive pipe, beats per second ,
supply
head, delivery head and volume inflow
rates. All of these parameters are changed
one by one keeping others constant and the
effect of each parameter over the outflow
and the efficiency of the pump is observed.
The flow rate was measured using the
graduated flask and the stop watch. In
addition, efficiency based on the quantity
of useful water delivered at delivery tank
was calculated for every change. During
experiments;
Beats per second were varied and

adjusted by the adjustment screw over
the leaf spring
Supply head was varied manually.
Delivery head was varied by changing
the height of the opening of the
delivery pipe. It was varied from 6 - 11
meters
Volume inflow rate was varied through
the gate valve
Drive pipe lengths and shapes
variation was accounted for in the four
different configurations.
307
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5: (a) Drive pipe inclined at 18.5 degrees and is straight, (b) Length of the drive pipe
reduced by 6 feet, inclination remains the same, (c) small portion of drive pipe is horizontal
while 20 ft is inclined at 18.5 degrees, (d) large portion of the drive pipe is horizontal while
6ft is inclined at 63.2 degrees.
308
Results and Discussion

Detailed results of above mentioned four configurations are plotted and discussed in this
section.
)
70
%
(
yc
65
n
iec
if
f 60
E
2.6
2.7
2.8
3.1
3.2
Supply Head (m)

c1-1.8 B/s
c3-1.8 B/s2
c2-1.8 B/s
c4-1.6 B/s3
) 72
%
( 67
y
c 62
n
iec 57
if
f 52
E
2.6
2.7
2.8
3.1
3.2
Supply Head (m)

8 m-1.8 B/s
10 m-1.5 B/s
9 m-1.5 B/s
11 m-1.5 B/s
(a)
(b)
Figure 6: Variation in efficiency of pump; (a) with different supply heads for different configurations
and B/s for delivery head of 8m, (b) with configuration c2 at different delivery heads
Figure 6a shows variation in efficiencies

of the pump with different beats per
second with constant 8m delivery head.
Configuration 4 has the maximum
efficiency and configuration 2 has the
minimum efficiency. Figure 6b shows the
variation of efficiency of the pump at
different delivery head (8-11m). Maximum
efficiency was at 8m and the minimum
efficiency was at 11m.
Figure 7a shows the variation of delivery
flow at 11m delivery head with different
configurations of the pump. Configuration
3 and 4 have the maximum efficiency and
configuration 2 has the minimum
efficiency at 11m. Figure 7b shows the
variation of delivery flow when delivery
head is at 8m and the beats per seconds are
changed. Configuration 1 at 1.4 B/s has the
maximum efficiency and at 1.85 B/s has
the minimum efficiency. Figure 7c shows
the variation of delivery flow at 8m
delivery head and at 1.8 B/s with different
configurations of the pump. Configuration
3 has the maximum efficiency and the
configuration 2 has the minimum
efficiency.
Additional observations are summarized

below;
Slight decrease in supply height
doesnt greatly affect the output
however slight decrease in delivery
pipe length greatly affects the
output
Slight changes in angle of
inclination of the system do not
vary the outflow much.
Operating beats/seconds have a
considerable effect on the outflow
of the system, too less of a
beat/second reading and too much
of it are both to be avoided. It
operates the best at a value mean to
the extreme values which has to be
determined for each system by hit
and trail.
Delivery
head
also
has
considerable effect on the outflow,
operating under the same supply
conditions at a lower delivery head
would result in a greater outflow.
From analysis Configuration 1 and
4 is concluded better due to the
large drive pipe length, large
309
outflow to inflow ratio as

compared to others, less water
wasted and better Efficiency.
Max Delivery height of 36 ft with
an input at 10 feet was achieved.
Max Delivery flow at this height
was 6.5 liter/min or 390 liter/hour.
This system worked with an
efficiency of 71.4%.
Hammering effect depends upon
the rigidity of drive pipe, the more
rigid the pipe; the more
pronounced will be the hammering
effect. (A slight increase in
efficiency observed, after wrapping
the layers of duct tape at drive pipe
near pump body)
The speed at which the valve is
closed (The quicker the better)
7
w )et
lo u
F n
i6
y
re m
/s
v
5
lie ret
il
D(4
2.7
2.8
3.1
3.2
Supply Head (m)

c1-2 B/s
c3-1.5 B/s
2.6
2.7
c2-2 B/s
c4-1.5 B/s
2.8
2.7
2.8
3.1
3.2
c1-1.85 B/s
c1-1.40 B/s
c1-1.66 B/s
(b)
3.1
3.2
Supply Head (m)

c1-1.8 B/s
c3-1.8 B/s
2.6
Supply Head (m)
(a)
)e11
t10
u
n
i9
m
/s 8
re 7
ti
l( 6
Fluid velocity in the drive pipe

(The greater the velocity the better,
but waste valve loading has to be
increased for operation)
Greater drive pipe length allows
the water to travel more hence
achieve more velocity, which
results in greater pressure to be
transmitted to pressure tank when
waste valve closes.
Angle of inclination of
drive pipe can vary according to
terrain but extreme angles must be
between 30~60 deg. We observed
that there was no significant
change of output flow with change
in inclination of the pipe as long as
the length remained the same. We
changed the angles from 18.5 to
63.5 degrees.
) 10
w et
ol u
F n
i 9
yr m
ev /sr 8
il e
e til
d (
7
2.6
w
ol
F
yr
ev
il
e
D
Figure 7: Variation in delivery

flow; (a) with different supply heads for
different configuration at 11m delivery head,
(b) with configuration c1 at different B/s for
delivery head of 8 m, (c) at 8m delivery head
and 1.8 B/s with different configurations.
c2-1.8 B/s
c4-1.6 B/s
(c )
310
Conclusions
Hydram is concluded an effective way of
pumping water with no electricity or fuel
energy required, simple design, pumping
only a small proportion of the available
flow has little environmental impact,
requires little maintenance, good potential
for local manufacture in the rural villages,
made of off the shelf items, use of a
renewable energy source ensuring low
running cost, automatic, continuous
operation requires no supervision or
human
input,
easy
to
manufacture/assemble.
9. Hydraulic ram pump Energy

Division, Equatorial Business
Group Plc, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Published in the Journal of the
ESME, Vol II, No. 1, July 1998.
References
1. Krol J., Automatic hydraulic Pump,
Proc IMechE 1951, 164, p.103.
2. Calvert N. G., Hydraulic Ram, The
Engineer, 1967.
3. Molyneux F., The Hydraulic ram
for Rival Water Supply, Fluid
Handling, 1960, p. 274.
4. Watt S.B., Manual on the
Hydraulic for Pumping Water,
Intermediate
technology
publication, London, 1975.
5. IDRC, February 1986, Proceedings
of a Workshop on Hydraulic Ram
Pump (Hydram) Technology, held
at Arusha, Tanzania, May 29-June
1, 1984, International Development
Research Center (IDRC), IDRCMR1O2e R.
6. Watt, S.B., 1982, Manual on a
Hydraulic Ram for Pumping
Water, Intermediate Technology
Publication Ltd. London.
7. Hydraulic Ram Pumps by :
Gregory D. Jennings, PhD,
PE Extension Specialist Published
by: North Carolina Cooperative
Extension Service, Publication
Number: EBAE 161-92 Last
Electronic Revision: March 1996
(JWM)
8. Hydraulic Ram Pump: USAID,
1982
311

Hydrogen -Rich Gas Production by High Temperature

Steam Gasification of Biomass
Qari M.K. Waheed and Paul T. Williams*
Abstract High temperature steam gasification of biomass was
carried out in a lab-scale reactor. A novel fixed-bed, up-draft
reactor was designed and built up to investigate the effect of
temperature on gasification performance of wood pellets.
Temperature was varied from 750C to 1050C with an
increment of 100C. Ash, volatiles and fixed carbon of the sample
biomass were determined using Thermogravimetric analyzer
(TGA) while ultimate analysis was carried out to investigate the
elemental composition of the sample. The composition of
gasification products was determined by two gas
chromatographs: one equipped with a flame ionization detector
(GC-FID), while the other fitted with dual conductivity detectors
(GC-TCD). It was found that increase in temperature has a
positive effect not only on hydrogen gas concentration but also on
overall gas yield. The results were complimented by Fourier
Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis of tar and
residual char. Tar and ash concentrations reduced with the
increase in gasification temperature while carbon conversion
efficiency was also improved with the increase in temperature.
Index Terms Biomass, Gasification, Temperature, Renewable
Energy, Fixed-bed Gasifier.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the new global economy, energy has become a central
issue. The world economies are mostly dependent on fossil
fuels to meet their energy demands. Fossil fuels which
constitute oil, gas and coal are currently fulfilling around 80%
of world energy demand and this massive utilization of fossil
fuels added 28,962 million tons of CO2 into the atmosphere
in year 2007[1]. The oil which contributed 34% towards world
energy supply in 2007 is becoming depleted. Topal et al[2]
suggested a life of another 35 years for the current known oil
reservoirs. Owen et al [3] compared the proved oil reserves
from various sources and the maximum figure of 1342Gb
(equivalent to 8229.78EJ) was presented by oil and gas
journal (OGJ) in Jan 2009. Assuming a constant energy
consumption of 633 EJ for next few decades and one third
share of oil towards the world energy demand, the present oil
reserves will no longer exist after 39 years. In order to sustain
the economic growth, alternative energy sources must be
discovered. The new methods and technologies devised
should be capable of not only fulfilling the gap produced by
the depletion of oil but also meeting the annual increase in
world energy demands.
*
Engr.QMK Waheed (PhD Scholar) and Prof. Dr. PT Williams (Director

ERRI) are with Energy and Resources Research Institute (ERRI), The
University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK (e-mail: mn08mqmk@leeds.ac.uk;
p.t.williams@leeds.ac.uk )
Biomass is one of the major components in the worlds

energy system. It plays a very important role in the energy
ecosystem of developing nations, accounting for
approximately 38% of their primary energy supply[4]. It
mainly consists of organic matter from living organisms, for
example, plants and animals. Cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin are the main components of biomass. It is renewable in
nature and, in principal, does not add any CO2 into the
atmosphere. The CO2 emitted during the combustion of
biomass is taken up by the plants to produce more biomass by
photosynthesis. It is cheap and readily available in various
forms like, energy crops, forestry waste, organic food waste,
sewage sludge and animal manure. The waste food, organic
waste from food processing plants and waste edible oil are
amongst the most promising and sustainable sources of
biomass. Annual global production of biomass by
photosynthesis is 220 billion tonnes[5]. It has a potential of
replacing fossil fuels while reducing the green house gases
emission.
Biomass is used in various ways to produce energy.
Different processes are used to extract energy from biomass
depending upon the nature of the end product and its
application. These processes can be broadly categorised into
thermo-chemical,
physiochemical
and
biochemical.
Combustion, pyrolysis and gasification are the three major
thermochemical processes used to produce energy from
biomass. Pressing and extraction is involved in
physiochemical processes[6]. Biochemical processes include
fermentation and anaerobic digestion. The nature of output
products mainly depend on the process employed and hence
the operating parameters of that process. Solid, liquid and
gaseous fuels can be produced using these processes. The
flexibility to produce solid, liquid and gaseous fuels is an
important advantage of thermo-chemical processes over other
methods.
Pyrolysis is the process of conversion of biomass and
organic waste materials into useful liquid, gaseous fuels and
char. This process is carried out in the absence of oxygen.
Thermal breakdown of biomass produces varying proportions
of char, liquid oils and gaseous fuel, depending on the process
conditions. Pyrolysis starts around 300-350C and it goes up
to 700C. Pyrolysis is more favourable for the production of
liquid fuels as compared to solid char and gaseous fuels.
Different parameters like temperature, particle size, heating
rate, reactor design, purge gas flow rate, residence time and
chemical composition of feedstock determine the yield of the
entire process.
312
Hydrogen is the cleanest fuel. The only exhaust from the

combustion of hydrogen is water. It has a higher energy
density (34Kcal/g) than most of the other fuels. Hydrogen can
be produced from steam methane reforming and gasification.
Hydrogen-rich gas can be produced from biomass gasification
which can be further upgraded to produce pure hydrogen.
Gasification of biomass is mainly carried out in a gasifier
where biomass reacts with gasifying agent (steam/air/oxygen)
in the presence of limited supply of oxygen. The synthesis gas
is the mixture of different gases. It comprises of CO, H 2, CH4,
CO2 and various lighter hydrocarbons (C2-C4). Various factors
affect the quality and quantity of synthesis gas and, hence, the
final hydrogen gas production. The most important factors
include reaction temperature, gasifier design, gasifying agent,
particle size and residence time. Physical and chemical
properties of biomass like moisture contents, fixed carbon and
ash contents are also very important. The use of catalysts
enhanced the yield of hydrogen during gasification process[7].
The flexibility of using various forms of available biomass
and its renewable nature makes it a favourable option for the
production of hydrogen gas.
Being the most influential parameter, many researchers [812] studied the effect of temperature on the composition of
syngas during the process of biomass gasification. Increase in
gasification temperature showed a very profound effect not
only on the overall gas yield but also on the concentration of
hydrogen gas produced. Gasification process is the
combination of a series of complex and competing chemical
reactions. Species are interlinked by the chemical equilibrium.
Li et al [12] studied the effect of temperature on steam
gasification of pine sawdust. They used a fixed-bed reactor
connected with porous ceramic reformer. Biomass was fed to
the reactor using screw feeder at a constant rate of 0.44kg/hr
while steam was injected into the reactor at a constant flow
rate of 0.67kg/hr. Temperature was varied from 800 to 950C.
Overall gas yield and hydrogen gas concentration increased
with the increase in temperature while the product gas heating
value was decreased. The higher temperature favoured
endothermic reactions and porous ceramic reformer facilitated
the cracking and thermal decomposition of tar. These factors
resulted in enhanced hydrogen yield.
Similarly, Franco et al [10] investigated the effect of
temperature on three different biomass (Pine, Holm-oak and
Eucalyptus). Temperature was varied from 700 to 900C.
Increase in temperature enhanced the gas yield while further
reforming and cracking decreased the amount of residual char.
Huo et al [8] researched the effect of gasification temperature
on the production of hydrogen gas from biomass char.
Temperature was varied from 600 to 850C. The highest
concentration of hydrogen was obtained at 850C. Overall gas
yield and carbon conversion efficiency also improved with the
increase in temperature.
Most of the research was carried out at a medium
temperature range (600C<T<900C) but very few researchers
[13-15] investigated the effect of temperature at ultra-high
temperature (T> 900C). Enhanced overall gas yield with the
higher carbon conversion efficiency was reported. A
considerable decrease in tar was also noticed. This eliminated

the need of a separate reactor which is often required to
further crack the tar contents in the product gas.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Materials
Wood pellets were used in this study to represent a typical
wood biomass. These wood pellets were grinded and sieved
before gasification. The size distribution of biomass was
between 10 and 4mm. The proximate and ultimate analyses of
the fuel are shown in table 1.
TABLE 1 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS AND ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF WOOD PELLETS
Proximate analysis (wt/wt%

dry basis)
Fixed carbon
11.48
Volatile
68.23
Ash
14.06
Moisture contents
* by difference.
6.23
Ultimate analysis (wt/wt%

dry basis)
C
46.42
H
5.54
O*
47.93
N
0.11
S
0.00
B. The experimental setup

A novel fixed-bed up-draft reactor was designed in 3D
CAD software and built to investigate the effect of various
gasification parameters on syngas yield at ultra-high
temperature (T >900C). The reactor tube, made up of Inconel,
was 24 inch long with 1inch inner diameter. Reactor was
heated using two electric furnaces manufactured by Elite
thermal systems. Theses furnaces are connected with
Eurotherm controller units to control the final temperature,
heating rate and hold time etc. The lower furnace was used to
generate steam from the water injected into the reactor using
syringe pump, manufactured by Cole Parmer instruments UK.
Steam flow rate was kept constant using this syringe pump.
Two N type thermocouples were installed in the middle of
each furnace to monitor the actual temperature inside the
reactor. Nitrogen, used as a purge gas, was injected from the
bottom of the main reactor while the output gases exited the
chamber from the top, just below the sample holding chamber.
Two condensers were connected to the output of the reactor to
capture any condensable liquids in the gas stream. The first
condenser was water cooled while the second condenser was
filled with dry ice. Glass wool was used in second condenser
to capture any oil vapours or mist. Sample bags were used to
collect the gas samples. The overall schematic diagram of the
complete experimental setup is shown in figure 1.
A special cylindrical chamber was designed to hold the
sample before it was dropped down into the main reactor. This
chamber made up of stainless steel, was fitted at the top of the
main reactor, just above the top furnace. The main function of
this sample-holding chamber was to keep the sample cool
around room temperature while the main reactor was attaining
its desired final temperature. This was achieved using a
hollow disc as a floor of this chamber, connected with
metallic pipes on both ends, so that the water flowed through
this hollow disc and the sample was placed at the top of this
313
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of fixed-bed ultra-high temperature gasification reactor
plate. This cooling effect was further supplemented by a water

cooling jacket around the cylindrical walls of this sample
holding chamber (SHC). A bleed of nitrogen gas was injected
into this chamber to keep the inert atmosphere in the chamber.
The flow rate of this bleed was controlled by using a
flowmeter A K-type thermocouple was installed in the upper
portion of this chamber to investigate the proper functioning
and effectiveness of this chamber. Water circulating through
the hollow disc and water jacket kept the chamber temperature
below 30C. Samples collected from the chamber while
heating the main reactor to the highest temperature (T
=1200C) were investigated using Thermogravimetric
analysis, for any loss of moisture contents. Results proved the
proper functioning of this sample holding chamber.
C. Methods and techniques
Initially, the reactor was installed in the lab and tested for
electrical safety. Gas and water connection were made and
checked for any leakages or visible damages. A safe operating
procedure was developed to carry out the experiments on the
machine. The reactor was heated up without any sample, just
to make sure the proper functioning of all the subsystems. The
reactor was further tested for repeatability of results using
wood biomass. The results of five experiments conducted
under identical conditions are presented in figure 2. All the
experiments were performed at 950C temperature with the
steam flow rate of 6mL/hr. The flow of nitrogen was kept
constant at 200mL/min and the product gases were collected
for a total of 50 minutes. Both flasks and sample plate inside
the reactor were weighed before and after all experiments to
make sure the reasonable mass balance. Volume and hence
mass of the gas produced, was calculated using the data
obtained from a gas chromatograph.
In this study, the effect of temperature was investigated on

steam gasification of wood biomass. Temperature was varied
from 750C to 1050C with the increment of 100C (figure 3).
Nitrogen was used as a purge gas. A constant flow rate of
200mL/min was employed while steam flow rate was kept
constant at 6mL/hr during all the experiments. All the
experiments were repeated twice for the accuracy and
repeatability of the results. Flasks and sample plate inside the
reactor were weighed before and after every run to weigh any
liquids and solids obtained. Synthesis gas produced during the
experiments was collected in 25 litre SKC gas sample bags.
The product gases collected in the gasbag were analysed using
two gas chromatographs: Varian GC CP3800 and Varian
CP3380. One equipped with a flame ionization detector (GCFID), while the other was fitted with dual conductivity
detectors (GC-TCD).
Before gasification, biomass sample was grinded and
sieved to get the desired particle size. Shimadzu TGA-50
Thermogravimetric analyser was used to investigate the
thermal properties of biomass. Proximate analysis was done
on the sample biomass to determine the fixed carbon, volatiles
and ash contents. Elemental analysis of biomass, char and tar
was carried out using Carlo Erba Flash EA 11112 elemental
analyser. Fourier transform Infra-Red spectroscopy (FT-IR)
was used to investigate the chemical nature of char and tar
obtained from gasification.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Effect of reaction temperature
Various factors affect the gasification of biomass.
Temperature is one of the key parameters. Five grams of
biomass sample was gasified each time and the composition
314
Figure 2 Reactor repeatability test results
of synthesis gas was characterised using the gas

chromatographs. During gasification, biomass first gets
pyrolyzed. Tar, char and volatiles are produced by the thermal
decomposition of biomass. Reforming and cracking of
volatiles take place and the remaining char gasified. Gases
(CO, H2, CO2, CH4) and hydrocarbons produced during this
process react with the steam and char, resulting in more
gaseous products. Final composition of syngas depends on the
series of complex interlinked chemical reactions mentioned
below.
1. C + O2
CO2
Oxidation
2. C + 1/2O2
CO
Oxidation
3. H2 + 1/2O2
H2O
Oxidation
4. C + H2O
CO + H2 water-gas reaction
5. C + 2H2O
CO2 + 2H2
6. C + CO2
2CO
Boudouard reaction
7. CO + H2O
H2 + CO2 Water gas-shift reaction
8. CO + 3H2
CH4 + H2O Methanation
9. CH4 + H2O
CO + 3H2 Steam reforming
10. CnHm + 2nH2O
(2n+m/2)H2 + nCO2
Overall gasification
Reactions 1-3 are oxidation reactions. These reactions are
exothermic in nature and all the oxygen is consumed by these
reactions. Reactions 4-5 are water gas reactions. These
reactions are favoured by the increase in temperature. 131KJ
of energy is required to convert one mole of carbon and steam
into H2 and CO. At higher temperatures, CO produced by
water gas reaction (4) is consumed by shift reaction (7).
Boudouard reaction is also endothermic (+172KJ/mol) and the
formation of CO is favoured by the increase in reaction
temperature. Water gas shift reaction and steam methane
reforming are the two major reactions for the production of
hydrogen gas during gasification. On the one hand, the water

gas shift reaction is exothermic (-41KJ/mol) in nature and
formation of H2 is favoured by medium to high temperature
range (600-800C). On the other hand, steam methane
reforming reaction is endothermic in nature and formation of
H2 is favoured by higher temperatures (700-1100C).
The concentration of CO increased with the increase in
reaction temperature. This increase in CO concentration was
primarily due to oxidation, water gas, Boudouard and steam
methane reforming reactions, because, all the endothermic
reactions were favoured by the increase in reaction
temperature. This increasing trend of CO continued
throughout the temperature range (750C-1050C) due to the
same reason.
Initially hydrogen concentration increased when the reaction
temperature varied from 750-850C. This was mainly due to
the water gas shift reaction. Higher CO concentration
produced from oxidation, water gas, boudouard reactions with
the availability of steam at optimum temperature favoured
hydrogen production. The maximum hydrogen 45.96vol%
produced at this temperature. Further increase in temperature
forced the water gas shift reaction in the reverse direction and
the concentration of hydrogen decreased gradually to
42.67vol% at 950C and finally 40.04vol% at 1050C. This
behaviour was further supported by the increased CO
concentration from 36.61vol% at 850C to 39.02vol% at
950C and finally to 43.10vol% at 1050C.
TABLE 2 ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF TAR AND CHAR (WT%)
Sample
C
Tar SHC
68.47
Tar flaks
68.44
Char 750
14.00
* By difference.
H
4.72
4.87
0.21
O*
25.83
26.05
85.68
N
0.91
0.63
0.00
S
0.07
0.01
0.11
315
Figure 3 Effect of temperature on gas concentration
A decrease in CO2 and CH4 concentrations was also

observed. This was mainly due to the endothermic Boudouard
and steam methane reforming reactions respectively.
Although this decrease in the concentration of CO2 was not
linear over the entire temperature range but it decreased from
13.29vol% at 750C to 8.59vol% at 1050C mainly influenced
by water gas shift reaction. Similarly, a minor decrease in the
concentration of CH4 and other lighter hydrocarbon gases
were noticed. At higher temperatures, enhanced thermal
cracking and reforming of these hydrocarbons was the main
reason for the decrease in their concentration. Enhanced gas
yield and low tar are the major advantages of ultra-high
temperature steam gasification over the lower temperatures.
CH4 and C2-C4 concentrations did not changed a lot, might be
because of the reaction equilibrium.
B. Elemental composition of char and tar
Tar and char produced from biomass gasification were
analysed using elemental analysis. The elemental composition
of two different tar samples; one obtained from sample
holding chamber and the other collected from the flask is
presented in table 2. Both samples showed higher carbon
percentage as compared to the original biomass sample.
Higher carbon and oxygen percentage suggests the presence
of aromatic compounds in the tar. This observation was
further supported by the results obtained from FT-IR analysis
of the same tar samples. Char obtained from steam
gasification of biomass at 750C was also analysed for the
elemental composition. Only 14% carbon when compared
with 46.42% present in the original biomass sample suggests
the effective gasification of the sample.
C. FTIR analysis of char and tar samples.

In accordance with the results obtained from elemental
analysis, both tar samples showed similar FTIR spectra. FTIR
Spectra of two tar and one char samples are shown in figure 4.
Both tar samples showed a stretch in the region of 3500 to
3000cm-1 which indicates the presence of water molecules.
Furthermore a stretch in the region of 1585-1600 cm-1
indicates the presence of alkene compounds. The peak at 3070
cm-1indicates the presence of aromatic compounds. In FTIR
spectra of residual char, a sharp bend was observed around
1450cm-1 which corresponds to CH2 and CH3 groups.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The steam gasification is one of the cleanest ways to
produce hydrogen-rich gas from biomass. The approximate
amount of fixed carbon, volatiles and ash in the sample was
analyzed using the thermogravimetric analyzer. Elemental
analysis was employed to determine the elemental
composition of biomass. A novel fixed bed reactor was
manufactured and tested for steam gasification of biomass at
ultra-high temperature. In this study, the effect of increase in
reaction temperature on the composition of synthesis gas was
investigated. The results showed an enhanced yield of syngas.
The maximum yield of hydrogen gas was obtained at 850C
while the highest concentration of CO was obtained at 1050C.
Tar and char produced during the gasification process were
also analyzed using elemental analysis and FTIR technique.
After investigating the effect of temperature, it is desirable
that other gasification parameters must be studied so that the
process can be optimized for maximum hydrogen gas
production.
316
TAR
%T
70
60
50
ASH 750
%T
90
80
70
60
FLASKTAR
%T
80
70
60
50
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
Wavenumbers (cm-1)
Figure 4 FTIR analysis of tar and char samples.
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[6]
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of biomass in a fixed bed reactor: Influence of particle size on
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Energy, vol. 34, pp. 1260-1264, 2009.
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835-842, 2003.
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production from biomass steam gasification," Bioresource
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gasification of biomass and solid wastes," Environmental
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ash and tar behavior during high temperature steam gasification
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179-185, 2006.
317

Reduced-Order Modeling in Control and Optimization for

High Performance Energy Efficient Buildings
Imran Akhtar, Jeff Borggaard, and John Burns
Interdisciplinary Center for Applied Mathematics, MC0531
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
Virginia, USA
Abstract In this paper, we discuss an emerging approach for
creating efficient reduced- order models (ROMs) using one or
more high-fidelity simulations. This is based on combining the
proper orthogonal decomposition with Galerkin projection of
the Navier-Stokes equations onto the resultant low-dimensional
basis. While there is a large upfront computational cost to
calculating ROMs, once constructed simulations with small
parametric changes can be computed efficiently. We demonstrate these approaches on a one-room model, serving as a basic
unit in a building. Furthermore, we consider the use of the ROM
to calculate feedback functional gains (a spatial representation
of the feedback control used to maintain a desired comfort level
in the room with a minimal use of energy). These functional
gains can be used to help locate the optimal placement of
sensors in the room hence provide a staring point to address
the some of the problems optimization and control of building
energy management systems.
I. INTRODUCTION
Whole building systems are complex, multi-scale in time
and space, multi-physics, highly uncertain dynamical systems with wide varieties of disturbances. Forward simulation of these buildings is a huge computational problem
which is compounded when the goal is to develop computational models for design, optimization and control. It
is now widely accepted in the building industry that using
available and proven technologies, one can achieve 30%
reduction of building energy usage by applying integrated
design principles. However, significant reduction in energy
consumption (e.g. 50%-80% lower than for state-of-the-art
buildings) cannot be achieved by improving efficiencies of
individual components. In order to achieve greater efficiencies buildings must be viewed as an integrated system and
useful design models must capture the complex dynamics
at a level suitable for design, optimization and control.
Building subsystems operate at multiple scales in time and
space and are coupled through complex interconnections
and it is this structure that leads the main challenge in
constructing a design specific computational models. One
possible approach to such complex design problems is
to use simulation based design where high performance
computing (HPC) is employed to provide input (function
evaluations) to optimization and control design algorithms.
As we show below, this direct approach is not yet feasible
even on the worlds fastest supercomputers and alternative
Presenter: Dr. Imran Akhtar akhtar@vt.edu.
approaches must be investigated. At one end of the spectrum

is an holistic all-at-once methodology that employs HPC to
solve optimality conditions for optimization and control. This
approach requires the development of new HPC (parallel)
algorithms for solving non-standard partial-integral equations
that often define optimal solutions with partial differential
constraints. Another approach is to develop reduced order
models (ROMs) and use these models for design, optimization and control. One issue here is the problem of obtaining
data suitable for constructing and validating ROMs and this
problem is magnified for new construction. In this short
paper we focus on an approach that employs HPC for both
model reduction and controller reduction for physics-based
models. The reduced order models allow for rapid design
and analysis of system configurations and can be used in
conjunction with control-then-reduce approachs to produce
new tools for real time controller design. The ultimate goal
is the development of high performance computing (HPC)
tools for design, optimization and control of a broad section
of buildings and this paper suggest one avenue that must be
pursued (especially in the short term). However, considerable
research is needed to develop a new framework allowing for
the development of a suite of computational design tools
suitable for application to the broad building market [12],
[16].
II. HIGH PERFORMANCE COMPUTING AND
BUILDING MODELING
As noted above it is a scientific challenge to develop
the new numerical algorithms and computational tools that
are scalable and widely applicable to current and future
building stock. Direct application of high fidelity modeling
for a direct simulation based design and optimization of
buildings is currently not feasible. For example, if one
assumes that 1 hour of computer time is sufficient to enable
a HPC simulation based design approach, then as shown
in Fig. 1 the design of a moderate multi-zone building
requires Petaflop class supercomputers. Hence, this approach
is not feasible as a computer design tool. This does not
mean that HPC can be useful. Indeed, we suggest that by
proper clustering and parameterizations HPC can be used
to generate ROMs through new model reduction techniques.
These ROMs need to be in a framework that allows for
the use of sophisticated control and optimization strategies
318
and software. However, this approach requires considerable

improvements in modeling the physics such as how airflow
and thermal properties of small zones couple throughout
the whole building and in understanding the computational
requirements of modern state-of-the science optimization and
control methods. In addition, if the ROMs are to be useful
for design and control, then model reduction techniques must
incorporate methods that capture parameters and inputs that
are essential to design and control.
Existing model reduction methods such as Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) coupled with Galerkin projections schemes have proven very successful in producing
reduced order simulation models. However, this standard
POD/Galerkin framework can have problems with complex
flows especially when parameters and geometry change
and hence has limited applications in design and control.
However, new POD type schemes have been developed
that extend the standard POD/Galerkin method that make
use of sensitivity analysis and closure modeling methods
to allow more accurate ROMs over wider ranges of operating conditions than previously possible. The basic idea
is based on a combining the power of HPC with modern
model-reduction algorithms and advanced sensitivity tools.
In particular, we have combined advanced sensitivity analysis
tools with a parameterized POD scheme to produce a new
model reduction method (PODSense) that can be used to
generate reduced-order model specifically for design and
optimization. This method has been applied to a wide variety
of complex systems and is being developed specifically for
buildings. Here we discuss an approach that combines model
reduction with a holistic approach and illustrate how this
hybrid scheme can be used to produce useful design tools.
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Fig. 1. HPC Requirements for a Direct Simulation Based Design Approach
In order to illustrate the hybrid methodology, we focus

on a single room and use standard physics based models
of the flow field and temperature distribution in the room.
The basic non-dimensional governing equations are given by:
Continuity Equation
v = 0,
(1)
Momentum Equation
1
Gr
u
+ v v = P +
v +
Tk + Bv uv , (2)
t
Re
Re2
Energy Equation
T
1
+ v T =
T + B(x, t),
(3)
t
Re Pr
where v(x, t) = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) represent the Cartesian velocity components, P (x, t) is the pressure and T (x, t) is
the temperature field. The parameters Re and Pr are the
Reynolds number and Prandtl number, respectively. For ease
of presentation, we assume inflow is fixed and the control
term is given by B(x, t) = b(x)u(t) where b(x) is a given
distribution and u(t) is a thermal control input. The ideas
presented here are also apply to the Boussinesq equations,
where temperature introduces a buoyancy force in equation
(2).
The transport of air, thermal energy, and chemical species
in a room can be modeled using the Boussinesq equations
along with passive scalar equations for each component
of interest (water vapor, CO2 , etc.). In order to keep this
discussion reasonably short, we ignore the buoyancy forces
that gradients in chemical species could impart on the flow.
The resulting system is governed by the system of partial
differential equations (PDEs):
v
v
+ v v
t
T
+ v T
t
si
+ v si
t
= 0
(4)
Gr
1
v +
T k + Bv uv (5)
= p +
Re
Re2
1
T + BT u
(6)
=
RePr
= i si + Bsi usi ,
(7)
where for each time t > 0, x IR3 , v(t, x) is

the velocity vector, p(t, x) is the pressure, T (t, x) is the
temperature, and si (t, x), i = 1, . . . , S, are additional scalar
fields of interest. Nondimensionalization has been carried out
where Re is the Reynolds number, Gr is the Grashof number,
Pr is the Prandtl number, and i is a diffusion coefficient
associated with the scalar si . The flow is considered in a
unit room depicted in Fig. 2 with an inlet vent on one
wall and an outlet vent on the opposing wall.
The PDE model includes input terms Bv uv , BT u and
Bs usi that control the velocity, temperature and species,
respectively, at the heating vent. A uniformly heated, uniform
species concentration, parabolic inflow velocity profile is
assumed at the heating duct with stress-free fluid boundary
conditions at the return vent. No slip boundary conditions
for the velocity are imposed on the remainder of the walls,
while homogeneous Neumann conditions are assumed for
the remaining boundary conditions on temperature and concentrations. In this preliminary study, which emphasizes
performance metrics for studying sensor location, we make
a number of simplifying assumptions. As noted above, the
main assumption is that we ignore the buoyancy term due to
the temperature (ignoring the term Gr T / Re2 in (5)). This
decouples equations (5) and (4) from equations (6) and (7).
319
If we assume that the fan is always on, then the distributed

parameter control problem can be built from equation (6)
with v computed by solving the steady-state Navier-Stokes
equations (also ignoring the time derivative term in (5)). The
treatment of scalar variables and the temperature are similar,
so we only consider the control problem for the temperature.
In the next section we formulate this problem as a distributed parameter control problem and use infinite dimensional control theory to determine a representation of the
optimal controller as an integral operator. A POD based
model reduction method is then used to compute the required
integral kernel and then we use this information to provide
insight into optimal sensor placement.
III. A DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER
FORMULATION
We follow the formulation of the thermal fluid system
presented in the references [8], [18]. The state space distributed parameter formulation is based on the natural state
T
z = [v(), T ()] and although similar in nature to the
standard distributed parameter formulation of the NavierStokes equation there are some technical differences .
Here we briefly outline the steps one takes to construct
a (rigorous) state space model for the system of partial
differential equations above. Details may be found in the
references [4], [3], [2], [8], [14], [17], [18]. The important
divergence free function space is defined by
H1 = v L2 (; R3 ) : v = 0, v = 0, x ,
where
L2 (; R3 ) =
Z
2
v : R3 :
kv(x)kR3 dx < +
is the usual Lebesgue space of square integrable vector

functions. The state space for the Boussinesq system
is H = H1 L2 (; R3 ) and the Leray projection PH :
L2 (; R3 ) H1 defines the Stokes operator AS on
H1 . The system can be formulated as an abstract distributed parameter control system on the product space
H = H1 L2 (; R3 ) of the form
d
z(t) = Az(t) + F (z(t)) + Bu(t),
dt
(8)
where (8) must be interpreted in the general Lions framework [4], [5], [6], [15]. In three dimensions the wellposedness of the system remains open. However, for control
design we use only the linearized system
d
z(t) = Az(t) + Bu(t)
dt
(9)
and apply Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) design.

To illustrate the idea we focus on the case where the
flow v() is given and hence we need only consider the
thermal field. In this case the system (6) takes the form of
a distributed parameter system on the Hilbert space Z =
L2 (; R3 ) with state [z(t)] (x) = T (t, x). Consequently, the
system reduces to a problem for the second component of

z) above and has the form
z(t)
= Az(t) + Bu(t),
(10)
where A is the convection-diffusion operator in equation (6).

The objective is to find the control that minimizes
Z
J(u) =
[hQz(t), z(t)iZ + hRu(t), u(t)i] dt,
(11)
0
subject to (10), where Q corresponds to a characteristic

function in a workspace (see Fig. 2). Under reasonable
conditions (see [5], [6], [15]), an optimal control exists and
has the form
u (t) = Kz(t),
(12)
where K : Z R is a bounded linear gain operator. In
addition, K = R1 B where : Z Z is a bounded
linear operator, = and satisfies the Riccati equation
A + A BR1 B + Q = 0.
(13)
Under the assumption that the flow is fixed and only the
temperature of the air is controlled, the Riesz Representation
Theorem implies that there exists a function kT (x) such that
Z
Kz(t) =
kT (x)T (t, x)dx.
(14)
The kernel kT (x) is called a functional gain. The functional

gains define the optimal LQR controller and can be used to
place sensors and design low order controllers (see [7], [10],
[9], [11], [13]).
IV. HPC GENERATED DATA FOR MODEL
REDUCTION
We solve Eqns. (1), (2), and (3) on a 128 128 128
grid in the x, y, z-directions on a 4 4 3 domain to
simulate the flow field in a room. Fig. 2 illustrates a typical
office room with inlet and outlet representing an HVAC
system. Solving the problem sequentially would require
immense computational time and storage. Thus, we use the
domain decomposition approach to partition the whole grid
into multiple domains where each domain is solved on a
processor. Each processor communicates with its neighboring
processor to pass flow variables to compute the solution.
For detailed validation and verification of the algorithm, the
readers are referred to Ref. [1].
We distribute a 128 128 128 grid on a 32-processor
platform using two-dimensional domain decomposition. We
employ 8 4 topology in the y- and zdirections, respectively, such that the load on each processor is 128 16 32.
Nonuniform size of the blocks in the domain is due to the
nonuniform distribution of the grid points. More grid points
are clustered near the wall region to resolve the boundary
and thermal layers in the flow. We note that increasing the
number of processors will further increase the performance
as long as the communication overheads do not dominate
the computation performed on each processor. The parallel
algorithm gives close to ideal speed-up and is scalable [1].
320
Func Gain
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

X
Y
3
3
2.5
2
2.5
1.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
1
2
3
4 4
0.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0
x
Z
2
3
3.5
4 4
2.5
1.5
0.5
Func Gain
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

X
X
3
Fig. 2.
A Typical Room Serving as a Building Unit
2.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
1
3
4 4
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0
Z
1
0
1
X 2
3
4
Fig. 3.
Platform
Fig. 4. Functional Gains for Temperature Obtained From the (a) Full Order
System and (b) Reduced Order Model
Func Gain
0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X
Two-dimensional Domain Decomposition on a 32-processor

3
2.5
2
V. FUNCTIONAL GAINS COMPUTATION
The studies above demonstrate the need for high performance computing for simulating thermal fluids in buildings.
Additionally, these high fidelity simulations can be used to
create reduced-order models, to enable fast simulations at
nearby parameter configurations. In this section, we consider
the natural next steps, namely, the possibility of using
these reduced-order models for design of feedback control
systems. In particular, we consider the use of functional gains
to place sensors and actuators and the use of reduced-order
models to compute these functional gains.
In the theory of distributed parameter control, feedback
control and state estimation operators have integral representations. In the model problem shown in Fig. 2, we
are interested in specifying the inlet temperature of the air
handler to control the environment in the comfort region. The
theory states that the prescribed temperature input ideally has
the form
Z
u(t) =
hT (x)T (x, t) dx.
(15)
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
2
3
4 4
Fig. 5.
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0
Functional Gain for a Varying Inlet Temperature Profile
where hT is the functional gain. In practice, we do not

have access of T throughout the domain to compute the
integral above, but rather need to build a state estimator
from given temperature measurements. Observation of the
structure of hT provides insight into where the temperature
field needs to be estimated most accurately. For example, if
the magnitude of hT is small, then the temperature does not
need to be estimated accurately, since it will have a negligible
contribution to the integral in (15).
321
The direct calculation of hT is impractical in realistic

thermal fluid control problems. Therefore, we propose to
approximate these gains using reduced-bases (such as POD).
However, different snapshots in 2 will naturally lead to
different bases and thus different approximations. In this
initial study, we compute the full order gain for a simplified
configuration where we assume v is stationary and the
dynamics are governed by 3. We then consider two different
snapshot collections. In the first, we start with a constant initial zero reference temperature and input a unit temperature
at the inlet. A basis including the mean temperature and the
first ten POD modes (denoted RB1 ) are used to approximate
hT . In the second, we prescribe a fluctuation of temperature
at the inlet corresponding to Tin (t) = cos2 (t) and collect
snapshots. Again the mean temperature and first ten POD
modes (denoted RB2 ) are used to approximate hT .
The functional gain calculation was computed on a submesh of size 17 33 33 and is displayed in Fig. 4(a).
In Fig. 4(b) and Fig. 5, we provide the functional gain
approximations computed using RB1 and RB2 , respectively.
Note that there is significantly better approximation to the
functional gains with the input providing RB2 . While not
in perfect agreement, this qualitatively verifies the ruleof-thumb that a wide range of control inputs need to be
exercised in the snapshot data to produce reduced-bases
suitable for functional gain calculations. This experiment
allows us to develop intuition into how snapshots should be
collected to produce functional gain approximations in the
more complex control problem where we will not have the
luxury of comparison to full-order functional gains.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we used ROMs based on HPC simulated
data to compute functional feedback gain operators for a 3D
room. These gains provide insight into practical design decisions such as sensor placement and controller designs. By
combining proper orthogonal decomposition with Galerkin
projections we are able to efficiently compute these gains. As
illustrated in Fig. 5 the selection of parameters and control
inputs must be considered in developing practical ROMs for
controller design. This paper provides a proof-of-concept for
HPC enabled model reduction for constructing reduced order
design models for building systems.
[3] V. Barbu, I. Lasiecka, and R. Triggiani. Tangential boundary stabilization of Navier-Stokes equations. American Mathematical Society,
2006.
[4] V. Barbu and R. Triggiani. Internal stabilization of navier-stokes
equations with finite dimensional controllers. Indiana University
Mathematics Journal, 7:14431494, 2004.
[5] A. Bensoussan, G. Da Prato, M.C. Delfour, and S.K. Mitter. Representation and Control of Infinite Dimensional Systems. Systems &
Control: Foundations & Applications. Birkhauser, Boston, 1992.
[6] A. Bensoussan, G. Da Prato, M.C. Delfour, and S.K. Mitter. Representation and Control of Infinite Dimensional Systems. Systems &
Control: Foundations & Applications. Birkhauser, Boston, 1992.
[7] J. A. Burns and B. B. King. Optimal sensor location for robust control
of distributed parameter systems. In Proceedings of the 33rd IEEE
Conference on Decision and Control, 1994. pp. 3967-3972.
[8] J.A. Burns. Modeling Transition: New Scenarios, System Sensitivity
and Feedback Control. In M. Gad el Hak and H. M. Tsai, editors,
Transition and Turbulence Control, SIAM Publications, pages 138.
World Scientific Pub Co Inc.
[9] J.A. Burns and B.B. King. A reduced basis approach to the design
of low-order feedback controllers for nonlinear continuous systems.
Journal of vibration and control, 4(3):297, 1998.
[10] J.A. Burns, B.B. King, and Y-R Ou. A computational approach to sensor/actuator location for feedback control of fluid flow systems. In J.D.
Paduano, editor, Sensing,, Actuation, and Control in Aeropropulsion,
volume 2494 of Proc. International Society for Optical Engineering,
pages 6069, 1995.
[11] J.A. Burns, B.B. King, A.D. Rubio, and L. Zietsman. Functional
gain computations for feedback control of a thermal fluid. In Proc.
3rd AIAA Theoretical Fluid Mechanics Meeting, number AIAA 20022992, 2002.
[12] J. A. Clarke. Energy Simulation in Building Design. Butterworth
Heinemann, 2001.
[13] A.L. Faulds and B.B. King. Sensor location in feedback control
of partial differential equation systems. In Proceedings of the 2000
IEEE International Conference on Control Applications, IEEE Press,
Piscataway, NJ, pages 536541. Citeseer, 2000.
[14] AV Fursikov, MD Gunzburger, and LS Hou. Boundary value problems
and optimal boundary control for the Navier-Stokes system: the
two-dimensional case. SIAM Journal on Control and Optimization,
36(3):852894, 1998.
[15] J.-L. Lions. Optimal Control of Systems Governed by Partial Differential Equations. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1971.
[16] A. Malkawi and Godfried Augenbroe. Advanced Building Simulation.
Routelegde, UK, 2004.
[17] S.S. Sritharan. Optimal control of viscous flow. Society for Industrial
Mathematics, 1998.
[18] R. Temam. Infinite-dimensional dynamical systems in mechanics and
physics. Springer Verlag, 1997.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported in part by Air Force Office of
Scientific Research grants FA9550-07-1-0273 and FA955010-1-0201 and by the Environmental Security Technology
Certification Program (ESTCP) under a subcontract from the
United Technologies.
R EFERENCES
[1] I. Akhtar. Parallel Simulations, Reduced-Order Modeling, and Feedback Control of Vortex Shedding using Fluidic Actuators. PhD thesis,
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 2008.
[2] V. Barbu. Stabilization of a plane channel flow by wall normal
controllers. Nonlinear Analysis: Theory, Methods & Applications,
67(9):25732588, 2007.
322

Design and Development of an Affordable Solar

Powered Street Lighting System
M Junaid Khan and Yasir Arrfat
PNEC, National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract Due to economic growth, rise in population and
depleting energy resources, shortage of energy is being realized
throughout the world including developed countries.
Unfortunately, at this hour, when the developed world is hard
focused in securing energy resources for future generations,
our nation is facing acute problem of electric power shortage
for fulfilling just basic needs. Solar energy, being the most
widely available energy resource, is considered in this paper to
develop cheaper street lighting system with an aim to produce
affordable solar power system and create awareness among
masses to exploit the same to deal with the current shortage in
a cost effective manner.
ENERGY
I. INTRODUCTION
is the motive power that keeps the wheels

moving, other things live and dynamic and it also helps
to keep our lives bright even in the darkest hour of night.
Energy forms the foundation of all our industrial,
agricultural and developmental activities. Life itself is
energy based. Energy is crucial for all our growth and
development [1-3]. There are a number of sources of energy,
such as fossil fuel, wind, water and the sun. Fossil fuel has
been the conventional source of our energy needs and under
it come coal, lignite, petroleum and natural gas. Another
source of traditional energy is fuel-wood, animal waste and
agricultural residues but these are known as non-commercial
fuel [4-8]. Unfortunately, the sources of conventional energy
are depleting quite quickly, and these conventional and
natural sources of energy are not sufficient to meet our everincreasing demand, therefore, as a result there is a crisis.
Presently most part of the world including US is a victim of
energy shortage, and hence Pakistan is no exception [9].
Presently Pakistan is dependent on imported energy
resources for a considerable portion of its requirement. At
the same time there is heavy dependence on borrowing from
external resources to meet the financial obligations. The oil
Manuscript received September 30, 2010. This work was supported in
part by the Higher Education Commission Pakistan, National University of
Sciences and Technology Pakistan.
Associate Prof M. Junaid Khan is the present Dean of the Department of
Electronics and Power Engineering, Pakistan Navy Engineering College,
NUST,
Karachi.
Phone:
92-21-99245093;
e-mail:
contactjunaid@yahoo.com.
Yasir Arrfat is with the Department of Electronics and Power
Engineering, Pakistan Navy Engineering College, NUST, Karachi. Phone:
92-21-99245093; e-mail: yasirarrfat@hotmail.com
import is also being made through credit/ deferred payment

arrangements. The heavy internal borrowing and circular
debt has also resulted in a situation where import of
adequate oil supply has become impossible. As a result even
the existing installed electrical generation capacity cannot be
utilized leading to massive load-shedding and breakdowns.
This situation has adversely affected the production capacity
of the industrial and the agricultural sector, thereby further
adversely affecting the trade imbalance that is already
immensely large, which further deteriorates the capacity to
pay for the import of oil today and gas in future if the
planned Iran-Pakistan pipeline is laid. The external debt has
crossed US$65Billion [10]. Therefore, installation of further
thermal power plants will not solve the problem. It would
rather deteriorate it further.
Besides many other energy scarcity problems as
mentioned above, the main problem is shortage of electricity
in Pakistan. Due to higher demand and lower supply, the
cost is naturally on rise, which is further augmented by the
IMF pressures for recovering debts. Beside, adversely
affecting the price, the growing demands of electricity are
increasing the hours of load shedding every passing day.
Although, the related problems seem to be endless and
one hardly can find ways out, it is the time for the
researchers to look into all possible means of making best
use of the generated capacity and producing electricity
through renewable and sustainable sources.
Sun radiations, along with secondary solar-powered
resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity
and biomass, account for most of the available renewable
energy on earth. Though still generally more costly than
electricity purchased from a utility, solar power is rapidly
becoming more cost competitive. Increasing worldwide
demand for solar systems coupled with advances in
technology are bringing the costs of solar power down.
Extremely durable and easy to maintain, solar power
systems can operate and produce cost savings for 30 years or
more. In view of the life span and reliability of associated
systems i.e. PV panel, battery and smart controller, it is
mandatory to study the cost effectiveness of the solar power
systems and create awareness amongst masses if found
feasible. Factors like, cost of electricity in the area, higher
utility prices, energy efficiency, availability of net metering
motivates the use (or at least study) the solar power systems.
In many instances of power systems, street lighting at
night can be conveniently transformed to solar powered
ones. Due to the relative simplicity and similarity of the
323
loads, a need was felt to explore development and

installation of cheaper and reliable solar based street lights.
There have been many off-the-shelf street light products
with variable intensities and features. Although these lights
may be working very well but their cost is extremely high
due to low efficiency and power losses problems.
Manufactures of these lights have been generally using
inversion circuitry (DC to AC) to power the conventional
bulbs. The inversion always creates a lot of problems of
power losses. Therefore, the costs of these solar powered
lights are naturally high. Hence manufacturers are bound to
use larger PV panels for compensating the losses. Another
great problem is the shape of alternating current wave form
after inversion. In market, most manufacturers make inverter
circuit (DC to AC) which could not produce true sine wave,
rather it produces square waves. This square wave is another
reason of power losses.
In this paper, we aim to deal with the above mentioned
problem of losses by developing an efficient solar powered
street light. This light is expected to be a landmark of
creating awareness to solar powered systems among masses.
The designed solar lighting system is very cheap as
compared to the existing systems. These systems involve
lesser circuitry, lossless charging, and are totally dependent
on solar energy.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows:
Section II details the system development and the
description of various components, Section III describes
system implementation, Section IV presents results and
discussion in terms of the efficiency of the system and
comparison of cost, whereas Section V concludes this paper.
II. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Fig.1 Block Diagram of solar lighting system
Fig.2 (a) System Operation during day time (b) System

Operation during night time [18]
As described above, this research is primarily motivated

by the existence and enormous rise of energy crises around
the globe where every country is trying to discover all
possible energy resources. Beside other sources of energy,
our country has been gifted with great energy source in the
form of sun, which will never finish. It can give us energy in
different forms like heat, radiations and light etc.
Fortunately, in our country (Pakistan), the sun shines for 16
hours in summer and 12 hours in winter season with full
intensity. If we consider the average timing of sun shining,
then sun shines 14 hours/day averaged over whole year. If
the energy radiated during these hours could be stored and
then used in proper way then we can defeat the energy crisis
up to some extent. But the main thing is that the energy
should be stored properly and then should be used in the
most apt way.
process of the solar lighting system is illustrated. Firstly, the

PV array receives the solar energy directly from the sun and
changes it into electrical energy. This electrical energy is
then stored in a battery with the help of automatic control
circuitry, and then the power is subsequently supplied to the
load. Since it is a power application related to lighting,
which is required in dark hours and the source for producing
power (i.e. Sun) is only available in the day time, so the
proposed system must incorporate energy storage (battery)
provision. The flow of charge to and from the battery is
controlled precisely through a microcontroller device, which
is a programmable controlling circuit that is able to
automatically control the overcharging and deep discharging
of battery. The same device also facilitates setting of
automated OFF/ON timing of load, alarm control etc. This
controller is provided with an LCD screen, which shows all
the performance factors of the solar lighting system.
A. System Components
B. Choice of PV Panel
The simple model of the proposed system is as shown in

Fig 1[18] in a block diagram form where the complete
For developing the system, a solar panel of 60W is used,

and the rest of the system is designed after having decided
the power of panel as the starting point. The panel provides
18.5 volts on no-load condition at usual sun-lighting state in
the month of June, which is partly hazy. On connecting the
panel with load (battery), the voltage falls down to 13.8
324
volts, and this voltage is just suitable to charge a

conventional 12V battery.
Since the primary aim was to make a lossless or nearlossless system that is totally dependant on solar energy, a
pure DC was chosen for the entire system. There are several
reasons to restrain to DC system, for example: no losses due
to absence of inversion, no induction losses due to any
stepping up/down, no losses due to the type of waveform,
lesser components, lesser chances of failure, low cost,
higher efficiency etc. As solar panel and battery are default
DC systems, therefore the only challenge was to have DC
controlling system and DC load. For this reason, a control
system based on DC power was designed and configured
according to the working specifications of panel and the
battery. The settings of the controller were further refined
after including the load in the system. Local market was
searched for the availability of DC (CFL) bulbs, LED based
lights and simple bulbs as candidate loads.
Fig 3. Circuit
Diagram of the Control Circuitry
C. Choice of the Battery

Since, the cost remained as one of the primary factors
while choosing various components, therefore the choice of
a suitable rating battery was no exception. We began our
experiments with 12V, 20 AH battery, and while
experimentation it was revealed that it requires 3 hours of
incident sunshine to charge this battery. Knowing the fact
that sun is usually available for 13 hours in a sunny day, and
resorting to the case of partly cloudy weather, a charging
time of 5 hours was found most suitable. Corresponding to
this charging time, the off-the-shelf battery of 12V, 38 AH
was selected to be the optimal choice. This choice was also
coincided with the selection of load lights by performing
experiments on variable loads. In these experiments, the
battery was connected directly to several combinations of
CFL bulbs including other types i.e. LED and florescent.
D. Choice of the Lighting Load
The choice of the lighting load is mainly dependent on the
supply available from the battery, power consumption of the
load, brightness and intensity of the lights. As described
above, various loads were firstly experimented for their light
intensity, scatter factor, power consumption, cost and
availability. A series of experiments revealed that although
LED bulbs were good from power consumption view-point,
however CFL bulbs are proved as best when all the factors
were considered simultaneously.
E. Description of Controller Circuit
The controlling circuit is made on a PCB which contains
PAC28x microcontroller, RTC clock IC and is programmed
in C language. The housing of the circuit is also furnished
with an LCD which can display all the required features for
the convenience of users i.e. voltage of panel, voltage of
battery, temperature of battery, on/off timing of load, current
Fig-4. Solar power vs Time

timing, and max/min voltage of battery. The working and
setting through the LCD is very convenient, easily
understandable and user friendly. PAC28x is very low cost
and reprogrammable controller. RTC IC is used for timing
of the clock. Timing can also be controlled through
microcontroller, but using RTC is very good for power
saving. Its circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3 [7]. The
controller has six terminals, two for battery, two for solar
panel and two for (DC) load. The controller can handle 15
Amps of output current which is exactly according to the
requirement.
III. SOLAR POWER SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
After choosing the best and optimal components, it is
the time to integrate these components for subsequent
system implementation. However before proceeding with
the implementation a minor though very important challenge
was to decide an optimal angle of solar panel with respect to
sun rays with an aim to receive maximum intensity of
sunlight. Although, angle at which panel is placed, is very
important for excellent performance of the system, and there
exist several sun-tracking systems, however keeping in view
the cost of these auxiliaries, it was decided to perform
experimentation to find an optimal angle at which the panel
could be permanently fixed. For this purpose, the
approximate angle at which the panel can charge the 38 AH
battery (10.8V-13.5V) in five hours on a shining day was
determined experimentally. For a general understanding, the
graph in Fig. 4 depicts the importance of angle [11-17].
325
The data of light intensity with respect to the voltage

produced by panel at certain azimuth and elevation angle
was gathered at different times of day. It was observed that
in the month of June between 8:00 am and 14:00 pm, the
variation of the voltage is not so marked and is almost the
same; however, peak values are observed between 10:00 am
and 10:30 am. The same thing was observed on different
days. The voltage starts at about 15.5 Volts at 8:00 am and
reaches a maximum value at 18.3 Volts between 10:00 and
10:30 am in the morning. The voltage then slightly
decreases during the day until it reaches a value of 17.5
Volts at 16:00.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The complete system was tested for different times of the
day and different days of the month and test results were
recorded. Then the results of the developed system were
compared with the available systems in the market which are
based on power inversion, and it was found that our system
outperforms the existing ones in terms of cost and
efficiency. The main reason of attaining such betterment is
attributed to the avoiding of power losses due to power
inversion, transformation action and power dissipation in the
extended circuitry. Moreover, existing systems involve
bigger panels to compensate for these losses and result in
drastic rise in the price. Some salient features of the system
available in the market are given in Table 1 and are
described as under:
A dry battery with rated capacity of 38 AH is used which
can be practically used up to ~20-25 percent. Rating of 38
AH means that it can supply 38 Amps for one hour when it
is fully charged. During this supply of current, the voltage of
battery gets dropped from 13.2 V to 10.8 V. The solar light
available in the market with almost similar luminance as
ours can be used for 1 hour only, i.e. whereas the total
usable time (ON time) of light is theoretically ~4 hours. As
the load can be switched ON only in the range of 13.1-10.8
volts, therefore, practically this battery cannot maintain this
voltage after 1 hour, as the battery can be discharged up to
20 percent. So, load can be switched ON for almost 1 hour.
Hence, the total ON time of load with tolerance is
(practically) 1 hour, where the illumination is 6-15 Lux at 5
meter pole. If we want to increase the ON time of load, then
we require more batteries, more panels for charging the
batteries and more inverters.
The existing solar powered street lighting systems are
out of the reach of the common user due to its high cost. So,
by the reengineering of the product, the factor that was
responsible for the high cost was discarded. And the product
is thus brought in the reach of the common person. The
detail of the developed product is as under:
The battery used in our system is a dry battery which can
also be discharged only up to ~20 percent. It can supply 38
Amps for one hour when it is fully charged. During this
supply of current the voltage of this battery is also dropped
from 13.1 to 10.8 V as given in Table.2. Total ON time of

our light is theoretically 12.6 hrs. The load can be switched
ON only in the range of 13.1 to 10.8 volts. This battery
cannot maintain this voltage after six hours, because battery
can be discharged up to 20 percent. So, the load can be
switched ON for almost six hours.
So, total ON time of load (practically) = 6 hrs, , where the
illumination is 5-13 Lux at 5 meter pole.
Table-1 Description of Markets system
Solar Panel
Battery
AC light
Voltage
Current (Amp)
Power,W
18(V)
13.1(V)
220(V)
3.3(DC)
38AH(DC)
0.4546(AC)
~60
~498
~250
Table-2 Description of Designed system

Current,A
Power,W
Solar panel
Battery
Voltag
e
18
13.1
3.3(DC)
38AH (DC)
~60
~498
DC light
12(DC)
3(DC)
~36
A. Cost Comparisons of developed solar light with

conventional light supplied from WAPDA/KESC
Usually solar based systems are praised in the general
public but never adopted due to the fears of high cost,
shifting from conventional to advanced system and
replacement of the infrastructure. With an aim to create
awareness and motivate people about payback period, a
study is carried to present a comparison of the cost
effectiveness of the developed system. This study is
particularly useful for the city management who can benefit
by installing the proposed system and reap advantages in
the long run.
The study reveals that although the cost of a solar based
street light is higher in terms of initial cost, but if it is
considered for 10 years, then the operating cost is nearly
40% as compared to conventional light, which is often
subject to load shedding, power break down etc. Table 3 and
4 compare the results.
Table-3 cost of designed system for 10 years
Components
Solar panel(60 W)
Battery(38AH) with 03
replacements in 10 years
Controller circuit(15A)
2Bulbs(25W+10W) with
10 replacements
Light enclosure +wires
Total running time (hours)
Total cost for ten years
Prices Rs ($)
16200(188.37$)
15750(185.32$)
3800(44.18$)
(200*2)*10 years=4000(46.51$)
1200+500=1700(20$)
21900(h)
39200(461.1$)
Total cost on 35W light for ten years is Rs. 39200 (461.1$)
326
B. Conventional Light supplied by KESC/WAPDA:

Total units of 35W Light (6 hours per day) = 7665 units
Per unit rate of KESC and WAPDA (2010) = 13 RS per unit
Table-4 Cost of light for 10 years
Components
Bill(WAPDA)
2Bulbs(25W+10W)
Light enclosure +wires
Total time (hours)
Total cost for ten years
Prices(RS)
13*7665=99645(1158.66$)
(200*2)*10 years=4000(46.51$)
1200+500=1700(20$)
21900(h)
105345(1224.94$)
Total cost on 35W light for ten years is 105345(1224.94$)

Saving=105345-39200=Rs. 66145 (778.77$)
V. CONCLUSION
By the above mentioned facts and figures, we can
conclude that the designed system is highly efficient and
cost effective as compared to the systems used by WAPDA,
KESC etc. The developed system is very efficient in contrast
to the systems available in the market due to the reduced
power losses. Moreover this paper experimentally proves
that the payback of solar power systems is remarkably
attractive and there exists a dire need to create awareness
among masses to shift to solar power system gradually to get
individual as well as national benefits.
[10] Country paper, Renewable Energy interventions in,

Bangladesh, Beijing, China.
[11] European Association for the Development of
Renewable Energies, Environment and Power Quality.
[12] International Conference on Renewable Energies and
Power Quality (ICREPQ09) ,Valencia (Spain), 15th to
17th April, 2009
[13] H. Moghbelli, Investigation of Solar Energy
Applications with Design and Implementation of
Photovoltaic Traffic Light Signal System for Qatar,
student project, Qatar Foundation, URPE 4-17-71 final
report, Nov. 2008.
[14] "Solar Cell." Wikipedia. September 2007
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Cell *
[15] Gil Knier. How do Photovoltaics Work. Nasa. 3 Sept.
2007.
[16] "Solar Cell Manufacturing Plants." Solarbuzz, July
2007
[17]Bhattacharya, P. Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices.
New Jersey: A Paramount Communications Company.*
[18] ISESCO Science and technology vision, Vol.1, May
2005, (37-39)
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
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Energy Conversion, 1994., Conference Record of the
24th, IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Vol. 1,
pp. 788-791, 1994*
N.P. Singh, B. Bhargava, Photovoltaic powered lights
for Indian villages, Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference 1990,Conference Record of the 21st IEEE,
Vol. 2,pp. 991-993, 1990*
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billboard lighting system in Chiang Mai, Thailand,
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327

Sustainable Energy Development & Linking Renewable

Energy Resources for Pakistan
M Usman Haider, M Sohaib Irshad, Bilal Asad, M. Qamar Raza and Fahad saleem
THE UNIVERSITY OF FAISALABAD-37610-PAKISTAN
ABSTRACT
Pakistan is the second most Muslim populated country in the

world. Pakistan is a developing country, and with this, growth
comes higher, more energy is required. Pakistan is producing its
35.30% electricity from oil, 32.30% from gas only 30.3%
electricity generated from Hydral power plants, 1.96% from
nuclear, 0.04%wind and 0.01% from coal power plants [1].
Pakistan is facing 28% of average power shortfall these days and
this paper propose a plan to over come this shortfall which
should be easy to implement in short span of time and must be
very efficient and this should also overcome the future increase
in demand of electricity. To overcome the future demands. This
is the responsibility of government to search for the surrogate
options for finding the energy resources. This paper focused
study on improving energy efficiency with building energy
efficient homes, reducing line losses and increases its production
from cheap sources like Baggase, coal, solar and wind energy
Keywords
Keywords are your own designated keywords.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pakistans population is ranked 6th in world. As estimated

2.8% of total population of world with growth rate 1.56.
Pakistans GDP ranked 27th in world [2].Pakistans
economic history is made up of periods of high growth. As
population is increasing and science is getting headways a
sharp increase in energy demand is observed due to
handover human work to machine, Increase in the living
standard of people increases the demand of machines like
Air-Conditioner, Electric Heaters and decoration
lightening energy which is caused expanding industrial
sector with economy growing rate of 12.5%. Pakistans per
capita energy consumption of the country is estimated at
14 million Btu [3]. Energy is a key factor for the stability
and progress of Pakistan.
. Figure 1: Electricity Produced by different sources
The total installed power generation capacity in Pakistan is

19681 MW by different sectors shown in table 1. However,
only 14,000 MW is available. And even in peak season
Pakistan
face
short
fall
of
approximately
5529MW.[4]Actual figure is slightly controversial, there
are different statements emerging from various sectors.
This short fall of electricity cause load shedding and large
increase in per unit price 1.79 Rs/KWh to 12.77Rs/KWh
for domestic purposes and 317 Rs/K.W/M to 39
Rs/K.W/M [5]. This increase is due to IMF and 31% shear
of IPPs in generation shown in Table:1. Which directly
affects on the economy of the country? Government of
Pakistan is spending a lot for purchasing furnace. Pakistan
has 885.3 billion cubic meter of proven natural gas and
184,575 million tons of coals reserves [6].The gas reserves
are already used excessively due to textile, paper industries
and CNG and that extensive use is the cause of gas load
shedding. Oil prices are very high, so these also cause
increase in per KWh cost. If our generation units keeps on
shutting then it cause increase in un-employment.
328
As Pakistan is facing biggest flood of its history and

rehabilitation is required in particular areas. So in reconstruction phase we need to put a little more effort to
ruinous ourselves from this heavy short fall.
Public
sector
MW
WAPDA
GENCOs
PAEC
Sub-total
Private
sector
IPPs
KESC
Sub-total
G. total
6444
4834
462
11740
33
25
2
60
6185
1756
7941
19681
31
9
40
100
environment buildings through using integrated approach

as in[8].
In July 2010, over 20 million people have been affected by
flood. The estimated damage is $9.7 billion. Recovering
from a natural disaster of this magnitude will take many
years. Now in reconstruction phase we need to build
efficient buildings with using cool roof technology.
Table 1: Total Installed Capacity of Generation In Pakistan

in 2009 [i]
2. Load Sharing Metering System
Due to difference about 5529MW power in

demand and generation, public have to face backlash even
in peak season (summer) there is more than 18 hour load
shedding daily that is enough to ruin the industry of
Pakistan. This demand is rapidly increasing from last six
years due to more than 200% increase in the demand of
Air-conditioner in summer [7]. Rapid increase in usage of
inverters due to heavy load shedding is also been seen. In
these inverters 20% energy loss in transformer for step
down voltages for charging of battery, 15% - 28% energy
lose in charging battery and again 20% energy loss in
transformer for step up voltages from.
To overcome this problem load shearing meters
can be use in which there will be two relays. First relay
will pass maximum current. When WAPDA needs load
sharing then wireless system turned on second relay and
that will only allow 20% current. From this 20% current
heavy load like freezer, electric heater, air conditioner, will
turn off and other appliances will remain working. From
these kinds of meters heavy load will be switched off but
public will get relief from backlash and industry remains
on working.
Currently WAPDA is also installing TOU (time of usage)
and TOD (time of date) meters but WAPDA is only using
these meter for domestic and agricultural connection.
3. Energy Efficient Homes
Energy efficient homes practice offer a

opportunity to create efficient recourse utilized and
Figure2: Energy Consumption by various sectors
Which help us to reduce the increasing electric

demand up to 15% - 30% energy due to usage of airconditioner [9]. In Pakistan 23% energy is used by houses
shown in Figure:2. By using efficient building design we
can use sun light and control air and vapor flow in
buildings, From this it is achievable to dramatically reduce
building energy consumption and the potential for
moisture-related building deterioration [10]. These
building called green building saves 30-35% electrical
energy, 35% carbon emission, 40% water and 70% solid
waste.
There is a need to replace electric geezer with
solar water heater to minimize energy usage. These
technologies help us to reduce approximately 2000 units
per house in winter season. So in winter season we can
shutdown the thermal power plants in which per unit cost
are very high as compared to hydro-electric power plants.
4. Baggase
Pakistan is an agricultural country. Sugar cane is

one of the major crops of Pakistan. Sugar mills are the
second largest agro-industry of country after textile.
Pakistan is the fifth largest cane producing country in the
world. The fibrous residue remained after sugarcane
crushing to extract their juice is called Baggase. Baggase
is the byproduct of sugarcane industry which is used for
making papers and used as a fuel in boilers for generating
electricity. In an estimate 10 tons of sugarcanes when
329
crushed produces 3 tons of wet Baggase. In Pakistan there

are 78 sugar mills in which 42 are in Punjab, 6 in North
West Frontier Province (NWFP) and 30 mills are in Sind.
For sugar mills it is free of cost to make electricity from
Baggase. Its second advantage is that when Baggase is
burnt as a fuel the resulting CO2 is equal to the amount of
CO2 absorbed during sugar production. It is much better
than the other Hydral power plans specially coal power
plan in which social cost of cleaning environment is very
high and have risk of acid rain.
further expenditures as other plants. In Solar panel

Intensity if sunlight varies throughout the day in term of
peak sunlight hours. Normally the mid of day generate
more power than early of day and late time of day [11].
Pakistan is one of those luckiest countries where
sun availability is about 16 hours/day avg. Its solar energy
intensity in the Sun Belt is 19002200 kWh/sq maters
[12]. These values are enough for photovoltaic cell or
concentrating solar plants, with annual average sun
availability duration of eight hours. The solar energy
resources is estimated about 0.1 million MW. In Pakistan
Punjab is the most suitable place for all solar energy
projects. 313 sites are already been highlighted for solar
energy projects of about 600MW [13]. Pakistan
government should give their high preference to solar
projects because it is long life equipment and future no
expenditure requirement for generating electricity. Even
Pakistan government can completely fulfill their all
electricity demands from solar power.
6. Coal
Figure 1: Baggase Production in m.ton 2005-09
Pakistan is currently producing 3.65 MMT refined sugar

from which yield 16,061,650 m.ton Baggase. Baggase
Production graph is shown in Figure:3
Baggase requirement for 1MW/hr = 5.7m.ton
Electricity production/hr = 16061650/2400x5.7
Now currently sugar mills are producing approximately
478 MW/hr electricity. While in Pakistan about 1600
MW/hr potential is available from this system ii. But now
the energy generated by sugar industry is used by it-self
and also they are consuming 2% of industrial energy
Sugar mills should use bio-gas technology that improves
the plant efficiency and the overall potential will be 2426
MW/hr .It help to pull out Pakistan from the shortfall of
electricity. For this purpose there should be loan on easy
installments for installing biogas technology. This will be
beneficial for both mill owners and Pakistani government
and in that case Government needs not to do anything
substantial.
The energy produced by Baggase is only in winter season
is approximately of 100 days, so in these days we can
shutdown thermal power plants to reduce the short fall of
gas in winter season.
5. Solar Power
Solar energy is populated free energy. It has only

high initial installment and equipment cost but require no
Pakistan is one of luckiest country which has large reserve

of fossil flues. In Pakistan there are more than 185 billion
tons of lignite coal reserves in THAR coal field, Sindh.
This field is speared over more than 9100sq kilometer
area, which is equivalent to 400 billion barrels of oil
reserves of Saudi Arabia and Iran together? Now Pakistan
is producing not even 3% of its energy from coal. In
THAR the category of coal is lignite B rank having
19.35%-22% fixed carbon. Complete chemical analysis is
shown in Table:2.
Table 2: Chemical Analysis of THAR Coal

Coal quantity
Liginite A-B
Moisture(AR)
43.24% to 49.01%
Ash(AR)
5.18% to 6.56%
Volatile matter (AR)
26.50% to 33.04%
Fixed carbon(AR)
19.35% to 22%
Sulphur (AR)
0.92% to 1.32%
Coal lignite A-B contains heating value 800010,000Btu/Lb. For running a boiler to produce a steam
Thar coal is more suitable as compared to other coal
reserves in Pakistan. Now a days special types of boilers
are in market which can generate electricity from every
kind of coal. However the biggest disadvantage of coal
power plant is atmospheric pollution caused by CO2. By
using carbon capture and storage (CCS) approach we can
reduce 80-90% CO2 emission as compared to plant without
CCS system. It increases the fuel about 11-40% which
causes increase in per unit costiii.At present Pakistan
330
generates only 0.10% of its total electricity from coal but

the installed capacity of coal power plant is 150MW at
lakara sindh which is 0.75%[14].
Pakistan has enough resources to develop wind power. The

wind corridor in the coastal area of Sindh has the
capacity to generate 50,000MW.
7. Wind
Five wind turbines in Jhimpir, are capable of producing

1.2 megawatts of electricity. Though initially 6MW of
electricity will be produced and this project will be
expanded to 50MW in the next few years. But Pakistan
should seriously focus on wind power.
To meet the energy requirements, the best solution is

exploiting those options which provide you energy in fewer
prices. Wind energy is helpful to reduce the oil and gas
consumption and it will also reduce the per KWh cost of
power generation. Wind energy is the best option for this
because wind power projects can start generating
electricity within two years and further no fuel required.
That is why wind energy is the fastest-growing source of
power in the world.
Conclusions and Suggestions:
By using bio-gas technology in sugar mills we can

extend 478MW to 2426MW/hr electricity from
Baggase.
If we start making 1-3 KW micro hydro, wind or

solar power plants in Pakistan which will be
sufficient to provide energy to one home
Government can sell these micro plants to
individual families direct at low installments.
And this cost can be recovered in utility bills
compensation
Due to weak grid infrastructure Transmission line

losses are very high 30% of total generation in
Pakistan so it should be reduced up to 10%. which
means 200 MW saving which has the value of
more than 15 Billion Rs
By using efficient building design technology we

can reduce the air condition, heater and electric
light usage.
In winter we can save energy by using solar water

heaters and if necessary then use natural gas for
heating purpose instead of electric heaters because
natural gas has 90% heating efficiency, then we
can turn off thermal plants units in winter season
WAPDA standard for Power Factor is 0.90 which

is 0.79 at this time. It should be strictly
maintained.
Pakistan can produce 20,000MW from 2% of its

coal reserves for previous 40 years. Coal, Gas and
Oil reserves are in figure:4.
Figure 3:Per unit cost by various sources in $
Distributed power system DPS are different types

such as: DPS with wind power and solar, fuel cell and
wind power, wind power, solar cell, fuel cell are helpful to
fulfill the requirement of current demand of Pakistan as
discuses in papers[15-18] .
In 2001 wind energy was 20,000MW and it
becomes 70,000MW in 2006. Only USA is installing
4,500MW per annum and China will install 20,000MW by
the year 2020. Duty for wind power generation has been
updated a many times, and the latest maintained tariff for
the first 10 years will be 2.5 times greater than the next 10
year. Per unit cost by various resources is shown in
figure:3.
Power developed by a wind turbine can be mathematically
shown in following formula [6]
1/2xdensity of air x effective area of rotor blade x
cube of speed of wind
331
[6]
"Pakistan Energy Crises By Engr. Wali Muhammad

Rahimoon.
[7] Crisis of Electrical Energy in Pakistan and Future guideline

for Policy makers International Journal of Basic & Applied
Sciences IJBAS/IJENS by Sifat Shah,M.K. L. Bhatti
[8] Business recorder.
[9] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_roof A Systems
Approach to Energy Sustainability in Hawaii County by
Jeremiah Johnson1,Mead St. Cambridge, Marian Chertow
in 42nd Hawaii International Conference on System
Sciences
[10] www.conservationtechnology.com/buil
[11] Robers, S. 1991. Solar Electricity: A Practical Gunde to
desiging and tnstalling small Photovoltaic System, 434 p.
Prentice Hall International, Uk
[12] Sustainable energy options for Pakistan by M.ASIF
Figure 4: potential supply options
Decrease the CFL cost so that florescent bulb

usage will reduce.
[13] Solar energy resources by SALMAN ABDUHOO

[14] M. T. Iqbal, Simulation of a small wind fuel cell
hybridenergy system [J], Renewable Energy 28 (2003) 511
522.
[15] J.G..Mcgowan, J.F.Manwell, Hybrid Wind/PV/Diesel
system Experience [J]. Renewable energy. 1999,Voll6(3):
928-933.
[16] Paul B.Tarman. Fuel cells for distributed power generation
[J]. Journal of Power Sources. 1996, Vol61 (1): 87-89.
[17] M.T.Iqbal. Modeling and control of a wind fuel cell hybrid
energy system [J]. Renewable Energy. 2003, Vol28 (2): 223237.
[18] M.J. Khan, M.T. Iqbal, Dynamic modeling and simulation
of a small windfuel cell hybrid energy system [J],
Renewable Energy 30 (2005) 421439.
Figure 5: Coal Gas and oil reserves in Pakistan
8. References
[1] WAPDA Annual report 2008-09.
[2]
www.cia.gov.
[3] Pakistan-specific estimates from Meeting Pakistans

Energy Needs, Mukhtar Ahmed, from the Woodrow
Wilson Report,Fueling the Future: Meeting Pakistans
Energy Needs in the 21st Century.
[4] Dr Noor ul Haq,khalid hussain, Energy Crisis In Pakistan
report july10,2008
[5] LESCO Pakistan tarrif oct,2010.
332

Test Results of Pongamia Pinnata Methyl Esters

with Direct Injection Diesel Engine
M. G. Bannikov, J.A. Chattha, Ahmed Faraz Khan, and I. P. Vasilev
AbstractPongamia Pinnata oil is considered as a potential
source of biodiesel production in Pakistan. When selecting source
for commercial production of biodiesel several criteria are used.
One of them is that biodiesel or biodiesel/diesel fuel blends must
provide satisfactory performance and emissions of the diesel
engine without or with a little engine modification. In this
research performance and emissions characteristics of a direct
injection diesel engine running on Pongamia Pinnata methyl
esters were discussed. Discussion was supported by an analysis of
combustion characteristics derived from in-cylinder pressure
data. Engine running on a neat biodiesel showed higher brake
specific fuel consumption and lower brake fuel conversion
efficiency at all loads, whereas emissions were improved except
of carbon monoxide emission at high loads. Decrease in brake
efficiency and reduction of nitrogen oxides emissions were
attributed solely to the change in the rate of heat release.
Deposits on fuel infector nozzle were observed when engine was
running on the neat biodiesel. Based on test results conclusion
was made that Pongamia biodiesel/diesel fuel blends can
effectively be used as a diesel oil substitute.
Key WordsPongamia Pinnata, Biodiesel, Exhaust Emissions
I. INTRODUCTION
ONGAMIA Pinnata oil is considered as one of potential

resources of biodiesel fuel in Pakistan. Several papers
have reported performance and emissions of diesel engines
fuelled by PP methyl esters (P) but data are limited and
sometimes contradictory, especially for brake efficiency and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. For example, with biodiesel
brake fuel conversion efficiency could be increased [1,4] or
decreased [2,3], nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions increased
[2] or decreased [3,4] and so on. Such a diversity of published
data may result from differences in properties of biodiesel,
differences in engine design and settings of fuel delivery
equipment as well as incorrect experimental procedure.
Manuscript received October 4, 2010.
M. G. Bannikov is with the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering
Sciences and Technology, Topi, Swabi, Pakistan (phone: +92-938-271858;
fax: +92-938-271864; e-mail: nbannikov@yahoo.com).
J. A. Chattha is with the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering
Sciences
and
Technology,
Topi,
Swabi,
Pakistan
(e-mail:
chattha@giki.edu.pk).
Ahmed Faraz Khan is with the School of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom (email: ahmedfaraz24@msn.com)
I. P. Vasilev is with East Ukrainian National University, Molodizhny bl.,
20a, Luhansk, Ukraine (e-mail: vasilevkr@gmail.com).
Biodiesel properties which affect engine performance and

emissions are viscosity, bulk modulus, heating value, and
ignition quality. In turn, those properties of biodiesel are
strongly dependent on the oil fatty acid composition and the
properties of the individual fatty esters in biodiesel. It was
shown that cetane number, heating value and viscosity of neat
fatty compounds increase with increasing chain length and
decrease with increasing unsaturation [5]. Biodiesels with
high degree of unsaturation have lower cetane number and
show increased NOx emissions as compared to that of diesel
oil [6]. Biodiesel oxidation stability is also important because
esters oxidation changes fuel ignition quality and heating
value [7]. Higher bulk modulus and viscosity of biodiesel
changes fuel injection characteristics, namely injection
pressure and start of injection [8]. All those factors must be
taken into account when selecting oil for biodiesel production.
The goal of the present research was the experimental
investigation of combustion and emission characteristics of PP
methyl esters in order to decide on suitability of P as a diesel
fuel (further D) substitute. The main focus was made on
engine efficiency and NOx emissions.
II. EXPERIMENTAL
A. Fuels
Pongamia Pinnata seeds were collected from the trees
growing on GIK Institute campus and oil was extracted in the
local mill. Fatty acid composition of Pongamia oil obtained by
the chromatographic analysis is given in Table 1.
Pongamia oil of Table 1 has a gravimetric composition
0.77C, 0.12H and 0.11O and molecular weight of 287.42
kg/kmol.
Biodiesel was prepared from Pongamia oil by
transesterification with methanol. The diesel fuel used in this
TABLE I
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF PONGAMIA PINNATA OIL
Mass
Fatty Acid
Structure
Molar Mass, kmol/kg
Fraction, %
Palmitic
Stearic
Oleic
Linoleic
Arachidic
Eicosenoic
Behenic
Lignoceric
C 16:0
C 18:0
C 18:1
C 18:2
C 20:0
C 20:1
C 22:0
C 24:0
256.42
284.48
282.46
280.45
312.53
310.51
340.58
368.63
6.5
1.2
46.2
18.5
2.51
12.1
6.5
1.6
333
experiment was obtained from local fuel station. Properties of

biodiesel and diesel fuel are provided in Table 2.
TABLE II
PROPERTIES OF DIESEL FUEL AND PONGAMIA PINNATA METHYL ESTERS
Pongamia
Diesel
Tests
Method
Esters
Fuel
Density @ 15C kg/m3
Viscosity @40C, cSt
Sulphur, wt %
Flash point, C (PMCC)
Total acid No., mg KOH/gm
Cloud point, C
Pour Point, C
Lower heating value, MJ/kg
Free glycerine, wt %
Total glycerine, wt %
ASTM D1298
ASTM D445
ASTM D4294
ASTM D93
ASTM D664
ASTM D2500
ASTM D97
ASTM D240
ASTM D128
ASTM D128
831.9
3.348
0.45
65.0
NA*
NA
-6
42.41
NA
NA
893.7
5.14
Nil
138.0
0.23
+15
NA
37.74
0.08
0.17
*Not available
B. Experimental Setup
Neat biodiesel and diesel fuel were tested in a singlecylinder, four-stroke, naturally aspirated, direct-injection
diesel engine. Engine specification is given in Table 3.
TABLE III
ENGINE SPECIFICATION
Working cycle
Method of cooling
Rated power, kW
Rated speed, rpm
Maximum torque, Nm
Minimum stable idling, rpm
Combustion system
Bore/stroke, mm
Engine displacement, l
Compression ratio
Injection timing (static), BTDC
Fuel injector setting, bar
Four-stroke
Air-cooled
5.0
3600
15.6 at 2650 rpm
1000
Direct injection
76.20/66.67
0.304
18.5
24
200
Engine was loaded by a swinging field dc machine. Engine

load at a fixed throttle was adjusted automatically by the
speed control unit to maintain the preset engine speed. Engine
load at constant speed could be altered by changing throttle
position. Engine was tested at speeds (N) of 2800 rpm and
3600 rpm over range of load. The measurements of air and
fuel flow rates, temperatures, exhaust gas composition and
exhaust opacity were made simultaneously.
NOx, carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC)
as Hexane, carbon dioxide (CO2), and oxygen (O2)
concentrations were measured dry by AVL DiCom 4000 NOx
gas analyzer with resolution of 1 ppm for NOx and HC, 0.01%
for CO and O2, and 0.1% for CO2. Gas analyzer was
calibrated with certified calibrating gas mixtures. Exhaust
opacity was measured by AVL smokemeter.
For changing fuel engine was stopped, overall fuel system
was first drained and then primed with another fuel. No fuel
filters were used. Such a procedure allowed minimizing the
mixing of the fuels in the leak-off and return pipes.
Cylinder pressure was measured by AVL quartz pressure
transducer 8QPOOc along with AVL piezo amplifier 4P3H.
Fuel line pressure data was obtained by the strain gauge
pressure transducer and charge amplifier made by Cussons

Technology Ltd. Both transducer-amplifier combinations were
statically calibrated using dead weight pressure tester.
Pressure measurement data were recorded by AVL IndiModul
621 indicating system used along with high resolution (0.1
cad) AVL angle encoder 365CC. Pressure data were
processed by IndiCom software. Apparent net heat release rate
was calculated by the equation
dQn dV 1 dP
=
+
p
V
d 1 d 1 d
where p is the cylinder pressure, V is the cylinder volume,
is the crank angle, is the specific heat ratio, and Qn is
the apparent net heat release the combustion energy release
less heat lost to the walls.
Start of injection was estimated from measured fuel line
pressure and injector opening pressure. Four tests were made
for each fuel at each operating point and mean values were
used for analysis.
In discussion, terminology and definitions from J. Heywood
book [9] have been adopted. For readers who are new in the
field definition and details of engine efficiency an specific
fuel consumption are given in appendix.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Engine performance and emissions characteristics at the
engine speed of 3600 rpm over range of load are given in
Fig.1 and Fig.2 correspondingly.
Fig. 1. Engine performance characteristics; N = 3600 rpm.
As seen from Fig.1, engine with P showed higher brake

specific fuel consumption and reduced brake efficiency (bsfc)
at all loads. At rated power bsfc was higher by about 15% and
334
brake efficiency lower by 7% as compared to those with D.
pressure (bmep) and speed of 3600 rpm. Fig. 4 illustrates

effect of load on combustion characteristics for both fuels at
rated speed.
Fig. 2. Engine emissions characteristics; N = 3600 rpm.
Emissions of engine running on P were improved except of

CO emissions; slight increase in latter was observed at high
power (Fig.2). Reduction in exhaust opacity was moderate.
The same trends were observed at engine speed of 2800 rpm.
Fig.3 shows indicator diagram, rate of heat release and fuel
Fig. 4. Combustion characteristics; N = 3600 rpm.
As seen from Fig.3 use of P resulted in advance in fuel

injection, earlier start of combustion, reduced heat release rate
and peak pressure. Brake specific fuel consumption of the
engine running on P was increased due to the lesser heating
value of P and lower brake efficiency. With negligible effect
of fuel on mechanical efficiency (Fig.1) the change in f ,b is
due to the change in an indicated fuel conversion efficiency
( f ,i ). In turn, indicated efficiency is the product of thermal
Fig. 3. Indicator diagram, rate of heat release and fuel line pressure;
bmep = 5.3 bar, N = 3600 rpm.
line pressure for both fuels at 5.
3 bar of brake mean effective
(first law) and combustion efficiencies. Thermal efficiency at

a given heat supplied to the engine cycle is a function of the
shape of the indicator diagram. The shape of pressure curve
and its position with respect to TDC is the function of the rate
of heat release.
Emissions data of Fig.2 suggest at least non-decreased
combustion efficiency; therefore the change in brake
efficiency is solely due to change in the rate of heat release.
Lower rate of heat release and larger P delivery per cycle
required to compensate for lesser heating value of P (to
maintain the same power output as with D) resulted in longer
burn duration (Fig.4) and higher exhaust temperature (Fig.1).
It was inferred from data of Fig.3 that higher bulk modulus
of P resulted in earlier by 0.7 crank angle degree (c.a.d.) start
of fuel injection. That advance in fuel injection would extend
ignition delay period, hence raise premixed-burn fraction and
NOx emissions. On the other hand, ignition delay period with
P was shortened by about 2.4 c.a.d. as compared to that of D.
Shorter ignition delay would result in less premixed-burn
335
fraction and NOx emissions. For given engine latter factor

dominated and the net result was the earlier by 3.1 c.a.d start
of combustion of P, lower by 30% maximum rate of heat
release and reduced by 7% NOx emissions. Reduced CO, HC
and smoke emission are attributed to oxygen content in
biodiesel molecules.
Engine load affect all combustion characteristics except of
maximum pressure rise (Fig.4). As load increases combustion
starts earlier, combustion duration and peak pressure
increases. The rate at which combustion characteristics change
with load is the same for both fuels.
Engine was disassembled after testing and inspected for
deposits. No significant deposits were observed except of
some around injector nozzle orifices. Those deposits were
attributed to the polymerization properties of biodiesel. To
ovoid deposits and minimize negative effect of biodiesel on
fuel consumption biodiesel/diesel oil blends should be used
rather than neat biodiesel.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Neat Pongamia Pinnata methyl esters were tested in direct
injection diesel engine and results were compared to those
with diesel oil. Engine running on P showed increased fuel
consumption and improved exhaust emissions except of CO at
higher loads.
Increase in fuel consumption was explained by the lower
heating value of Pongamia biodiesel and decreased brake
efficiency. Decrease in f ,b was attributed solely to the
change in an indicated efficiency caused by earlier start of
combustion and decreased rate of heat release of biodiesel.
NOx emissions were reduced due to better ignition quality
of P and resulting shortened ignition delay period.
To prevent deposits on injector nozzle and minimize
increase in fuel consumption blends of P with D should be
used rather than neat biodiesel. Pongamia Pinnata oil can be
effectively used as the source of biodiesel production in
Pakistan.
APPENDIX
Specific fuel consumption is defined as a ratio of fuel mass
f , to the power developed, P :
flow rate, m
sfc =
m f
P
Fuel conversion efficiency serves as a measure of how

effectively fuel chemical energy is converted into power and
is defined as a ratio of power developed to the rate of fuels
chemical energy supply
P
f =
m f QLHV
where
Alternatively, fuel conversion efficiency can be defined

through combustion efficiency c and thermal efficiency t
f = ct
Combustion efficiency
is the fraction of the fuel chemical
energy supplied which is released in the combustion process.

Thermal (first law) efficiency t is the ratio of actual work
per cycle to the amount of fuel energy released in the
combustion process.
Fuel conversion efficiency is inversely proportional to the
specific fuel consumption
f =
1
sfc QLHV
Brake and indicated fuel conversion efficiencies are related

through the mechanical efficiency
f ,b
= f ,im
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and
Technology and East Ukrainian National University are
acknowledged for the provision of laboratory facilities and
encouragement. Authors thank Mr. Ameer Ali (Pakistan State
Oil Co. Ltd) for the help in biodiesel properties determination.
Special thank to Mr. Sher Afzal for his help in experimental
work.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
P. Mahanta, S. C. Mishra, and Y. S. Kushwah, An experimental study

of Pongamia pinnata L. oil as a diesel substitute, Proc. Instn Mech.
Engrs, Part A: J. Power and energy, 220(A7), pp. 803808, 2006.
P. K. Srivastava, and M. Verma, Methyl ester of karanja oil as an
alternative renewable source energy, Fuel, vol. 87, pp. 16731677,
2008.
N. R. Banapurmatha, P. G. Tewaria, and R. S Hosmath, Performance
and emission characteristics of a DI compression ignition engine
operated on Honge, Jatropha and sesame oil methyl esters, Renewable
Energy, vol. 33, p.p. 19821988, 2008.
K. Sureshkumara, R. Velrajb, and R. Ganesan, Performance and
exhaust emission characteristics of a CI engine fueled with Pongamia
pinnata methyl ester (PPME) and its blends with diesel, Renewable
Energy, vol. 33, p.p. 22942302, 2008.
G Knothe, Dependence of biodiesel fuel properties on the structure of
fatty acid alkyl esters, Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 86, p.p. 10591070, 2005.
M.S. Graboski, R.L. McCormick, T.L. Alleman, and A.M. Herring, The
Effect of Biodiesel Composition on Engine Emissions from a DDC
Series 60 Diesel Engine, Final Report, NREL/SR-510-31461, 2003.
K. Yamane, K. Kawasaki, K. Sone, T. Hara, and T. Prakoso, Oxidation
stability of biodiesel and its effects on diesel combustion and emission
characteristics, Int. J. Engine Res., vol. 8, p.p. 307-319, 2007.
M. G. Bannikov, S. I. Tyrlovoy, I. P. Vasilev, and J. A. Chattha,
Investigation of the characteristics of the fuel injection pump of a diesel
engine fuelled with viscous vegetable oildiesel oil blends, Proc. Instn
Mech. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, vol. 220, 787-792,
2006.
J. B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals. McGrawHill, 1988.
QLHV is the lower heating value of the fuel.

336

Major Prospects of Micro-Grids in Modern Power

Systems
Muhammad Qamar Raza,Abdul Rashid, S. Muhammad Ali
COMSATS Institute of Information & Technology
Abbottabad, Pakistan
Qamar_raza786@yahoo.com
Abstract
The paper under study presents the concept of major prospects of
non-autonomous micro grids installed in a certain locality. This paper
is divided into three main phases .Phase one shows the basic
background that is required for the installment of micro grid in a
particular area. This section discusses the primary factors or prerequisites that are required for the existence and operation of micro
grids. Phase two elaborates the major profitable applications and
benefits that developing and developed states get by using micro
grids in an area where utility grid is already functioning .Final phase
explains the basic improvement in the quality of supply from micro
grid after its intallment.It also throws light on afterwards impact on
society with this system, such impacts include reliability,tariff rates,
economics etc.
Keywords: Distributed Generation (DG), Micro-Grids (MG),
Renewable Energy Resources (RER), Micro-Grid Central
Controller (MGCC), Local Controller (LC).
I.
and
Muhammad Usman Haider

University of Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammadusmanhaider@rocketmail.com
electrical utility .These DG sets are installed with electrical

utility to provide strength [3-4] to power plant by supporting its
voltage level or by supporting power for reducing the peak
demand during certain times. Stand-by power generating units
with present electrical infrastructure can be used for microgrids. MG can prove to be one of the best choice for installing
it in a certain locality, provided that it costs low and also in
provides a certain acceptable level of reliability [5] for a
fighting with present electrical utilities in modern age. The
trends of MG are enormously rising as they share some basic
load from utility. This basic trend is growing especially
growing in developing counties where RER are sufficient to
generate the demands of people alone as well as by sharing
with utility. The basic and the foremost specialty of MGs is
that they can operate in Islanding mode [6] thus provides safety
against troubling effects of faults.
INTRODUCTION
Every equipment either residential or industrial runs through

electrical power .As technologies advances; the need of power
is increasing drastically. Centralized power systems for
generation thus produces fluctuations at load side as demand is
not being fulfilled properly and this basic need is increasing
rapidly ,thus utilities feel a great pressure on them for
increasing generation[1] and transmission lines. Consumers are
not satisfied fully by the present scenario of available power
especially in developing countries. So, Distributed Generation
is one the basic means of generating power for a certain
locality, which is environmental friendly as it minimizes the
emissions of hazardous gases .MG consists of power
generators capable of power generation rang from several KW
to few MW using Renewable Energy Resources such as solar,
wind, biomass etc and can run on fossil fuels such as coal, gas,
oil etc. Operation of Micro Grids can be performed in two
basic modes. One form of operation is in autonomous mode
and other form of operation is in non- autonomous mode as
shown in figures 1 and figure 2. Autonomous operation [2] is
that the MG is operating alone or in other words it is decoupled
from electrical utility. Second form of operation is in nonautonomous mode in which MG acts as a stand by system with
Figure 1: Centralized Power System
337
types of intelligent load shedding [9-12] scheme have been

discussed in literature for power management.
In [13] describe the decentralized software control approach
with intelligent agents the on FIPA software where the local
controllers compute one other to optimize MGCC operation of
MG.
This report stresses on non-autonomous mode of micro grids
with direct connection with electrical utility. Figure 4 shows
the aritechture of micro grid with direct connection with utility
through point of common connection.
Figure 2: Distributed Power System
The decentralized generation [7] of electricity infrastructure

near to load using Distributed generation.
In decentralized approach DG source controller [8] is mainly
responsible for power management. DG source controller is
called Local controller and micro-grid central controller is
connected with Local controller for power management from
main utility.
In the figure 3 intelligent TCP/IP controller network figure
electrical utility is connected through micro-grid central
controller and local controller.
Figure 3: TCP/IP Controller Network

In peak hour of demand intelligent local controller which is
connected by TCP/IP networking cable send request to microgrid central controller through TCP/IP communication
protocol. In figure 3 TCP/IP controller network Intelligent
MGCC check the available power from Utility that can supply
to load through local controller and Local controller control the
power supply to load. If power required to load is available
power that can be supply to load then MGCC send a signal to
local controller and starts sending power to load through LC. If
more power required then local controller send request to other
local controller to send the power. In case of power
requirement is not fulfill then intelligent local controller
perform intelligent load Shedding.
The ultimate objective to provide the smooth and reliable
power supply to load in different circumstances. Different
Figure 4: Non-autonomous MG architecture
II.
PHASE-1:TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Following are the important pre-requsites required for the

existence of micro grids in a certain area:
a)
For running MG on fossil fuels such as natural gas,

coal etc it is very vital that any of these resources
must be present in excessive amount in that particular
area where MG is to be installed. Once MG starts
functioning it requires fuel from time to time for
generation. So, for any region complete feasibility of
resources in particular area must be done.
Calculations must be done for how much time
resources can last? And after that time what strategy
either economic or uneconomic is adopted or in other
338
sense, either it will be feasible to run MG after that

period or not?
b) Do the climatic as well as geographic conditions agree
for the installment of MG? For example for an area
which is mostly gathered by clouds so, Photo Voltaic
MG alone installment is a big question. For an area,
where rain occurs most of the time in a day and
throughout the year, so, wind operated MG is out of
question.MG is very feasible in urban areas and its
near by surroundings where all facilities e.g,
transportation etc are available .But for rural areas,
MG is still a big issue.
c) When in any particular area, load is increasing
tremendously with only present old dated generation
system available there, due to which there exists a
remarkable difference between generation and supply,
so, non-automous MG is a best solution. As a result,
due to lack of facilities and unawareness, crews of
that electrical grid have only one solution to that
particular problem and that unacceptable solution is
load shedding. This is because present generation
system of the grid is unable to meet the increasing
demands of the people.MG in that area could share
some effective load from grid thus improving power
quality of supply.
d) For a region where blackouts or load shedding is
unacceptable in any case even for few minutes such as
emergency hospitals, operation theater, university
research labs etc so , MG connection with utility will
be most suitable case .
e) Reliability and economics are the big issues
associated with utility. Also power quality is another
important issue with grids. When demands are
increasing and suppliers are not getting much from
consumers so result will be a massive tariff rate.
Sensitive electronic instruments efficiency greatly rely
on power quality of supply. Present UPS setup
produce fluctuations to load as well as it has low
electric density as compared to grid power because
there are enough losses during conversion process of
energy.
f) The most important issue especially for developing
state is that due to increased demand and time to time
load shedding people have owned their minigenerators diesel sets for shops and homes. They are
facing problems like power. The cost on its operation ,
fuel, maintenance etc becomes a big problem for local
people .People in an underdeveloped state does not
know how to earn a great profit form this mini set by
exporting power from this set to utility as well as to
the market. For this, it requires a control infrastructure
of Non-Autonomous MG for distribution. If this trend
is developed in the minds of the people than their
willingness will be more towards this profitable
business. Due to lack of infra structure, the practical
implementation of this system is still a big question.
Also, developed states cannot bear interruptions in
supply and power converted from batteries in acute

emergency cases has low electric density as compared
MG operating on fossil fuels.maintenance, operation,
economics etc.People use these small sets only for
acute emergency cases in the times of load shedding
otherwise their demand is fulfilled partially by grid.
However The major issues for DG operation is
control, protection, stability and power quality of the
supply.[14-15]
III.
PHASE -2 PROFITABLE BENEFITS AND APPLICATIONS:
1) The most promising feature of MG is the

establishment of business industry that can worth
millions and billions of dollars for providing back up
power and support to masses. With well equipped
setup it is capable of exporting the power to utility and
to some required residential areas as well as to some
private sector. Thus, it provokes thirsty businessmen
to invest money in this sector and can earn healthy
profit. For example in a certain community of 10-15
houses there exists a MG setup and each owner of the
house has to buy a membership of MG for back up
power. So, in case of failure of delivery from utility
MG provides its members quality power for certain
time. Each member has to pay to MG owner who
gains profit through exporting power to residential
sector and to utility in times of need.
2) By the implementation of MG, the cost /KWhr of
used power from MG is reduced to a suitable value as
compared to market value of electricity produced by
central power plant. The costs involving installation,
maintenance, operational etc are much reduced as
compare to large utility setup including large units,
long transmission lines and increase losses due to
corona; hurricanes etc.This mini setup is close to
loads so losses are much reduced in this case.
3) The concept of MG minimizes a lot of risks to
electrical utilities. These risks include fault occurring
in central plant, in transmission lines, in MG.Thus, it
adds a security feature to utility while operating in
non-autonomous mode as it is capable of operating in
an islanded mode. During heavy loading conditions
MG can be subjected to intentional or emergency
islanding. Other types of risks include load
forecasting, prices of the fuel regularity issues etc.MG
smaller units requires less project capital and lead
time compared to large and heavy utility units.
4) By utilizing renewable energy resources (RER) such
as solar, wind etc in MG topology results in
environmental friendly atmosphere protecting ozone
layer. By using these sources one (developing or
developed state) is totally free from importing fossil
fuels for production. Thus, a state can store and
reserve its primary energy resources for times of acute
339
emergency. This concept can save a lot of money

being spent on importing fuels from other states.
5) Through the implementation of this system
unemployment is considerably reduced in a particular
area of the state as MG introduces job opportunities
for the unemployed people.
6) For using MG in cogeneration mode, the waste heat
produced can be used for heating, cooling in chemical
industries and hospitals. With MG if small units
become faulty can be easily resold and displaced from
one place to another as compared to large central
power plant.
7) MG provides supporting and control services to utility
such as:
i)
By the injection / absorption of reactive
power for controlling voltage of grid.
ii)
Can act as spinning reserve.
iii)
Can provide network stability.
iv)
Avoid system blackouts.
v)
By the control of regulation etc.
IV.
customer and Utility perception causes of power

quality.
PHASE-3 POWER QUALITY OF MICRO GRIDS:
In power systems, a term power quality is a

quality of service issued for customer and electric
power service providers. This term basically covers a
variety of transient electromagnetic phenomenon [16].
The issues of power quality are pronounced in modern
power systems especially in distributed generation, its
importance is very vital. Several problems may occur
in power systems such as blackouts, outages, surges
etc.These basic problems occur due to power
imbalance and increased demand than supply. So,
large variations and fluctuations in supply are
encountered in large power systems. Power quality
issues also includes current distortion, power factor,
harmonics and triple harmonics, transients,
ferroresonance, dropouts, sags, flicker, swell, reverse
recovery voltages, islanding etc.All above issues if not
handled properly may lead to poor service quality of
supply. The useful life of power system equipment is
going towards decline due to poor service quality
provided by service managers. [17]
In real power quality problems is normally
related to hardware, software or control system
malfunction of power system. In system due to
repeated Transient voltages the Performance of
equipments can be degrade over the period of time. A
survey conducted results on the causes of power
quality problems by Georgia power co. given below.
The power quality can have direct economic Impact
on many industrial users. Power quality also
important issue because meeting the consumer
expectation and increase customer confidence by
increasing power quality. Figure 5 and figure 6 survey
results [18] conducted by Georgia Power Co. of
Figure5: Survey results (Conducted by Georgia power co.)
Figure6: Survey results (Conducted by Georgia power co.)
The concept of non-autonomous MG

introduced here eliminates some of major power
quality issues such as blackouts, ferroresonance,
Increased surges etc. Since MG is the form of DG in
power systems capable of handling load according to
its rating and supply. It maintains power, voltage and
frequency balance with utility interconnected. The
quality of supply is judged at consumer end and
proper maintainence of supply for different type of
consumers.MG eliminates and defers interruptions in
supply by sharing load from utility, acting as a backup
or a standby system. Different MGs in cases of acute
340
emergencies are capable of operating in islanding

mode in interconnected power systems. Each island
maintains its continuous supply to each connected
consumer end and when risks are removed again
linked to central power system or utility. In intentional
islanding mode the system of islanding has been
planned in advance and all the equipments have been
designed to cope with the situation. During hurricane
or weather disturbances MG isolates itself from the
utility supply .Thus by doing this it avoids the risks of
disturbances due to lighting strokes either direct or
indirect and other faults affecting the on going
supply.Forexample, in hospitals when open-heart
surgery is taking place interruptions in any case is
highly unacceptable.In unitensional mode,power
system is heavily loaded which can result in large
fuctuations of voltage and frequency resulting in the
malfunctioning of consumer equipments.MG is thus
subjected to unintensional islanding to avoid all this
and maintains quality supply to its connected loads.
Micro-grid can increase efficient service
quality by providing power generation redundancy
whenever needed.In cases of exteme demand and
loading conditions it enhances security of upstream
networks against faults and risks by operating in
emergency islanding mode.MGs as LV networks
provides quality and reliable power in contrast to
hevay loaded HV networks[19]. In power systems,
power quality disaster level can be expressed as
overall losses caused by power quality events.Power
quality disaster level can be expressed as,
E = nk cFk EFk + cLk ELk
decentralized systems especially in DG.As MG has

fewer number of connected loads and this system is
interconnected with utility so mico grid central
controller avoids such dangerous consequences by
immediate action of islanding .So, power quality is
improved as well as disaster level is minimized.
CONCLUSION:
Micro-grid technology is playing a more numerous
and important role in the world's energy demand.
Micro-grid safe operation increase chances for fulfill
the supply and demand of the consumer. Automated
load management technique implemented by
intelligent controller (neural implementation of
controller) network provides opportunity to overcome
energy imbalance. The idea of non-autonomous MG
presented here can benefit utility,society and local
people of a certain locality.By implementing this
system losses are reduced,quality of power is
improved much better ,tariff rates are reduced that can
benefit poor people and avoids interruptiond in supply
that can benefit critical places such as hospitals.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
(1)
[5]
Where subscript k power quality event type;
E , Overall losses of all the power quality

disasters during monitoring period;
n , number of power quality events;
[6]
[7]
E Fk , average direct loss of power quality

events;
[8]
cFk , correction coeffiecent of average direct

[9]
loss;
E Lk , average latent loss fof power quality

events;
cLk , correction coefficient of average latent

loss;
[10]
[11]
Fkj
E Fk =
nk
Lkj
E Lk =
k
,
Power quality disaster level if increased may
result in a high loss to utility or facility managers.The
chances of power transmission collapse is less in
[12]
[13]
B. Renders, L. Degroote, J. Driesen and L. Vandevelde, Profits Of

Power-Quality Improvement By Residential Distributed Generation,
Research Programme of the Research Foundation - Flanders (FWO),
UPEC 2007, pp. 377-381.
J. F.G. Cobben, W.L. Kling and J. M.A. Myrzik Power Quality aspects
of a future micro grid, pp 1-5.
P. A. Daly and J. Morrison Understanding the potential benefits of
distributed generation on power delivery systems, Rural Electric Power
Conference. 29 April-1 May 2001, pp. 211-213.
V. H. M. Quezada, J. R. Abbad, and T. G.S. Roman, Assessment of
energy distribution losses for increasing penetration of distributed
generation. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Volume 21, Issue 2,
May 2006, pp. 533-540.
Paulo Moiss Costa, Manuel A. Matos, Reliability of distributed
networks with micro grids, pp. 1-7.
Nikos Hatziargyriou MICROGRIDS-Large scale integration of Micro
Generation to low voltage Grids
M. W. Davis, Distributed resource electric power systems offer
significant advantages over central station generation and T&D power
systems, part I, in IEEE T&D Conference and Exposition, Atlanta,
Georgia Oct./Nov. 2001, pp. 5461
N Hatziargyriou, A.Dimeas, A.Tsikalakis Hierarchical and distributed
control strategies for Micro-grids, Int J. of Distributed Energy
Sources,Vol1 , No3 ,2005
A. Maiorano, R. Sbrizzai, F. Torelli, and M. Trovato, Intelligent load
shedding schemes for industrial customers with cogeneration facilities,
Power Engineering Society 1999 Winter Meeting, Volume: 2,31 IEEE,
Jan4 Feb 1999; Page(s): 925 -930.
D. Novosel, R.L. King, Using artificial neural networks for load
shedding to alleviaie overloaded lines, IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Volume: 9 Issue: 1, Jan. 1994; Page(s): 425 -433.
L.J. Shih, W.J. Lee, J.C. Gu, Y.H. Moon, Application of df/dt in
power system protection and its implementation in microcontroller
based intelligent load shedding relay, Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems Technical Conference, 1991.Conference Record. Papers
presented at the 1991 Annual Meeting, 6-9 May 1991; Page(s): 11-17.
W.3. Lee, J.C.Gu,A microcomputer-based intelligent load shedding
relay, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume: 4 Issue: 4,
Oct. 1989; Page@): 2018 -2024.
R. Lasseter, A. Akhil, C. Marnay, J. Stephens, J. Dagle, R. Guttromson,
A. Meliopoulos, R. Yinger and J. Eto, White Paper on Integration of
341
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
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Distributed Energy Resources. The CERTS MicroGrid Concept.

Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS), CA,
Tech. Rep. LBNL-50829, Apr. 2002
D. Trudnowski, A. Gentile, J. Khan, and E. Petritz, Fixed-speed wind
generator and wind-park modeling for transient stability studies, IEEE
Trans. Power System. vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 19111917, Nov. 2004.
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May/June 2002.
[16] J.Arrillaga, M.H.J. Bollen, and N.R.Watson, Power quality
following deregulation, Proc. IEEE, vol. 88, no.2, pp.246-261, Feb,
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power systems, Iran university of Science & Technology (IUST), pp.
893-897.
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Mcgranaghan, Surya Santoo, H Wayne Beaty(Courtesy of Georgia
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102206,pp 233-235
342

Man -Made Greenhouse Gases Trigger Unified Force

to Start Global Warming Impacts Referred to as
Climate Change
Kannan Jegathala Krishnan and Akhtar Kalam
Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science, Victoria University
Melbourne, Australia.
Email: {kannan.jegathalakrishnan@live.vu.edu.au, akhtar.kalam@vu.edu.au}
Abstract: Global warming problems due to man-made

greenhouse gases (GHGs), appear to be a serious
concern and threat to the globe. CO 2, O3, NOX and
HFCs are the main greenhouse gases and CO 2 is one of
the main cause of global warming. CO2 is emitted from
burning fossil fuels to produce electricity from power
plants and burning of gasoline in vehicles and airplanes.
Global greenhouse gases and its sources in regions are
discussed in this paper.
This paper initially discusses the CO2 emissions
and the recycle of CO2 in biodiesel. This paper mainly
focuses on Unified Force. The increase of H 2O in the
sea due to warming of the globe triggers the Unified
Force or Self-Compressive Surrounding Pressure
Force which is proportional to the H2O level in the sea
to start global warming impacts referred to as climate
change.
This paper also points out the climate change
and the ten surprising results of global warming.
Finally, this paper suggests switching from fossil fuel
technology to green energy technologies like biodiesel
which recycles CO2 emissions and also Hydrogen
Energy and Fuel Cell Technologies which eradicates
global warming impacts. The benefits of switching from
fossil fuel to biodiesel and Hydrogen Energy utilization
includes reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and
pollution, economic independence by having distributed
production and burning of biodiesel does not add extra
CO2 to the air that contributes global warming impacts.
Keywords: Global warming, greenhouse gas, CO2,
Unified Force or Self-Compressive Surrounding
Pressure Force, biodiesel.
I. INTRODUCTION
US policy on global warming states that under the
clean air act the greenhouse gases are the air pollutants [1].
The greenhouse effect is explained in Section II, the natural
and the man-made origins of greenhouse gases are
discussed in the section III. In this paper, Section IV is
dealt with global greenhouse data and its sources in
regions.
Since the industrial revolution, CO2 in the
atmosphere lasts more than a century and according to the
predictions of World Meteorological Organisation a steady
rise in CO2 is increased by 35% comparing to the preindustrial times [2]. CO2 and biodiesel are explained in
section V.
The Unified Force or Self-Compressive
Surrounding Pressure Force is proportional to the increase
of H2O level in the sea and is triggered by the increase in
H2O in the sea to start global warming impacts. The global
warming impacts caused by man-made greenhouse gases
are highlighted in Section VI. Section VII discusses the
climate change model and predictions for future change by
the U.K.s official centre for climate centre research. The
ten surprising results of global warming impacts are
explained in Section VIII.
Finally, this paper concludes that global warming
impacts referred to as climate change is caused by both the
increase of H2O in the sea and the Unified Force, in which
the negative impact is created from the Unified Force
when the H2O level increases in the sea and trigger to start
global impacts.
343
III. NATURAL AND MAN-MADE ORIGINS

OF GREENHOUSE GASES
II. GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The natural process that supports life in the earths
atmosphere by retaining solar heat and keeping the earths
temperature warm is termed as greenhouse effect as
shown in Figs. 1a and 1b. The earths surface absorbs the
energy from the sun and radiates some of this energy back
into the atmosphere, by heating up the air [3].
When the radiated heat is sent back they are
trapped by the greenhouse gases and raise the temperature
of the atmosphere and the earths surface. If there is an
increase in the greenhouse gases, then the amount of heat
trapped also increases, causing overall warming of the
planet referred to as global warming[3].
The various impacts of global warming like flood,
ocean current, storm etc. and the environmental results like
forest fire frenzy, rebounding mountains, survival of the
fittest etc. are referred to as climate change.
CO2, O3, NOx, HFCs are the major greenhouse

gases and they come from both natural processes and
human activities as shown in Table 1. The man-made
greenhouse gases triggers Unified Force and cause
disturbance for the balance of the atmosphere [3].
According to Japanese agency, satellites play an
important role in looking out for small warnings and
monitoring global environmental changes. To measure
greenhouse gases Japanese space agency launched a
satellite named Friday. The IBUKI satellite is designed
which helps to reduce CO2 emissions covered by Kyoto
Protocol and global warming which are caused by the
concentration and distribution of greenhouse gas are also
observed by IBUKI satellite [4].
Fig. 1a Greenhouse Effect [3]
Fig. 1b Greenhouse Effect [4]
TABLE 1: NATURAL AND MAN-MADE ORIGINS OF GRENHOUSE GASES [3]
S.NO
Greenhouse
Gas
O3
CO2
Natural Origins
In upper layers of atmosphere O3 Occurs
naturally.
In the atmosphere CO2 Occurs naturally
In animals and plants CO2 Occurs through
respiration.
CH4
NOx
CH4 In Marshes and decomposition of organic

matter.
From soils and oceans NOX Naturally
emitted.
Man-made Origins
From transportation and industries.
Combustion of fossil fuels from power
plants and industries.
Agricultural activities.
Exhaust from motor vehicles and also
agricultural activities.
344
IV. GLOBAL GREENHOUSE GAS DATA AND

ITS SOURCES IN REGIONS
The anthropogenic generated greenhouse gas
emissions accounts for 50% of CO2 emissions and other
50% of greenhouse gases includes CH4, NOx, HFCs and
black carbon.CH4 remains in the atmosphere for 8 years,
black carbon remains in the atmosphere only few weeks
whereas CO2 stays 100 years in the atmosphere. The annual
greenhouse gas emissions by different sectors are from
Industry (16.8%), transportation (14%), power stations
(21.3%), agriculture (12.5%), waste disposal (3.4%), land
use and biomass burning (10%), fossil fuels retrieval,
processing and distribution (11.3%), residential,
commercial and other sources (10.3%) are shown in Fig. 2
[5].
Huge components of greenhouse gases are
generated by man-made activities. The Energy Policy Act
1992 assigned responsibilities for Energy Information
Administration (EIA) and US Department of Energy
Fig. 2 Annual greenhouse gas by sectors [5]
Fig. 4 Global Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions in 2004 [7]
(DOE) to monitor large quantities of greenhouse gases are

generated from the energy production and consumption.
The US energy consumption is broken down into four
categories by EIA namely: industry, transportation,
residential, and commercial as shown in Fig. 3. However,
residential sector account for only 18% of the total
greenhouse gas emissions which is compared to the
emissions of CO2 as shown in Fig. 3 [6]. The total amount
of greenhouse gases emitted to and removed from the
atmosphere also affects the concentration of the
atmospheric greenhouse gases around the globe over the
time [7].
The breakdown of global anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions is shown in Fig. 4 by which
gases like N2O, CH4, and F-gases (HFCs) are measured on
a CO2-equivalent basis [5]. Transportation contribute
enormous quantity of greenhouse gas emissions in our
region. The sources of greenhouse gases by region are
shown in Fig. 5 [3].
Fig. 3 US total greenhouse gases in 2005 [6]
Fig. 5 Sources of Greenhouse gases in Regions [3]
345
V. CO2 AND BIODIESEL

The human-produced greenhouse gases are
Carbon (56%); CH4 (18); CFCs (13%); O3 (7%); NOX
(6%); as shown in Fig. 6 [8]. CO2 molecules allow the
visible light from the sun to pass through the atmosphere;
however, when the surface of the earth is heated up by
visible light, some of the heat is radiated out from the earth
as infrared radiation. And these radiations are absorbed by
CO2 and radiate back towards the earth surface. Hence, for
global warming CO2 is recognized as the biggest culprit as
shown in Fig. 7. CO2 captures the heat coming off from the
earth and acts like a wool cap over the earth, making it
warmer as shown in Fig. 8 [9].
In biodiesel the carbon content is pulled from air
by plants. In order to make sugar, starch, cellulose and oils
plants take CO2 from air and H2O from ground. Then
boisiesel is converted from oil in the seeds. When biodiesel
Fig. 6 Importance of Human-produced Greenhouse Gases [8]
Fig. 8 CO2 acts like a wool cap over the earth [9]
is burned, CO2 released is just the same CO2 that was

pulled from the air. So the carbon is being recycled and
burning of biodiesel does not add extra CO2 to the air that
contributes global warming as shown in Fig. 9 [9].
The natural process of greenhouse gas effect is
disturbed by the man-made greenhouse gases which traps
more heat and cause overall warming of the planet leading
to global warming. The various impacts of global
warming which is referred to as climate change [3] is not
possible to occur just because of the increase of H2O in the
sea. The increase of water level in the sea triggers the
Unified Force or also known as Self-Compressive
Surrounding Pressure Force which is proportional to
the increase of H2O level in the sea to start global
warming impacts. The Unified Force or SelfCompressive Surrounding Pressure Force is discussed in
the next section.
Fig. 7 CO2 recognised as the biggest culprit [9]
Fig. 9 Recycled Carbon [9]
346
VI. UNIFIED FORCE OR SELF-COMPRESSIVE

SURROUNDING PRESURE FORCE
On the space, millions of planets exist and float.
All the planets are move and float in a rhythmic and precise
manner as shown in Fig. 10. The whole universe can be
divided into:
1. Functional part - countless masses of various
volumes are floating by keeping a precise distance from
each other and travelling with their own spinning action.
2. Static part - the countless masses of various
volumes are compressed by the static part referred to as
space [10].
The countless masses which are floating on space
and weight of each planet are of incalculable in tons. For
instance, if we consider Mercury it has a mass of
3.30X1023kg; Mars has a mass of 5.98X1024kg; and Earth
has a mass of 5.98X1024kg [11], Earth and its different
layers of atmosphere [16] is shown in Fig. 11. It is very
clear that in the static part of the universe the space is
supporting the functional part of the whole universe [10].
The earth of mass 5.98X1024kg [9] floats in the
space consist of 70.8% water and remaining 29.2% consist
of continents islands, mountains, deserts, plains and
plateaus [12]. These are floating in space and it is clear that
space is holding everything. From this it is simple to
understand, that the space is having tremendous
Surrounding Pressure Force surrounding all the objects in
space and if the weight of the earth is compared with the
tremendous force of the universe, then the weight of the
Fig. 10 Universe
[11]
earth seems to be negligible. The physical quality of the

space is Self-Compressive, without this quality space
cannot hold the earth exerting force equally 3600 on the
earth. Since the force is surrounding the object earth the
space is generally termed as Self-Compressive Surrounding
Pressure Force or Unified Force [10].
The natural process of greenhouse gas effect is
disturbed by the man-made greenhouse gases which trap
more heat and cause overall warming of the planet leading
to global warming [3]. As a result of continued global
warming H2O level in the sea increases, and can potentially
melt the ice and snow, causing again a rise of H2O level in
sea [13]. The increase of water level in the sea when
compared to the tremendous force of the universe is
negligible.
When H2O level increases in sea it acts as a
negative force (which is negligible) with the tremendous
Self-Compressive Surrounding Pressure Force and
water is pushed back to continents and islands by the
Self-Compressive Surrounding Pressure Force which is
exerting equally 3600 around the earth. The increase of
water level in the sea triggers the Unified Force or
also known as Self-Compressive Surrounding Pressure
Force which is proportional to the increase of H 2O
level in the sea.
Thus the global warming impacts which is
referred to as climate change starts from flood, storm, and
ocean current etc [5]. The climate change model and
predictions of future change [14] and also global warming
impacts [15] are discussed in the next section.
Fig. 11 Earth with different layers of atmosphere [16]
347
VII. CLIMATE CHANGE MODEL AND PREDICTIONS

OF FUTURE CHANGE
The U.K.s official centre for climate centre
research. has classified climate change models which are
referred to as emission reduction models into four different
types as shown in Fig. 12. In business as usual model no
action will be taken and there will be 132% increase in
emissions leading to 5.5-7.10C rise in global temperature
by 2100. The second model is referred as late and slow
decline model and the action start in 2030 and lead to 76%
increase in emissions by 2050 and there will be 4-5.20C
rise in global temperature by 2100. The third model which
is referred to as early but slow decline model and the action
starts at 2010 and the emissions will return to 1990 levels
by 2050 and there will be only 2.9-3.80C rise in
temperature by 2100. The fourth model is referred to as
Fig. 12 Climate Change model [14]
Fig. 14 Sea Level Projections [15]
early and rapid decline model and the action starts in 2010
and will be 47% decrease in emissions and there will be
2.1-2.80C rise in global temperature. Early actions will lead
to fewer impacts from Unified Force or Self-Compressive
Surrounding Pressure Force and global impacts which are
referred to as climate change will be reduced [14].
The 5 different risks as shown in the Fig. 13 and
impacts of global warming are
1. Risks to unique and threatened systems
2. Frequency and servity of extreme climate events
3. Global distribution and balance of impacts
4. Total economic and ecological impact and
5. Risks of irreversible large-scale and abrupt transmissions
The different predictions of global mean temperature and
the predicted change in global mean sea level are shown in
Figs. 14 and 15 [15].
Fig. 13 Risks and Impacts of Global Warming [15]
Fig. 15 Global Warming Projections [15]
348
VIII. TEN SUPRISING RESULTS OF GLOBAL

WARMING
once the capital of Thai Kingdom, is a good example for

Ruined Civilization [17].
Global warming impacts referred to as climate

change has caused various surprising results in the earth.
The top 10 surprising results of global warming are Forest
Fire Frenzy, Ruined civilization, Rebounding Mountains,
Speedier Satellites, Survival of the Fittest, The Big Thaw,
Pulling the Plug, Artic in Bloom, Heading for the Hills,
Aggravated Allergies and some of them are explained in
detail [17].
C. Rebounding Mountains
Since many years the weight of glaciers has been
the earths surface causing depression on the earths
surface. The mountains are rebounded faster because global
warming speeds up the melting of glaciers referred to as
Rebounding Mountains [17].
A. Forest Fire Frenzy

Forest becomes drier and stay for much longer due
to spring arriving early and it triggers the earlier snow-melt
increasing the chances for forest to ignite and this is
referred to as Forest Fire Frenzy [17].
B. Ruined civilization
Extreme weather and the rising seas have the
potential to damage religious centre, ancient settlements
etc. all over the globe and this is referred to as Ruined
Civilization. A 600-year-old site, Sukhothai, which was
D. Speedier
Satellites
Due to large number of CO2 gases (man-made
greenhouse gas) in the upper atmosphere, more cooling
occurs in the upper atmosphere creating less dense and
less drag and slows down satellites, and to boost the
satellites back into the proper orbits engineers are required
which is referred to as Speedier Satellites [17].
E. Pulling the Plug
In the past few decades 125 lakes in the Artic have
disappeared and the ecosystem they support also lost their
home which is referred to as Pulling the Plug [17].
Fig. 16 Ten Suprising results of global warming [17]
349
IX. CONCLUSION
Emissions from man-made greenhouse gases have
steadily increased over the years. The man-made
greenhouse gases especially CO2 are emitted in large
quantities and associated with the greenhouse warming the
earth. The greenhouse gases traps the sunlight, then the
amount of heat trapped also increases, causing overall
warming of the planet referred to as global warming.
This paper points, that the H2O level in sea increased
by the increase of earths temperature triggering the
Unified Force or Self-Compressive Surrounding
Pressure Force to start global warming impacts
referred to as climate change. Enormous and fast
activities has to be taken [18] and the information
provided in this paper suggests switching from fossil fuel
technology to green energy technologies like biodiesel
which recycles CO2 emissions and the Hydrogen Energy
Technologies can eradicate global warming impacts.
http://www.globalwarmingart.com/wiki/Predictions_of_Future_Change_
Gallery
[16] Institute of Computational Earth System Science. [Online] Viewed
2010 October 11. Available: http://www.icess.ucsb.edu/
[17] Top 10 Surprising Results of Global Warming. [Online] Viewed
2010 October 5. Available:
http://www.livescience.com/environment/top10_global_warming_results1.html
[18] Armstrong, J.; Bailly, H.; , "Energy Efficiency: A Strategy For
Delaying Global Warming," Energy Conversion Engineering Conference,
1990. IECEC-90. Proceedings of the 25th Intersociety , vol.4, no., pp.381385, 12-17 Aug 1990
REFERENCES
[1] Saving the Earth. [Online] Viewed 2010 October 8. Available:
http://vlinayo.blogspot.com/2009_05_01_archive.html
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[Online] Viewed 2010 October 9. Available:
http://www2.ucar.edu/climate/faq
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[4] Japan launches satellite to eye greenhouse gases. [Online] Viewed
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[8] Global Warming Facts & Our Future. [Online] Viewed 2010
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http://www.chemistryland.com/CHM107Lab/Exp04_biodiesel/BiodieselL
ab/Exp4Biodiesel.html
[10] Yogiraj Vethathiri Maharishi, Unified Force. 3rd ed. Erode, India:
Vethathiri Publications, 2004
[11] Mass of planets.[Online] Viewed 2010 October 8. Available:
http://www.universetoday.com/34024/mass-of-the-planets/
[12] Earth.[Online} Viewed 2010 October 7. Available:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
[13] Ula, A.H.M.S.; , "Global warming and electric power generation:
What is the connection?," Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on,
vol.6, no.4, pp.599-604, Dec 1991
[14] An introduction to global warming impacts: Hell and High Water.
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[15] Gallery of Climate Change predictions. [Online] Viewed 2010
October 4. Available:
350

Management and Conservation of Electrical Energy in Industrial Units

Rehan Liaqat, Electrical Engg. Deptt. GC University Faisalabad, arehanliaqat@gmail.com
Abdul Rauf Bhatti, Electrical Engg. Deptt. GC University Faisalabad, bhatti.abdulrauf@gmail.com
and
,
H.T.Hassan Electrical Engg. Deptt. UET Lahore, tehzibulhasan@gmail.com
Abstract Proper management of electrical energy system is

very significant due to energy crisis and high energy costs. It can
enhance system efficiency and hence result in significant energy
savings and cost benefits. This paper explores different practices
which can be adopted for proper management and conservation of
electrical energy.
Index Terms electrical energy conservation, variable
frequency drives, electrical energy management, load
management
I. INTRODUCTION
Electricity is usually generated at areas far away from
consumers. This energy reaches the consumers after a lot of
stages shown in Figure 1. The cascade efficiency of all these
stages including driven load is about 50-60% [1]. It means 1
kWh saved at the utilization side is approximately equivalent
to 2 kWh generated by the utility company at the far end.
Conservation can be regarded as virtual generation.
production. Similarly alarming amount of green house gases

makes us think for ways of energy conservation.
Different techniques for energy conservation and cost
reduction are described below.
II. SELECTION OF CHEAP AVAILABLE SOURCE
Whenever a selection decision is to be made among different
alternatives, choose the cheapest reliable source. Always
consider the life cycle costs of different electrical energy
sources while making the decisions. Sometimes people neglect
the running cost by just looking at the low initial cost. An
alternative with the lowest initial cost might be most expensive
one due to its high running cost.
Sometimes different sources are available in industry. For
example an industry contains three sources of electrical
energy. Gas generator is the prime source of energy whereas
diesel generator and electric utility company connection are
standby sources. Each source can supply 1 MW of electrical
power. Standby sources are only used when gas fired
generator is not operative. Rates of electricity from these
sources are given in TABLE I.
TABLE I
Electricity rates from different sources
Source
Unit Rate
(Rs./kWh)
Gas Fired
Generator
Utility Company
Diesel
Generator
5.25
6.24
20
Maximum demand charges of Rs.335/kW/month are also applicable in

utility connection. Moreover there would be minimum charge of
Rs.50,000 per month if consumer does not use any electricity from the
utility connection.
Figure 1. Efficiency of electrical system
Moreover market is highly competitive these days. It is very

difficult to sustain in the market with high energy costs of
Assume that maintenance of the gas generator is due. During

shutdown of gas fired generator, electricity is to be supplied
from one of the sources. If one just considers the unit rate, one
would consider utility connection as the second best option.
But deep analysis shows that it might not be the true story;
because in case of utility connection, maximum demand
charges (MDI charges) or fixed charges of Rs.335/kW/month
would also be involved besides variable charges of
Rs.6.24/kWh. If 1000 kW load is supplied by the utility
connection for 1 hour, 1000 kWh would be consumed. There
351
would be fixed charges of Rs.335, 000 and variable charges of

Rs.6,240 comprising total charges of Rs. 341,240 as shown in
TABLE II. If further electricity is consumed from this
connection, only variable charges would be charged. Amount
of fixed charges depends upon the maximum demand
irrespective of the utilization time from connection.
TABLE II
Cost of electricity ( CU) from utility connection
Load=1000 kW
No. of
Hours
1
10
20
21
24
25
kWh
Variable Charges
(Rs.)
Fixed Charges
(Rs.)
CU
(Rs.)
1,000
10,000
20,000
21,000
24,000
25,000
6,240
62,400
124,800
131,040
149,760
156,000
335,000
335,000
335,000
335,000
335,000
335,000
341,240
397,400
459,800
466,040
484,760
491,000
In case of diesel generator, no MDI charges are involved.

Therefore it might be more feasible than utility connection for
a certain period of time. TABLE III shows the comparison
between charges of diesel generator (CD) and utility
connection.
TABLE IV
Feasibility analysis of standby sources with respect to time
No. of
Hours
CU - CD
(Rs.)
Minimum Utility Bill
Cost Difference
1
10
20
21
24
25
321,240
197,400
59,800
46,040
4,760
-9,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
271,240
147,400
9,800
-3,960
-45,240
-59,000
III. LOAD MANAGEMENT

Consumers using the electric utility connection as a prime
source can save money by proper load management. Utility
company charges maximum demand charges or fixed charges
on the basis of MDI. MDI is the maximum of the demand
obtained over a successive period of time; say 30 minutes,
during a month. To reduce fix charges in the utility bill
manage the load in such a way that load curve is as flat as
possible as shown in Figure 2.
TABLE III
Cost Comparison of diesel generator and utility connection
Load=1000 kW
No. of
Hours
kWh
CD
(Rs.)
CU
(Rs.)
CU - CD
(Rs.)
1
10
20
21
24
25
1,000
10,000
20,000
21,000
24,000
25,000
20,000
200,000
400,000
420,000
480,000
500,000
341,240
397,400
459,800
466,040
484,760
491,000
321,240
197,400
59,800
46,040
4,760
-9,000
Table III indicates that diesel generator is more feasible than

utility connection up to 24 hours. But one point is still to be
addressed. If consumer does not use any electricity from utility
connection even then he/she is bound to pay a minimum
charge of Rs.50, 000. If this amount is also considered, it can
be seen that diesel generator is more feasible than utility
supply if duration of gas generator maintenance is about 20
hours. But if duration of shutdown is more than 20.7 hours,
use of utility connection is more feasible during the shutdown
period. This value of time can be found by the equation
formulated below.
Figure 2. Load curve
For example, an industry consumes 450,000 kWh during a

month with 900 kW MDI. The kWh consumed during the
whole month indicates that the average load of the industry is
625 kW. And industry is paying 44% more charges due to
high MDI. By proper scheduling of machines and production
management, industry should try to maintain a uniform load
near 625 kW in order to reduce the MDI charges in the utility
bill. Cost comparison is given in Table IV by assuming
Rs.335/kW/month as MDI charges rate.
TABLE V
Reduction in MDI charges due to load management
kWh
MDI
MDI Charges
Unmanaged
450,000
900
301,500
Managed
450,000
625
209,375
MDI can also be controlled by applying MDI controllers.

These controllers continuously monitor the status of running
load. If load increases beyond a desired value preset by the
consumer, a buzzer is sound for some time. If the consumer
does not take any action, this controller automatically
352
disconnects some loads in a sequenced manner preset set by

the consumer and load is reduced [1]. This sequence can also
be changed by the consumer according to requirement. In this
way one can force the load below a certain value and can cut
down the MDI charges.
IV. POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Due to inductive loads such as induction motors, power factor
becomes low. Due to low power factor, more current is drawn
from the system. Therefore line losses are increased, voltage
level at the load end is decreased. kVA loading on the
transformers and generators is increased and hence system
capacity is not fully utilized. Efficiency of the generators is
also lowered at low power factor. Low power factor penalty
charges are charged in the utility bill if power factor falls
below a particular value usually 0.9. Automatic power factor
relays can be employed for automatic switching of power
factor improvement capacitors. Maximum benefit of the power
factor improvement is obtained if improved at the load. Local
power factor improvement should be done at feeders and large
induction motors to get more benefits.
V. MAINTAIN VOLTAGE LEVELS

Voltage drops and phase imbalance should be avoided in a
well managed system. A 10% reduction in motor terminal
voltage from the rated can reduce its full load efficiency by
2% [2].Possible steps for maintaining proper voltages are
proper settings of transformer taps, elimination of loose
connections, proper sizing of cables, power factor
improvement etc.
Voltage imbalance has two impacts. It reduces motor
efficiency and cause de-rating of motor. A voltage imbalance
of 5% can increase the motor losses by 5% and reduce its
rating by 25% [3]. Loose contact of some phase, unevenly
distributed single phase loads, unbalanced three phase loads
and faulty power factor equipment are the probable causes of
voltage imbalance [2]. For a well maintained electrical system,
voltage variations should be less than 5% and voltage
imbalance should be less than 1% [1].
VI. ENERGY EFFICIENT ELECTRIC MOTORS

Electric motors are the major consumer of electrical energy.
About 70% of the total electrical energy consumption in
industrial units is due to electric motors. If life cycle cost of an
electric motor is considered, it is revealed that its initial cost is
about 1% and the energy cost is near 90%. Remaining costs
include down time and maintenance costs. It means saving in
initial cost will not save in the long run. One should try to save
in energy costs. For that purpose energy efficient motors
should be preferred. These motor are more 2-6% more
efficient than standard motors due to improved materials and
manufacturing techniques [2]. Very old motor and motors

rewound many times should be replaced with energy efficient
electric motors.
VII. PROPER SIZING OF MOTORS

Motors operate with maximum efficiency near 75% loading. If
loading of a motor (especially for fractional hp) falls below
40%, its efficiency is drastically affected. Therefore proper
loading of motors should be ensured. Motor which
consistently operate at loads below 40 % of rated capacity, a
cost effective measure might be to operate in star mode by reconfiguring the wiring of the three phases of power input at
the terminal box. Operating in the star mode leads to a voltage
reduction by a factor of '3'and motor is electrically
downsized. Now full-load operation in star mode gives higher
efficiency and power factor than partial load operation in the
delta mode [1].
VIII. USE OF VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES

Variable frequency drives can be to conserve electrical
energy. These are more efficient than conventional methods of
control [4]. Major advantages of variable frequency drives are
given below.
1. These provide soft start hence avoiding the voltage
dips and reducing the maintenance cost by avoiding
sudden jerks in mechanical parts.
2. These provide better process control and hence
improve product quality
3. These can be utilized for energy conservation
especially in case of variable torque loads such as
centrifugal pumps, centrifugal fans, centrifugal
blowers, centrifugal compressors, propeller and
turbine pumps, agitators etc.
In variable torque loads, power varies with the speed cubed
i.e. by reducing speed half, power requirement will become
one eight. Significant energy savings are possible in
applications involving variable torque loads by speed control.
In flow control applications, significant energy reductions are
possible by using variable speed drives.
For example boilers are widely used in process industries and
power plants for steam generation. Since steam demand is
varying, boiler operates different firings. Usually dampers are
used to control the flow of combustion air. Variable frequency
drive (VFD) is the most efficient method of flow control
because in such type of control speed of force draft fan is
actually changed by controlling the speed of motor. In case of
discharge damper, motor operates at the same speed and thus
not giving significant reduction in power consumption.
Comparison of damper control and VFD air flow control
methods is presented in Figure 3 [4].
353
IX. LIGHTING
Few suggestions for energy conservation in lighting are given
below.
1. Try the use of day light by using fiber glass sheets in
ceiling.
2. Use timers to switch the lights on during night time
3. Switch off unnecessary lights
4. Reduce number of fixtures by task lighting
5. Apply distributed control of lights
6. Interlock major lighting with main driven load of
machine where lighting load is intensive
7. Improve efficiency of lighting equipment. About 10-12
watts can be saved per light by using electronic chokes
instead of magnetic ballasts.
8. Use occupancy sensors where appropriate
Figure3. Comparison of air flow control methods
A 30 TPH boiler usually operates at 66% firing. A

comparison of damper control and VFD control of combustion
air flow is presented In TABLE VI considering 7,800 hours of
annual operation and unit cost of Rs.6.24/kWh. About
Rs.1,265,472 can be saved per annum by using VFD control
instead of damper control.
TABLE VI.
Comparison for 30 TPH Boilers
Damper Control
VFD Control
kW
46.8
20.8
Annual kWh
365,040
162,240
Energy Cost (Rs.)
2,277,850
1,012,378
Screw compressors are constant torque loads. Usually

start/stop or load/unload techniques are used to maintain the
desired pressure of compressed air. Both these methods are
inefficient .In case of start/stop; repeated starts will cause the
motor to overheat and other compressor components to
require more frequent maintenance. Whereas in case of
load/unload technique, an unloaded rotary screw compressor
consumes about 15 to 35 percent of full-load horsepower
while delivering no useful work [5]. Example of a screw
compressor presented in TABLE VII indicates that the
compressor could waste 37,050 kWh during 7,800 hours of
annual operation causing a financial loss of worth Rs.231,192
per annum. These losses can be saved by employing VFD
control which would change the speed of compressor motor
according to air demand.
TABLE VII
Load /unload status of compressor
% of Time
kW
Running hours
kWh
Load State
75%
65
5,850
380,250
Unload State
25 %
19
1,950
37,050
X. MEASUREMENTS AND RECORD KEEPING

Proper measurement and record keeping can indirectly affect
the reliability and efficiency of electrical system. If one cannot
measure something, one cannot save that thing. Sometimes
people just rely on running currents to compare the efficiency
of two machines which is not appropriate. A machine drawing
more current might be consuming less power due to its low
power factor. So efficiency comparison might be wrong by
just looking at the currents. Always consider the kW for
correct comparison. So power analyzers should be procured
for this purpose. Measurements of voltages, currents, kW,
motor body temperature etc. should be taken regularly and
these should be recorded. From those records, one can have a
better estimate of a motor performance regarding its energy
consumption and electricity cost. It would also help in
preventive maintenance of machines and other equipment.
XI. PROPER MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance can enhance system reliability and
system efficiency. It can also rise profits by reducing system
down times. Preventive maintenance should be prepared as
per recommendation of the equipment manufacturer and
should be followed strictly. As far as maintenance of motor is
concerned, some items to be checked during maintenance are
lubrication, ventilation, load sizing and alignment, bearing
performance, wiring connections and terminal box etc.
Suppose bearing of a motor is defective. If it is not changed,
motor would burn. Now two costs are involved; rewinding
cost and bearing cost. But if bearing were timely replaced,
rewinding cost could be saved.
Rewinding also reduce the efficiency of electric motor.
Rewinding if not done properly can reduce the efficiency by
58% [1].Impact of rewinding can be accessed from the
previous records of the motor. Using wires of greater cross
section, slot size permitting, improved winding design etc. can
preserve and in some cases increase the motors efficiency.
354
XII. ENERGY AUDITS

Energy studies should be performed in industrial units at
periodic interval for assessment of electrical energy consumed
by different machines. These studies would be supportive to
trace different methods of energy conservation. The major
hindrance in such studies is the lack of technical information
and unavailability of technical equipment. Trainings should be
arranged for industrial personnel and measuring equipment
should be procured.
XIII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
P. Dharmalingam, J. Nagesh Kumar, R.Suryanarayanan, S. Sathis

Kumar, Energy efficiency in electrical utilities, 2nd edition,
2005, BEE India
Gilbert A. McCoy, Todd Litman, John G. Douglass, Energy efficient
Electric motor selection handbook Washington State Energy Office
Olympia Washington, Revision 3 January 1993.
Gilbert A. McCoy, John G. DouglassEnergy management for motor
driven systems, Washington State University Cooperative Extension
Energy Program Olympia, Washington, Revision 2 March 2000
Wayne C. Turner,Energy management handbook,
School of Industrial Engineering and Management, Oklahoma State
University &
Steve Doty, Colorado Springs Utilities, Colorado
Springs, Colorado, 6th edition
Lawrence Berkeley, Vienna, VA, Improving compressed air system
performance National Laboratory Washington, DC Resource
Dynamics Corporation.
355

Microgeneration from Renewable Resources Secure & Sustainable

Shafiq A.Khan
Institute of Industrial Control Systems, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
Abstract
Pakistans power demand is mainly satisfied by fossil fuel, which is not abundant and major source
of global warming/climate change. A sustainable and secure alternative for Pakistan would be to
exploit its indigenous and renewable energy (RE) resources like hydro, solar and wind with public
participation. Pakistan receives year-round solar irradiance, which can become a major power
producer in urban and non-arable areas. Secondly, locally managed run-of-river micro-hydro
projects can be an important source of power generation in Northern Pakistan. Thirdly, small wind
turbines installed in coastal and windy areas of Southern Pakistan can serve as significant electricity
producers. The limiting factors in the case of power from RE are: space, cost, storage, vested
interests and reluctance to change. Regardless of production technique, the power shortfall can be
controlled to some extent by energy conservation, managing heat loss, transmission and distribution
losses and by having energy-efficient buildings and appliances.
Keywords: Renewable Energy, Microgeneration, Solar, Wind, Hydro, Energy Conservation, FiT.
__________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
Pakistan is facing two major problems at the
moment; power crisis and terrorism. In this
paper it is argued that both can significantly
be managed by exploiting indigenous
resources, i.e. natural resources like solar,
wind, hydro and involving its energetic public.
The solution would be long-lasting and
sustainable because it will be based on the
resources that lay inside its boundaries, unlike
to having electricity and gas supplies from
other regional countries, such as from Central
Asia or Iran.
Pakistans electricity demand (Fig.1) is met by
fossil fuel, much of which will be imported
and therefore, by definition, is insecure.
Only the portion of hydro-generated

electricity, at 32.5%, is renewable and
promising [1]. It therefore follows that in
order to secure its energy, Pakistan must limit
its use of fossil fuels to those it can produce
within its borders; satisfy the balance of its
consumption by either minimising its total
demand, or maximising its generation from
renewables, or both. At the world level, 80%
of the energy is supplied through fossil-fuel
burning, 13.5% through renewable sources
and 6.5% by nuclear energy [10]. Global
warming is one top reason to reduce or
eliminate our dependence on fossil fuels.
However there are another three distinct
reasons:
There is the fact that fossil fuels will run
out, and therefore we will have to get our
energy from elsewhere at some stage,
although there are various estimates as to
when this might be.
Figure1. Pakistans Power Pie [1].
Pakistan has significantly less fossil fuel

within its boundaries than it consumes,
and most of what it has got is low-grade
coal. The adverse environmental impact
(CO2, SO2 and NOx emission) associated
with coal processing is too high for its
often-proclaimed benefits [13]. Therefore
Pakistan is compelled to import large
356
quantities of fossil fuel. This situation is

sustainable so long as other countries
wish to sell their fossil fuel to Pakistan.
The fact that they can refuse to sell their
fossil fuel means that Pakistan has an
insecure supply of energy. Security of
supplies should be the emphasis for all
policy-making at the top echelons of
power [13].
By Pakistan switching from fossil fuel
imports to renewables, the balance of
payments will be improved, and jobs will
be created. There is therefore a strong
economic argument for going green.
2. SOLAR POWER
Solar power is very important in the context
of Pakistan.
Figure 2. Solar Irradiation - Pakistan [2].
Pakistan is ideally located in the sub-tropical

region on the globe, at 33 latitude in the
Northern Hemisphere. Most of the area
receives year-round strong solar irradiance.
Baluchistan, Sindh and some portions of the
Punjab province even get the solar radiation
of about 6 kWh/m2 per day [2]. Very simply
put, if bright light is seen and heat is felt then
this solar energy could be transformed into
other forms of energy, such as electricity
(high-grade
energy).
Grid-Connected
photovoltaic (PV) systems on the rooftops of

houses could become a major source of clean
and renewable power [6]. Photovoltaic built
into a building exterior is called building
integrated photovoltaic system (BIPV).
Besides warm air, about 41% electricity at 9%
system efficiency could be generated from a
BIPV system [7]. The BIPV systems also
generate thermal energy for space/water
heating and drying purposes [8]. Similarly,
low-cost flat-plate/evacuated tube solar
collectors (at fixed tilt) could be employed for
water heating [12].
If one cannot find ways to harness energy
from the Sun, this might be unwillingness or
incompetence on part of the governments.
For centuries, the people of Indus Valley have
been exploiting this wonderful resource for
growing food to sustain life - of both animals
and
humans.
Present
day
technology
has made
it possible
for humans
to
quite
efficiently
(at about
25%
for
most PV &
CSP solar
systems)
convert
this
sunshine
into
electricity,
to power most of our appliances and
transport. The plants, through photosynthesis,
covert energy even less efficiently, at about
4%, but are still able to maintain the food
chain on the planet. For such reasons, people
from South America and some other old
civilisations worshiped the Sun, as it was
considered the creator of all life on the Earth.
Still today, Pakistans economy is mainly
based on agriculture. This is being highly
affected by the present energy crisis so
immediate measures must be taken to
357
address this issue. Directly coupled DC water

pumps with solar panels have been very
successful and economical for irrigation,
especially drip, in agriculture sector (Fig.3). A
small-scale solar water-pump, for instance
would discharge about 100,000 litres from a
depth of about 100 feet on a typical day in
Pakistan [3]. This is a far better choice, when
compared with diesel-generator-pumping,
having high running cost, or even with gridpower-extraction, which is not available in
many areas anyway (35% households are still
without electricity [4]).
Figure 3. Solar Water Pumping [3].
3. MICRO-HYDRO POWER GENERATION

In Northern Pakistan and Azad Kashmir there
are many small/big rivers and streams, which
are under-utilised at the moment and can be
exploited on far more places for run-of-river
hydro projects for power generation.
This is to be emphasised here that for such

power projects there is no need to build dams
for water-storage, which could become a
controversial issue even after the recent
floods, which devastated most parts of the
country. Rather, a small portion of flowing
water is diverted over a small distance and
discharged, through a penstock, on the waterturbines for generating electricity (Fig.4).
Afterwards, the tailrace or used water is
returned to the main flow. These projects
require minimum of civil works and at the cost
of small damage to flora and fauna, benefit
local people by improving their living
standards in a sustainable way. For some
cases this option becomes all the more
reasonable as it involves heavy deforestation
and high cost to draw power from the main
grid [9].
The micro hydro projects can be built either
by the local councils or those individuals who
live near the banks of any waterway. It only
takes a small amount of flow (0.0002 m3/s) or
a drop as low as half a meter to generate
electricity with micro hydro-turbines.
Continuous supply of electrical energy can be
delivered to a locality nearby and the
overflow to the national power grid. A reserve
flow in the river must be maintained at a
certain level (Q95) in order to sustain the life
dependent on the stream water. Since there is
no loss of water in the generation process,
these requirements are easily met. The main
hardware, i.e. small and efficient impulse
turbines (Pelton and Turgo) have already been
manufactured locally by HMC, Taxila and
other industries in private sector. Also,
maintenance-free trash rack on weir and
modern power electronics equipment (IGBT
converters)
ensure
year-round, low-cost,
high
quality,
gridfrequency AC for the
consumers.
Figure 4. Typical Run-of-River Power Project.
358
4. WIND TURBINES FOR POWER

Small wind turbines (kW range) can be
installed on the rooftops or open areas in the
coastal and windy areas of Pakistan. The
average wind speed of 3~5 m/s is enough to
produce decent amount of electricity from
this RE resource. Some places in lower Sindh,
Baluchistan and KP even have the wind
blowing in the range of 7.4~7.8 m/s at the
hub-height of 50m (Fig.5). When power from
individual houses/locations would be added
together on the grid, this source alone has the
potential to meet the present electricity
shortfall of Pakistan.
Figure 5. Wind Map Pakistan [2].
At the moment there are no local

manufacturers for small-scale wind turbines
(WT) but as the trend and demand for these
will increase, the well-established fan industry
of Gujrat and Gujranwala would surely get in
to produce cheaper varieties of WTs. Either
type of rotor designs, i.e. horizontal and
vertical axis, can be selected by the producers
for extracting energy from the wind. The
former, i.e. horizontal-axis wind turbine
(HAWT), produces high power (nowadays a
big HAWT can produce upto 6 MW with a
typical rotor dia of about 100m at hub-height
of 100m). While vertical-axis wind turbine

(VAWT) are low-power generators and used
where space and aesthetics (such as visual
impact) are the limiting factors. Even a fanblower or two from scrap ACs or desert
coolers can be used as micro VAWTs in windy
areas.
5. DISCUSSION
5.1 People Power
The governments in Pakistan, both federal
and provincial, can quite quickly overcome
the present
shortfall
of
about 5 GW
of power by
encouraging
its people to
go
for
microgenerati
-on
from
renewable
energy (RE)
resources.
This
would
not
only
benefit
the
government
in tackling the
issue
but
would
also
engage
common
people
in
contributing towards a national cause of
power shortage and a global cause of
reducing carbon emission and therefore the
change in weather patterns. The weather
changes in the densely-populated regions, like
Pakistan, could trigger unimaginable famines,
floods and deaths in near future, if corrective
measures are not taken immediately.
Throughout the world, the microgeneration
from RE resources has been encouraged in
the masses, the governments there have
introduced incentive legislation, including
feed-in tariff (FiT) or net-metering. Broadly,
the FiT has to take care of the energy
payments to the power producers. In many
359
advanced countries, it was not for the power

shortage but was meant for replacing fossilfuel-generated power with green energy.
However, for countries like Pakistan it can
serve both the purposes. After having
installed a large number of RE-based power
systems, the GoP could then be able to trade
for international emission and claim carbon
credits as per Kyoto Protocol [12, 14].
Feed-in tariffs have been enacted and being
successfully used in many countries of Europe,
Asia, Africa and America to encourage rapid
growth in customer-located renewable energy
systems. The first step federal and provincial
governments, through NEPRA, WAPDA,
PEPCO, have to take in this regard is to
introduce feed-in tariff in Pakistan.
Simultaneously, the power distribution
companies would have to incorporate the
allied technical changes with regard to the
electricity procurement from the public. They
would have to set guidelines and
specifications for power quality (such as
harmonics, phase imbalance etc) for
connecting at point of common coupling
(PCC). These will also include setting limits for
fault-level rise for embedded generators and
guidance for anti-islanding, loss-of-mains
protection, etc.
Figure 6. Pakistan Energy Mix Chronicle [2].
They would also have to facilitate

consumers/producers with bi-directional
energy meters at their places. In many
countries the power companies would buy
green power, produced from RE, at higher

rate, e.g. in UK they would pay 41 pence/kWh
to the clean power producer whereas
generally sell at 15 pence/kWh as their power
has been produced from fossil-fuel. The rates
are index linked to inflation over the life of
the scheme [16]. In the case, where two
tariffs are in vogue, there are then two
separate energy meters installed; one for the
power exported to the grid and another for
the power consumed in the premises.
Figure 7. Energy Costs Comparison [5].
5.2 Barriers
One important limiting factor in the case of
all forms of renewable energy options; solar,
wind, hydro and biofuels is the requirement
of large area for the deployment of their
generators as
compared
with fossilfuel powered
generators.
That might
be
one
reason
for
the increase
of fossil-fuel
share
for
energy
production in
Pakistan for
the last many
years (Fig.6). Area may be a limiting factor in
the cities but it is not an issue for most of nonurban Pakistan. For a 4kW solar system at
12% efficiency the required area would be
about 37m2 [14].
360
Theres another feature in all human societies,

which is reluctance to adopt new ways to do
the routine work, regardless of how efficient
and useful those might have proved to be
ultimately. This could be replacing ones
typewriter with a word-processing PC to
commuting on a trans-continental flight
rather than by ship. Then there are always
vested interests of certain groups at stake,
who try to protect those by spreading false
propaganda against a new practice or a
product.
Most often, people express their concern
about the initial cost of a RE system, without
taking into consideration its O&M (operation
and maintenance) cost. Although, it is
generally known that O&M costs for
renewable energy solutions are negligible
(Fig.7).
Another drawback in RE power is the fact
that wind and solar resources are intermittent
and non-dispatchable, so there should be a
grid in place to integrate the generation as
well as the power consumption i.e. for
demand and supply. The benefits of
aggregation of both supply and demand are
well known. For example, we know that wind,
and therefore wind energy, is intermittent. By
connecting all wind turbines onto one grid will
smooth out this intermittence.
The energy storage is also a setback and is still
quite costly and inefficient for batteries to be
used for the purpose. Hydropower can also be
used to store energy, which is very useful
when significant wind or solar power is being
exploited. Any energy strategy should
therefore aim to maximise generation from
this resource. In Pakistan, hydropower could
be used in the night time while solar power
during the day. The new plans would ideally
be of run-of-river type, which do not need
reservoirs and dams and all the associated ills.
We know that hydro-turbines are nearly 95%
efficient
machines,
generating
clean
electricity without producing greenhouse
gases.
Figure 8. Typical Sun Pipe for Sky-Lighting in Buildings.
6. CONSERVATION
The conservation measures both at the
supply and demand sides could lead to a
sustainable solution, regardless of the type of
power generation.
On the supply side management (SSM), heat
loss, transmission and distribution losses,
including theft, should be reduced. While
demand side management (DSM) includes the
use of energy-efficient appliances and
buildings as well as conserving energy at peak
hours. For instance, in the US alone 23% of
gas and 36% of electricity is used in houses,
where space heating consumes 31.5% and
water heating takes 12.6% of primary energy
[11]. Some recommended measures for
energy conservation would be:
Sky-lights, sun pipes (such as in Fig.8),
thick-glass tiles and large double/triple
glazed vinyl windows should be
incorporated in the existing and to-beconstructed buildings to maximise the
daylight usage.
Low-efficiency, heat-producing filament

bulbs should be replaced with highefficiency, cool LED lighting.
361
and electrification of transport, the future

power requirements would also be addressed.
ii). This will create jobs and small businesses
throughout Pakistan, mostly in rural areas,
where land is freely available. As a result,
migration from rural areas to the cities will be
reduced, where inadequate infrastructure is
already under immense population pressure.
Figure 9. EU Energy Label for Appliances & Cars.
Old electrical appliances should be

gradually replaced with the new energyefficient ones.
Seeing is believing; people should know

how much an appliance is actually
consuming electricity by having smart
plugs with digital display and data-logger.
By having low U-value (thermal

transmittance) materials in the buildingfabric, such as Styrofoam sheets, cavity
walls/hollow blocks, UPVC doors/windows
with double/triple glazing comfortable
buildings for all seasons could be designed
without
installing
energy-intensive
appliances for space cooling/heating.
Wind and stack-ventilation may be used in

the buildings.
Energy-labelling (Fig.9) should be
enforced for all appliances, vehicles and
buildings offered for sale/rent [15].
Multi-tariff billing alongwith prepaid
digital energy meters should be
introduced.
7. CONCLUSION
To summarise the above discussion; the
policies and following actions, regarding
power production from renewable energy,
would ultimately achieve the following threein-one agenda:
i). Not only the present power crisis would be
resolved but as the requirement for power
will be increased manifold in the coming
years, due to the population growth,
increased ownership of electrical appliances
iii). Disgruntled and angry public, whos

blocking roads, pelting stones and getting
killed because of black-outs, could be engaged
in positive activities of energy generation and
earning livelihoods for their families. This
would also act as a poverty alleviation
programme and would help tackle the
underlying cause of terrorism. The
governments can then truly boast of
empowering their people and people would
also feel that they have a stake in the system.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is highly indebted to Dr.M.Aslam,
Dr.M.Y.Khilji and Dr.Rehan of IICS for
providing guidance and support to compile
this paper.
9. REFERENCES
1. Pakistan Energy Yearbook; Hydrocarbon
Development Institute of Pakistan (HDIP),
2007.
2. Department of Energy Databook; National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), USAID,
2007.
3. Centrifugal Pumping Systems, Lorentz;
PS1800 Catalogue P.12, 2007.
4. Pakistan Power Sector, P.18, 2009, OSEC,
Consulate General of Switzerland.
5. Byrne et al, 2008, NEA/IEA 2005, Falk et al
2008, Lazard 2008, ESMAP/World Bank 2008,
IEA 2008.
6. Tian,W.; Wang, Y.; Ren, J.; Zhu, L. Effect of
Urban Climate on Building Integrated
Photovoltaic Performance. Energ. Convers.
Manag., 2007, 48, 1-8.
362
7. Yang, H; Zeng, G.; Lau,D.; An, J.; Burnett, H.

Grid-Connected Building Photovoltaic: a Hong
Kong Casestudy. Sol. Energ., 2004, 76, 55-59.
8. A.Ranjan, S.Dubey, B.Agarwal and
G.N.Tiwari. Performance Analysis of an
Existing BIPV System for Indian Climatic
Conditions. The Open Renewable Energy
Journal, 2008, 1, 1-10.
9. Varun, I.K.Bhat and Ravi Prakash. Life Cycle
Analysis of Run-of River Small Hydro Power
Plants in India. The Open Renewable Energy
Journal, 2008, 1, 11-16.
10. Asif, M. Muneer, T. Energy supply, its
demand and security issues for developed and
emerging economies. Renewable Sustain.
Energy Rev. 2007, 11, 1388-1413.
11. HUD. Ideas That Work Building
Communities through Homeownership,
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development.
2006.
http://www.oup.org/files/pubs/ideasthatwor
k.pdf.
12. M.Jamil Ahmed and G.N.Tiwari.
Optimization of Tilt Angle for Solar Collector
to Receive Maximum Radiation. The Open
Renewable Energy Journal, 2009, 2, 19-24.
13. Abul Quasem Al-Amin, Chamhuri Siwar
and Abdul Hamid Jaafar. Energy Use and
Environmental Impact of New Alternative Fuel
Mix in Electricity Generation in Malaysia. The
Open Renewable Energy Journal, 2009, 2, 2532.
14. Parmal Singh Solanki, Venkateswara
Sarma Mallela, Malcolm Allan and Chengke
Zhou. Distributed Generation to Reduce
Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Case
Study for Residential Sector in Oman. The
Open Renewable Energy Journal, 2010, 3, 2632.
15. EU Directives (92/75/CEE, 94/2/CE,
95/12/CE, 96/89/CE, 2003/66/CE).
16. Department of Energy & Climate Change,
UK. Website accessed on 1st Oct, 2010.
http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/ne
ws/pn10_010/pn10_010aspx.
363

Depletion of Energy or Depletion of Knowledge

Alternative Use of Energy Resources
Muhammad Arslan, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, university of the Punjab
AbstractThis research paper is about the depletion of

Energy resources being a huge problem facing the world at
this time. As available energy sources are coming to a
shortage and measures are be taken in order to conserve the
irreplaceable energy resources that leads to sustainability
and fair use of energy sources for future generations.
Alternative energy sources are being sought; however no
other energy source is able to provide even a fraction of
energy as that of fossil fuels. Use of the alternative energy
resources like wind corridors (Sindh and Baluchistan), fair
use of Hydro energy (past monsoon flooding can produce
enough energy that may available for next century).
Uranium Resources which are enough for centuries energy
production in Pakistan (Dhok Pathan Formation) lying in
Siwalick series from Pliocene to Pleistocene. Among all of
these, my focus is about energy from mineral fuels like
Uranium from Sandstone hosted deposits in Pakistan
(Siwalik Series in Pakistan). A number of uranium
bearing mineralized horizons are present in the

upper part of the Dhok Pathan Formation. These
horizons have secondary uranium mineral carnotite
and other ores. Uranium mineralization is widely
distributed throughout the Siwaliks
governs everything humans do with each other and with the

natural environment that supports them.
Energy can be considered in two categories - primary and
secondary.
Primary energy is energy in the form of natural

resources, such as wood, coal, oil, natural gas, natural
uranium, wind, hydro power, and sunlight.
Secondary energy is the more useable forms to which

primary energy may be converted, such as electricity
and petrol.
Coal, oil and gas are major sources of energy production

today. About 60 % of total energy production is from these
energy sources. Due to industrialization and population boom,
people need energy. So demand for energy has been increased
very much. According to Pakistan energy book, demand for
energy has been reached at alarming level and with present
resources of energy it will not be available more than 40 years.
The purpose of this paper was to introduce the use of

alternative energy sources in Pakistan which are present in
enough amounts by nature. Pakistan is blessed with wealth
of natural resources. Unfortunately, Pakistan is totally
depending on non-renewable energy resource. There are
three main types of fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas.
After food, fossil fuel is humanity's most important source
of energy. Pakistan is among the most gas dependent
economies of the world. Use of fossil fuel for energy will not
only increase the demand of more fossils but it has also
extreme effects on climate as well as direct and indirect
effects to humans. These entire remedial thinking can only
be possible if you try to use alternative energy resources
rather than fossil fuels.
I. INTRODUCTION
akistan is in the grip of a serious energy crisis that is
affecting all sectors of the economy and the various
segments of the society. Energy is the ability to do work or
to change the things. We use electricity to power our homes;

we use gasoline and oil that come from fossil fuels to drive our
cars, and we depend upon energy from food for our bodies to
function properly. "Energy is the underlying currency that
Concepts about Energy Consumption:

Basically, there are two concepts about energy consumption in
people mind.
1. First concept is that all energy sources are going
depleted. The will not be available more than 40 years.
If we will not assure fair use of energy than a time will
come when there will be no energy available for future
generations.
364
According to Olduvai theory and Energy Depletion,

there must be management of energy sources.
Otherwise, there will be again period of hunting and
dark ages and man has to move again on hunting for
energy sources.
Here is report of PWC/Hagler Bailly Pakistan IPI PreFeasibility which explains the demand and supply of Gas in
past with comparison of future. The growth in demand for
primary energy in East Asia is around 5% per year, that for
electricity is 7-8% per year. In China, power generation
requirements are expected to almost double in 15 years, with
much of this being met by nuclear.
1. Pre Industrial Phase [c. 3 000 000 BC to 1765]
A - Tool making (c. 3 000 000 BC)

B - Fire used (c. 1 000 000 BC)
C - Noelithic agricultural revolution (c. 8 000 BC)
D - Watts steam engine of 1765 Industrial Phase
(1930-2025)
2. Industrial Phase [1930 to 2025, estimated ]
E - Per capita energy-use 37% of peak value

F - Peak energy-use
G - Present energy-use
H - Per capita energy-use 37% of peak value
3. Post Industrial Phase [c. 2100 and beyond ]

1. J, K, and L = Recurring future attempts at
industrialization fail.
In Barry Carters book Infinite Wealth, he recognizes and
discusses the danger of our entering another Dark Age. He
explains that unless humanity reorganizes itself into a win-win
society, there will be no worthwhile future for our children and
their children.
Trend line for energy supply and energy demands also
describes that we must move to some alternative energy
sources.
2. Second concept about energy consumption is that

some people say, there is no energy depletion. There is
only depletion of knowledge.
There is no shortage of primary energy. The sun pours
abundance of energy in the form of sunlight on to our
planet each day. We see this energy in a variety of
forms, ranging from solar radiation, through wind and
waves, to trees and vegetation which convert the sun's
rays into plant biomass. In addition, there is an
enormous amount of energy in the materials of the
earth's crust, the fossil fuels also storing energy from
the sun. Uranium is an energy source which has been
locked into the earth since before the solar system was
formed, billions of years ago.
Alternative use of Energy Resources:
Solar Energy is also big source of energy. According to

estimation, if we capture energy for one day falling on earth,
coming from sun, it will be enough for whole century for this
planet. 80,000 terawatts of solar power fall on the Earth
Constantly. If it can be used as alternative source of energy, it
will fulfill many needs.
365
Wind Corridors are also source of energy especially in

Baluchistan and Sindh where wind pull can be used as a source
of energy. Although, the idea of using wind as energy resource
is from pre historic time periods. But we can introduce new
technologies like wind corridors for energy production to meet
today energy demands.
Recent Monsoon Floods were a big opportunity for Pakistan
to produce and store tremendous amount of energy which can
be utilized later. But because of some no reservoir and less
dams we were unable to store water and to produce energy. I
have mentioned in my past research paper Unusual rainfall
due to changes in Monsoon pattern in Pakistan, I have
mentioned that how much water was available during flooding
period and if we had pre planned strategy we can produce
enough energy from this natural resource. Records for
Monsoon flooding chart is described here,
Mineral Fuels can also be used as alternative source of energy

which is the best methodology for energy production.
Recently, Pakistan is obtaining 0.6% energy from mineral
fuels. But developed countries are mainly obtaining energy
from mineral fuels.
Uranium deposits and noteworthy occurrences are reported
from the Dera Ghazi Khan District, Sulaiman Range, the
Bannu Basin, and Issa Khel, Mianwali District, in central
Pakistan, and from the Kirthar Range in south Pakistan.
According to Geological survey, Pakistan has Roll Front and

Tabular sandstone hosted uranium deposit in Middle Siwaliks
(Pliocene to Pleistocene).
In geological time scale, sandstone hosted uranium deposits
are present in Mesozoic and Cenozoic ERA throughout the
world. But in Pakistan, they are mostly present in Middle
Siwaliks which is in Cenozoic ERA. The Siwalick sequence
has been divided into the lower, middle and upper Siwaliks on
the basis of lithology. The lower Siwalicks are dominantly
bright colored shales with minor sandstone overlai by massive
sandstone and alternating beds of shale and sandstone of
middle Siwaliks. These are inturn overlain by coarser facies
compromising sandstone, conglomerate, boulder beds and
subordinate shales of upper Siwaliks. The middle Siwaliks
consist of DHOK PATHAN and Nagri formation which
consist of fluvial uranium deposits which are roll front in
nature. Pakistan and U.S is totally depending on these deposits
for Nuclear energy resource as a mineral fuel.
Roll Front Sandstone uranium deposits are formed in aquifers
through which uranium bearing groundwater flows. The
uranium and other metals dissolved in the ground water such
as molybdenum, vanadium, selenium, and arsenic precipitate
out of the ground water when the ground water flow crosses an
oxidation/reduction interface in the sandstone. This forms a
uranium deposit known as a roll front. Roll fronts are found
around the world and are the type of uranium deposit deposit
mined by the in-situ mining method. The drawing above shows
a schematic of a uranium roll front.
The timing of introduction of uranium in tabular deposits

and the roll front type of deposits is different. In the tabular
deposits the precipitation of uranium starts shortly after
sedimentation and burial.
The sedimentary rocks often being porous and permeable
allow movement of this solution through their interconnected
spaces. If these rocks have certain areas, where favourable
366
reducing environments exist, these solutions will tend to

deposit their load of U+6 along these oxygen free
environments in the form of U+4 which gets, stabilized, These
favourable reducing conditions are provided by the presence
of certain sulphur bearing minerals like pyrite and decayed
carbonaceous matter. Both of these conditions are related to
the depositional conditions of a particular sedimentary rock. In
fluviatiie environments the wood trash pockets as well as peat
bogs develop ahng certain low velocity areas all along the
river course.
As we know that sandstone hosted deposit formed at interface
where dissolved uranium oxidizing water meets with reduction
zone of H2S, CO2 or graphite. The graphical representation of
previous photograph is shown here.
provides the main source of heat inside the Earth,

causing convection and continental drift.
The high density of uranium means that it also finds

uses in the keels of yachts and as counterweights for
aircraft control surfaces, as well as for radiation
shielding.
Its melting point is 1132C. The chemical symbol for

uranium is U.
On a scale arranged according to the increasing mass of their

nuclei, uranium is the heaviest of all the naturally-occurring
elements (Hydrogen is the lightest). Uranium is 18.7 times as
dense as water.
Like other elements, uranium occurs in several slightly
differing forms known as 'isotopes'. These isotopes differ from
each other in the number of particles (neutrons) in the nucleus.
Natural uranium as found in the Earth's crust is a mixture
largely of two isotopes: uranium-238 (U-238), accounting for
99.3% and uranium-235 (U-235) about 0.7%.
The isotope U-235 is important because under certain
conditions it can readily be split, yielding a lot of energy. It is
therefore said to be 'fissile' and we use the expression 'nuclear
fission'.
Uranium mineralization is present along the three successive

sedimentological horizons, each separated by Shale, towards,
the upper part of the Dhok Pathan Formation. U-mineralization
is associated with the palaeochannels and flood plain
sediments. Some uranium mineralization is also recorded with
the hard sandstone bands.
These roll front deposits of Uranium are biggest deposits in
Pakistan and associated with DHOK PATHAN formation.
Importance of Uranium as nuclear energy resource:
Uranium is a very heavy metal which can be used as

an abundant source of concentrated energy.
It occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4

parts per million and is as common in the Earth's
crust as tin, tungsten and molybdenum. It occurs in
seawater, and can be recovered from the oceans.
It was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a

German chemist, in the mineral called pitchblende
(UO2). It was named after the planet Uranus, which
had been discovered eight years earlier.
Uranium was apparently formed in supernovae

about 6.6 billion years ago. While it is not common in
the solar system, today its slow radioactive decay
Meanwhile, like all radioactive isotopes, they decay. U-238

decays very slowly, its half-life
being about the same as the age of
the Earth (4500 million years).
This means that it is barely
radioactive, less so than many
other isotopes in rocks and sand.
Nevertheless it generates 0.1
watts/tonne as decay heat and this
is enough to warm the Earth's
core. U-235 decays slightly faster.
Energy from the uranium atom:

Energy is generally produced whenever a light nucleus is
undergoing fusion or whenever a heavy nucleus is undergoing
fission. Practical examples are natural Uranium or Thorium
(fission) and Lithium (fusion) both adequate for many
thousand of years at several times the present energy
consumption.
The nucleus of the U-235 atom comprises 92 protons and 143
neutrons (92 + 143 = 235). When the nucleus of a U-235 atom
captures a moving neutron it splits in two (fissions) and
releases some energy in the form of heat, also two or three
additional neutrons are thrown off. If enough of these expelled
neutrons cause the nuclei of other U-235 atoms to split,
releasing further neutrons, a fission 'chain reaction' can be
achieved. When this happens over and over again, many
millions of times, a very large amount of heat is produced from
a relatively small amount of uranium.
It is this process, in effect "burning" uranium, which occurs in
367
a nuclear reactor. The heat is used to make steam to produce

electricity.
The total use of Nuclear Energy for electricity purpose for

different countries is described below. Here we can estimate
that Pakistan is at 2nd number who is not using nuclear energy
for energy demands. Hence,
Nuclear-generated electricity is cost competitive and

helps to ensure long-term reliability and security of
energy supply.
Public opinion is more favorable to nuclear energy than
is commonly assumed in the public debate, and this
support is growing. Increasingly, governments and
citizens everywhere are recognizing nuclear energy's
contribution to the environment and to a secure and
affordable energy supply.
Conclusion:
All of the various means of generating electricity have a role to
play in meeting the rapidly increasing demand for this form of
energy. Fossil fuels, particularly coal and gas, will remain
important. Since reliability is the most important attribute of
electricity supply, the role of non-hydro renewable is limited.
Nuclear electricity is one part of the solution of the energy
equation for today and tomorrow, particularly in the light of
concerns about carbon dioxide emissions. Without nuclear
power the world would have to rely almost entirely on fossil
fuels, especially coal, to meet demand for base-load electricity
production. This has significant environmental, and
particularly greenhouse gas, implications.
Nuclear power plants do not emit any carbon dioxide, nor any
sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides. Their wastes end up as
solids and, though requiring careful handling, are very much
less than the wastes from burning coal.
Whenever new electricity generating capacity is required or
old fossil-fuelled plants need to be replaced it is therefore
sensible to consider nuclear as a serious option. Nuclear
electricity has accumulated over 12,000 reactor-years of
operating experience.
Benefits of using Mineral fuel as energy resource:

Use of uranium as alternative source of energy is very
beneficial due to several reasons.
Every 22 tonnes of uranium used avoids the emission
of one million tonnes of carbon dioxide, relative to
coal. When the electricity comes from coal, every
kilowatt hour of it results in about a kilogram of carbon
dioxide being emitted.
Nuclear power is essential to meeting the challenge of
our world's critically rising demand for clean energy.
Nuclear energy is the only energy technology that does
not emit greenhouse gases. Nuclear reactors emit no
greenhouse gases. Averting the planetary danger of
radical climate change will require increased use of
nuclear energy and other non-polluting, sustainable
energy sources.
Waste from fossil fuel energy takes the form of huge
volumes of atmospheric emissions. In contrast, nuclear
wastes consist of small amounts of manageable
materials that can be securely isolated and lose their
hazard with time.
The continued and expanded use of nuclear power is one

among a range of measures which will effectively limit future
global carbon dioxide emissions. Some 35 countries have
chosen nuclear power as part of their energy mix. They have
over 440 power station reactors in operation and more under
construction.
II. PROCEDURE REFERENCES
[1]
Petro tectonics, Petrology and genesis of Uranium m of the Siwaliks

group of Thatti Nasrati and Shavah-Shavana Wah area. Thesis by Dr.
Aziz-ul-Allah under supervision of Dr. Nawaz Muhamad Chaudhary.
[2]
Uranium: 1997 resources, production, and demand : a joint report

By Nea, International Atomic Energy Agency Page 267
[3]
Uranium Deposits of the World: Asia By Franz J. Dahlkamp Chapter

number 09 page 313.
[4]
NUCLEAR MINERALS IN PAKISTAN MUHAMMAD MANSOOR

PAEC Foundation, Islamabad, Pakistan.
[5] Uranium Deposits of the World Tauchid, M., and Underhill, D.H
368
[6]
Methods of exploitation of different types of uranium deposits

International Atomic Energy Agency, Printed by the IAEA in Austria,
ISSN 10114289, September 2000
[7]
http://www.worldnuclear.org/education/uran.htm
Association.
[8]
PROSPECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN

PAKISTAN Nayyer Alam Zaigham, Professor & Director,
Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Karachi, Karachi,
Pakistan;
[9]
World
Nuclear
[10] Geochemistry of Uranium and its application in Pakistan by Dr. Nawaz

Muhammad Chaudhary.
369

Renewable Energy Distributed Power System with Photovoltaic/

Thermal and Bio Gas power Generators
Muhammad Usman Haider, Bilal Asad and Sadiq ur Rehman
Email: Muhammadusmanhaider@rocketmail.com
*** Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of Faisalabad Pakistan.
Abstract:
The energy shortage and environmental
pollution is becoming an important
problem in these days. Hence it is very
much important to use renewable power
technologies to get rid of these problems.
The important renewable energy sources
are Bio-Energy, Wind Energy, Hydrogen
Energy, Tide Energy, Terrestrial Heat
Energy, Solar Energy, Thermal Energy &
so on. Pakistan is rich in all these aspects
particularly in Solar and Thermal
Energies. In major areas of Pakistan like
in South Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan
the weather condition are very friendly
for these types of Renewable Energies. In
these areas Solar Energy can be utilized
by solar panels in conjunction with
thermal panels. The Photovoltaic cells are
used to convert Solar Energy directly to
Electrical Energy and thermal panels can
be uses to convert solar energy into heat
energy and this heat energy will be used
to drive some turbine to get Electrical
Energy. The Solar Energy can be
absorbed more efficiently by any given
area of Solar Panel
if these two
technologies can be combined in such a
way that they can work together. The first
part of this paper shows that how these

technologies
can
be
combined.
Furthermore it is known to all that
photovoltaic/thermal
panels
depend
entirely on weather conditions. So in
order to maintain constant power a
biogas generator is used in conjunction
with these.
Keywords:
Renewable
Energy,
Distributed Power system, Biogas
Generator, Modeling and Simulation.
Introduction:
The worldwide demand of electrical
energies is increasing day by day. But the
limited resources and environmental
pollution is becoming a biggest challenge
for mankind.. In this frame of reference the
role of every pollution less, economically
efficient energy generation system is more
important and considerable. Up till now the
concept was that economic power
generation is only possible in large power
plants and in low range power plants it was
not developed. But now in these days the
concept of power generation in small scale
by using renewable energy resources is
getting more and more acceptance. The
combined working of small plants
370
depending on both renewable and non

renewable resources is called distributed
power system. Hence DPS can be defined
as;
It is small set of co-operatory power
plants, generating electricity with renewable
and non-renewable primary energy carries,
working together with the help of highly
advanced power electronic systems in order
to fulfill the load requirement.[2]
DPSs are majorly connected to main power
grid but in some cases they can work
independently in order to feed some housing
societies, farms and small industrial plants
etc.
Obviously the major benefit of DPS is to
supply far away remote areas where main
grid connections is
not an easy task
because of the cost of connections.
The renewable energy distributed power
system contains two or more renewable
power generating plants, which work
together in order to boost up their
advantages and in order to remove
disadvantages. There are many types of DPS
such as:
DPS with Photovoltaic and Thermal;
DPS with Photovoltaic and Biogas;
DPS with Thermal and Biogas;
DPS with photovoltaic/Thermal and

Biogas etc.[2]
All these sources are environment friendly

and they dont produce pollution. The all
above mentioned sources can be classified

into two types, Controlled Sources and
Uncontrolled Sources [2].
The controlled sources are those sources
whose output power can be controlled
according to demand such as Biogas Power
Plants. In these Power Plant the generated
power can be controlled by controlling the
amount of input fuel gas.
The uncontrolled sources are those sources
whose output is not controllable. These
sources depend on weather conditions. For
example Photovoltaic and Thermal power
plant is uncontrollable because these plants
depend on sun light and which is turn
depend on weather conditions.
So uncontrolled plants can be used in
conjunction with controlled power plants. So
by using this technique the power supply
can be controlled according to the load
demand. In first section of this paper the
Solar Panels are Photovoltaic cells are used
in conjunction with Thermal Panels. Both of
these are uncontrolled plants.
So after that in second section Biogas
Generator is used with these in order to
improve the controllability of power.
Section I:Photovoltaic/Thermal Energy System:
The photovoltaic cells can be used directly
to convert solar energy into electrical
energy. While thermal panels can be used to
convert solar energy into heat energy and
this energy can be in directly used to run a
371
Figure 1. Construction of Combined photovoltaic/ Thermal Panel

turbine or stuff like that to produce electrical
energy. This Solar energy can be more
effectively utilized by making a combined
Photovoltaic/Thermal panel. In this case the
overall efficiency of system will be high,
over all cost will be less due to less number
of controllers required and life time will be
more than that of individual plants.
Demonstration of System:
The power generated by solar energy can be
increased if Photovoltaic and Thermal
technologies are combined in such a way
that they work in conjunction to produce
electric and heat energies. This type of
combination will be very useful for Pakistan
and other Asian Countries because in this
region the weather is hot and sunny. Also
this combined structure offers many
advantages such as cost savings, efficiency
and payback period[7]. The research work
aimed to improve the performance of this
combined system and to insure the
continuity of energy with Increasing load.
The simplified diagram of this structure is
shown above in fig. 1.
In this structure the entire cell is divided up
into two halves. The upper half is made up
of transparent plastic and it carries working
liquid which will be used in a heat

exchanger and after that this heat will be
used to run any turbine. The lower half
section is the solar panel which is used to
convert solar energy directly into electrical
energy. The outer boundary is the protective
layer of the entire system. The solar
radiations which penetrate into this system
are firstly utilized to heat up the working
liquid and then they are used to produce free
electrons in the solar panel. The upper
transparent plastic layer has a special inner
coating so that rays cannot be reflected back.
A complete model of Photovoltaic/Thermal
panels shown below in figure 2. The
Photovoltaic panel is used directly to charge
up a battery through a charge controller and
the thermal cell is used to heat up a liquid
which is further used to produce stream
through heat exchanger. This system is used
to run a turbine. Both parts of this systems
depend solely on weather conditions so an
auxiliary stream generator with some heat in
put can be used in order to assure the
continuity of power.[1]
The Photovoltaic panel charges battery
through a charge controller which prevents
over charging and deep discharging of
battery.
372
Grid
Photovoltic/
Thermal
Pannel
+
Controller
Generator
Heat
Exchanger
Turbine
AC/AC
Converter
PV/T
Hot Working
Liquid
Charge
Controller
Mains
Battery
Pannel
DC/AC
Converter
Controller
LOAD
Figure 2. Complete bock diagram of Photovoltaic/Thermal and Biogas DSP
Simulation Studies: The complete analysis

of this system is very much difficult because
of non linear nature of building blocks of
this system. The energy balance for this
system is very much important. This energy
balance can be estimated or analyzed by
calculating generating electrical power and
comparing it with load demand. But load is
not a linear function so it can only be
estimated from past load requirement record.
As simplified Matlab/Simulink model of this
system with peak load of 1.5KW, rated
battery voltage 48V and battery capacity of
400Ah is shown below in fig 3.
This simulation diagram consists of three
major blocks, PID controller, batteries and
Photovoltaic cells. The PID controller is
used to control the current of DC/AC
converter after accepting an error signal

which is difference between reference
voltage and battery actual voltage level. The
Solar cell current is calculated by using solar
cell V-A characteristics and an approximate
radiation Vs time table. The number of
series and parallel connected cells are also
considered. The load current is estimated by
using several past values of load current and
rated load current. The solar cell current and
load current corresponds to battery current
from which after integrality, battery charge
can be obtained.. Now the charge Vs.
voltage graph being stored in look up table
is used to calculated battery voltage. The
difference between this battery voltage and
reference voltage is error signal used by
controller.
373
Figure 3. Matlab/Simulink model of Photovoltaic system
Simulation Results:The simulation result of battery voltage vs.

time is shown below. This simulation result
is for about 70 hours, in which it clear that
battery voltage increases with increasing
intensity of sun light. Battery charges to it
maximum value in about 38 hours. All
other simulation results can be well seen by
using the simulation model shown above in
Matlab/Simulink. The description of entire
simulation results is not possible in limited

volume of this paper.
section II:Combination of Photovoltaic/Thermal
and Biogas Energy System:
The solar power depends on weather
conditions. It is known to all that solar
power changes with time and space. So DPS
with Photovoltaic/Thermal power system is
not suitable for continuous user needs.
Biogas generated by anaerobic degradation
of organic material in the absence of air and
in the presence of microorganisms. The
source of Biogas is waste of Industries,
Agriculture and Towns etc. This Biogas is
fired to drive some generator or turbines etc
[2].The Biogas power generation is
controlled power generation mechanism and
it can be used to balance the power output
from Photovoltaic/Thermal panels.
Figure 4. Battery Voltage Vs. Time

374
The block diagram for combined

Photovoltaic/Thermal and Biogas system is
shown below.
converter. The direction of output power is

depicted in the following figure.
Grid
Controller
Photovoltaic/
Thermal Panel
PV/T
Generator
Heat
Exchanger
Turbine
AC/AC
Converter
Control Bus
Pth
Hot
Working
Liquid
Mains
PE
Battery
Panel
PS
Controller
Charge
Controller
Biogas storage
Tank
CONTROLLER
Converter
AC/AC Converter
Generator
Turbine
PL
LOAD
PB
Figure 3. Complete bock diagram of Photovoltaic/Thermal and Biogas DSP
Power Flow of System:The current of Photovoltaic cell is DC and is

supplied to AC bus bar through a DC/AC
converter to change voltage level and other
electrical parameters. The power generated
by thermal part of cell is supplied to the AC
bus bar through AC/AC converter and the
power generated by Biogas generator is also
fed to AC bus bar through AC/AC
Now there are three relations between power

generated by all these sources and load.
Case I:-
PS PTH PL PE
375
This PG 0 i.e; this system will supply to
Where i is amount of gas supplied in Vats.
grid.
And Pi is instantaneous power.
Case II:-
The output developed torque is given below;
PS PTH PL PE
T = 9550Pi/n
The controller will control power generated

by Biogas generator and will remove
deficiency i.e; PS PTH PB PL PE
Where is efficiency.
And again PG 0
Case III:-
PS PTH PB PL PE
Then
PG 0
Hence the grid system will remove the

deficiency of power.
Controller Design:The Photovoltaic/Thermal Biogas system is
a complex system so that whole model of
this system is difficult to get. In this system
there are two separate controllers; One
controller is the charge controller. It is a
basic controller which is used to prevent
battery from overcharging and deep
discharge. The second controller is the
major controller which compares the output
power generated by Photovoltaic/Thermal
panel with power requirement of load and
utilized that error signal to generate
command signal for Biogas power plant.
The instantaneous power generated by
biogas generator is;
Pi = pVni/120
Conclusions:The first section of this paper suggests that

Photovoltaic/Thermal panels can be used in
conjunction. This system can be used in
stand alone mode or UPS system can also be
connected to this system. In the second
section it was proposed that since
Photovoltaic /Thermal systems depend
entirely on weather conditions hence a
Biogas generator can be used along with
these. By using this technique it was shown
that constant output power according to the
load demand is possible.
References:-
[1] Jardan, R.K.; Nagy, I.; Modeling of a

combined Photovoltaic/Thermal .
Energy
System; Power
Electronics and Motion Control
Conference, 2004.
[2] Zhang Yanning, Kang Longyun, Cao
Binggang, Huang Chung-Neng, Wu
Guohong; Renewable Energy
Distributed power system with Wind
Power and
Biogas Generator;
Transmission & Distribution
Conference & Exposition: Asia
and Pacific, 2009.
[3] B. Ozerdem, H.M. Turkeli,Wind
energy potential estimation and
micrositting onIzmir Institute of
Technology Campus[J],
376
Turkey,Renewable Energy 30 (2005)

16231633.
[4]
M.T. Iqbal,Simulation of a small wind

fuel cell hybridenergy
system[J],Renewable Energy 28
(2003) 511522.
[5]
J.G..Mcgowan,J.F.Manwell, Hybrid
Wind/PV/Diesel system Experience[J].
Renewable energy. 1999,Voll6(3):
928-933.
[6]
W.Z. Zehringer, 1. Pieder, M. Suter,

N. Celanovic: Power Elecfmonics
Solutions for Distributed Power
Generation 1 I' International
Symposium an Power ElectronicsEe200 1,
Novi Sad, Yugoslavia, Oct. 31-Nov. 2.
[7]
Jong, M.J.M: System Studia on

Combined PV I Thermal Panels,
Elfies Symposium Thermis&
SalTenergie, 9-1 1, May, 2001,
Klaster Banz, Staffelstein, Germany
377

Experimental and Computational Analysis of a

1.2kW PEMFC Designed for Communications
Backup Power Applications
Kannan Jegathala Krishnan, Joevis Claveria, Lavanya Varadharajan and Akhtar Kalam
Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science
Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
Email: {kannan.jegathalakrishnan@live.vu.edu.au, joevis.claveria@live.vu.edu.au,
lavanya.varadharajan@live.vu.edu.au, akhtar.kalam@vu.edu.au}
Abstract:
Usage of Fuel Cells due to their high power
density and low greenhouse gas emissions which
combine H2 and O2 electrochemically to produce
electricity and H2O as the by-product will become
widespread in the near future due to its quality,
reliability and portability. Among all types of fuel cells,
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) is
most attractive for residential and automotive industry
use due to its low operating temperature, silent
operation, quick start-up characteristics and better
performance. The T-1000 1.2kW PEMFC are mainly
used for communications backup power applications
because of its high reliability, simplicity and ease of
maintenance in telecommunication sector, utility and
government etc. This paper discuses the features of T1000 PEMFC and also the production losses due to
power outages in US and different parts of the globe
and the advantages of using it in different sectors to
reduce the production loses occurred by the power
outages. This work focuses on the experimental data
and the computational data of load, P, V, A and H2
consumed under laboratory conditions at Power Lab in
Victoria University, Melbourne. The paper also
describes various load, P, V and A curves recorded at
regular intervals between the experimental and
computational data. The work shows notably the
benefit of using T-1000 1.2kW PEMFC for residential,
automobile, government and telecom sectors.
Key words: Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC), Hydrogen, Load, Batteries, Voltmeter,
Ammeter, Circuit breaker.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Analysts with Special Background Investigation (SBI)

energy have estimated that the fuel cell market grew from
$353 million to $478 million from the year 2005 to 2009.
Researchers with SBI energy also predicted that the annual
growth rate expected to 20% by 2014 [1].
The basic operation of the fuel cell and its chemistry is
explained in Section II. Among the different kinds of fuel
cells, PEMFC has received much attention in the last 10
years in variety of applications like transport (where a
quick start up is required) and back power systems because
of its low temperature, portability, ease and safe
operational mode [2] which is explained in subsequent
Section III.
Section IV and V explain the features of a T-1000
1.2kW PEMFC and its applications with different sectors
like telecom, government, utility and transport [3]. Section
V discusses the production losses due to the power outages
in US [13], different regions in Thailand and also the other
parts of the globe [4].
Sections VI and VII discuss the experimental
setup and results. The experimental and the computational
data of load, P, V, A and H2 consumed, derived from the
experiments are tabulated and graphs were recorded at
regular intervals. This paper points out the benefit of using
T-1000 which is designed mainly for communications
backup power applications for different sectors during
power outages and even to minimise environmental
impacts.
378
II. FUEL CELL

A Fuel Cell is a device that converts the chemical
energy into electricity [5]. A Fuel Cell uses H2 as a fuel and
an oxidant to produce protons, electrons, heat, H2O and
low greenhouse gas emissions. The simple combustion
reaction of fuel cell is shown in equation 1.
2H2 + O2 2H2O.. (1).
In a simple circuit with a load, the electrons are
harnessed to provide electricity. In a fuel cell H2 fuel is
supplied to the negative terminal (anode) and the O2 is
supplied to the positive terminal (cathode). Once the H2 is
split into a proton and an electron by a chemical reaction,
then protons and electrons take a different path to the
cathode and both are reunited again at cathode [6].
The protons travel to cathode through an
electrolyte and the electrons take the other path through the
external circuit producing electricity for a given load. The
final product is only heat and H2O which is shown in Fig.
1. The total electrical power generated is the product of
voltage and current and is shown in equation 2.
Power (watts) = Voltage (volts) x Current (amp). (2) [8].
Fuel Cells are mainly classified by the kind of
electrolyte they use. The other factors determined in the
classification of Fuel Cells are the kind of chemical
reactions that takes place, the kind of catalyst used, the
temperature range and the fuel required [7]. Among all
types of Fuel Cells, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
(PEMFC) is attractive for residential use and automotive
industry due to its low operating temperature, silent
operation, quick start-up characteristics and better
performance. Fuel cells usage will become widespread in
near future for its quality, reliability and portability [8].
Fig. 1 Basic Fuel Cell Operation [6]
III. PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL

CELL
PEMFC also referred to as Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cells is shown in Fig. 2 are
electrochemical devices in which the reactant gases H2 and
O2 (from air) enter the Fuel Cells and combine to form heat
and H2O and emit low greenhouse gases [6].
The H2 diffuse through a porous backing layer
called anode backing layer, and the O2 diffuse through the
cathode backing layer, known as diffusion media. To
provide a transition between the electrode and the backing
layer a micro-porous layer (MPL) is included to assist H2O
transport. H2 is oxidised as shown in the equation 3. The O2
is reduced to H2O as shown in the equation 4.
2H2 4H+ + 4e-. .. (3).
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H20 (4).
At anode H2 dissociates into protons (H+) and
electrons (e-), the protons travel through the electrolyte
membrane to the cathode and the electrons are insulated
and forced to travel through an external circuit by polymer
known as Ionomer to produce electricity for a given load
[6].
PEMFC operate at relatively low temperature and
have high power density ratio; these are the main
attractions of PEMFC. They are also suited for light dutyvehicles and small-device applications where shifts in the
power demand and quick start-up is required [9]. PEMFC
has a great hope in the industry and even for some of the
trigenaration applications, and potentially the best Fuel
Cell being researched for automobiles, telecom and
government sectors and for utility [6].
Fig. 2 PEM Fuel Cell [15]
379
IV. T-1000 1.2kW PEMFC
V. FEATURES OF T-1000
T-1000 system as shown in Fig. 3 is designed

mainly for communication backup power applications
within different sectors like telecom, utility and
government as shown in Table 1. It emits low greenhouse
gases and the by-product are heat and H2O. Since the T1000 uses Modular Cartridge Technology it is highly
reliable, easy for maintenance, and simple in design. This
system also provides flexible configuration from 600 Watts
to 1.2kW capacity [10], T-1000 stack is shown in Fig. 4.
The rated net power of the T-1000 is 0 to 1.2kW

and the nominal output is about 24 to 48 Vdc. The physical
dimensions of mounting are 19 or 23 and the dimensions
are 59.7cm h x 32.5cm w x 48.3cm d. The Remote
Monitoring and System Configuration Capability are used
as the monitoring/control systems for T-1000. The
Standard Industrial grade H2 (99.95%) is used as fuel [11].
TABLE 1: COMMUNICATIONS BACKUP POWER APPLICATIONS WITH DIFFERENT SECTORS [12]
S. No
Sector
Problem
Solution
Telecom
Loss of Power in communications

equipment Loss of service to customers
Millions of dollars in downtime
T-1000 1.2kW PEM Fuel Cell

specifically tailored to meet telecom
industry.
Government and
military
Government and military communications

networks Loss of power Unsafe for
people
T-1000 1.2kW PEM Fuel Cell meets

the requirements of government and
military in loss of power.
Utility
Utility industry Loss of power Quality

of life and every day transactions stops
T-1000 1.2kW PEM Fuel Cell runs via

backup power.
Transport
Transport network communications

When grid power fails Stops people and
products get safely to their destinations
T-1000 1.2kW PEM Fuel Cell helps to

function even grid power fails.
Fig. 3 T-1000 1.2kW PEM Fuel Cell [12]
Fig. 4 T-1000 1200W PEM Fuel Cell Stack [12]
380
VI. PRODUCTION LOSSES DUE TO POWER

INTERRUPTIONS
The stable grid power service poses threat due to
extreme weather, human error etc. As per the averege data
provided by the Department of Energys (DOE), Energy
Information Administration for the years 2005 to 2007,
more than 128 days in a year major disturbances were
caused due to lost grid power in the US alone. In times
environmental disaster can be a threat to fuel supply for
backup generators and in some places generators
themselves are at risk of theft [3]. Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory (LBNS) conducted a study for the
U.S. DOE's Office of Electric Transmission and
Distribution and estimated that blackouts and electric
power outages cost the nation of about $79 billion annually
as shown in Fig. 5. The researchers of LBNS based the
available data divided the power interruptions into two
types namely Momentary Interruptions (that last less than 5
mins) and Sustained Interruptions (that last more than 5
mins) as shown in Fig. 6. The Momentary Interruptions are
considered more important than the Sustained Interruptions
[13].
T-1000 1.2kW PEMFC provides backup power

solutions for communications in several sectors like
government, military, telecom and even Federal
Government as well as State Agencies through snow
storms, extreme cold and hurricanes etc [3]. The power
outages of various places around the globe and the
percentage of production value lost is shown in Fig. 7.
Standard Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI) and
the World Bank report states that in Thailand provinces
SAIDI is 10 times greater than in Bangkok. Fig. 8 shows
the power outage information of different regions in
Thailand [4].
The Hydrogen Power on Demand (HPoD)
technology is a high-tech container of water with
electrodes where H2 is produced by a chemical reaction. T1000 can be attached to generate electricity as shown in
Fig. 9. The HPoD technology is attached to a T-1000 as
long as the fuel is available it provide continuous power
and also it is environmental friendly. Therefore it can be
used in Banks and Telecommunications Company in order
to avoid huge losses caused by power outages [14].
Fig. 5 Estimation of the Annual Cost of Power Interruptions by LBNL [13]
Fig. 6 Momentary and Sustained Interruptions [13]
Fig. 7 Production Value losses due to power outages [4]
Fig. 8 Power Outage in Thailand [4]
381
VII. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR GENERATION OF

POWER USING T-1000 1.2kW PEMFC
The experimental setup consists of a H 2 fuel tank
with 2000 psi, PEMFC, battery bank with 48V, resistor
load which provides a variable load to the T-1000 is used
to test its dynamic performance, circuit breakers and the
measurement systems (voltmeter and ammeter) which are
shown in the block diagram and the Single Line Diagram
in Figs. 10 and 11.The battery bank is used to start-up the
T-1000 and it is switched off during the experiment.
supply of H2 and O2 (from air). The No Load Voltage

(55.5V) and H2 (2000psi) was noted. The load was varied
from 8.60 to 29.0 and tabulated in the experimental
data as shown in the Table 2. Simultaneously the
computational data of load is also noted and tabulated in
Table 2. The corresponding readings of the measurement
systems (V and A) and H2 consumed are also noted
experimentally and computationally and tabulated in the
Table 2. The Fig. 8 shows the experimental data of load, V,
A, and H2 consumed and the Fig. 8a shows the
computational data of RL, V, A, P and H2 consumed.
VIII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Experiments were conducted on a T-1000 which
is an integrated system that produces power from the
Hydrogen
T 1000 1.2 kW
PEMFC
R Load
Batteries
Fig. 9 HPoD with PEMFC to produce electricity [14]
Fig. 10 Block diagram of a T-1000 generation system
Ammeter
Circuit
Breaker
T-1000 1.2kW
PEMFC
Circuit
Breaker
Circuit
Breaker
Batteries
Voltmeter
R Load
Fig. 11 Single Line Diagram of a T-1000 generation system
382
TABLE 2: EXPERIMENTAL AND COMPUTATIONAL DATA OF RL, V, A, P AND H2 USED FROM 1.2kW PEM FUEL CELL
Experimental Data of RL, V, A, P and H2 from 1.2kW PEM Fuel
Cell (T-1000 Series)
S. No
RL ()
V
A
P =VxA
H2(psi)
Computational Data of RL, V, A, P and H2 from 1.2kW

PEM Fuel Cell (T-1000 Series)
RL ()
V
A
P =VxA
H2(psi)
8.60
53.80
7.07
380.37
1800
7.64
55.80
7.30
407.34
1910
8.80
54.00
6.62
357.48
1800
8.22
55.90
6.80
380.12
1900
9.40
54.10
6.17
333.80
1800
8.73
55.90
6.40
357.76
1890
10.20
54.20
5.71
309.48
1790
9.47
55.90
5.90
329.81
1890
11.20
54.30
5.24
284.53
1790
10.35
55.90
5.40
301.86
1890
12.40
54.40
4.77
259.49
1790
11.18
55.90
5.00
279.50
1890
14.70
54.50
4.30
234.35
1780
12.42
55.90
4.50
251.55
1880
16.70
54.60
3.83
209.12
1780
13.98
55.90
4.00
223.60
1880
19.50
54.70
3.35
183.25
1780
16.00
56.00
3.50
196.00
1880
10
23.30
54.80
2.88
157.82
1780
18.67
56.00
3.00
168.00
1870
11
28.80
54.90
2.40
131.76
1770
21.54
56.00
2.60
145.60
1870
12
29.10
55.10
1.33
73.28
1770
26.67
56.00
2.10
117.60
1870
2500.00
2000.00
1800.00
1600.00
1400.00
1200.00
1000.00
800.00
600.00
400.00
200.00
0.00
RL ()
V
A
P
H2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SAmple Data
Fig. 8 Experimental data of load, V, A and H2
from 1.2 kW PEM Fuel Cell
The values of P shown in Table 2 is the product of

the V and A as given in the equation 2. Figs. 9 and 9a show
the experimental data and the computational data of load
and A and Figs. 10 and 10a denotes the experimental data
and the computational data of load and V. Experimental
and the computational values of all the three parameters
load, P and A are shown in the Figs. 11 and 11a and. the
curves are recorded for all the three parameters. There is a
difference in the total volume of the H2 consumed in the
experimental data (30 psi) and the computational data (40
RL (), Voltage(V), Amperes(A),

Power (P), Hydrogen
RL (), Voltage(V), Amperes(A),

Power (P), Hydrogen
The No Load Voltage is 55.5 V, and the H2 was 2000 psi
2000.00
1500.00
RL ()
V
A
P
1000.00
500.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sample Data
Fig. 8a Computational data of load, V, A and H2
from 1.2 kW PEM Fuel Cell
psi) as shown in Table 2. The difference is because of the

experimental reading is noted from the H2 pressure
transducer of the H2 tank which is situated outside of the T1000 as shown in Fig. 10. The computational data of H2
includes the H2 in the T-1000 when the H2 supply solenoid
is opened and before the T-1000 is switched on.
Therefore there is a minor difference of 10psi in the
volume of H2 consumed. Table 2 shows the readings of
8.60 to 29.10 of load and 380.37 to73.28 watts of P
from the experimental data and 7.64 to 26.67 and
383
Government as well as State Agencies through snow

storms, extreme cold and hurricanes etc. by the different
sectors as along as the H2 fuel is available.
40.00
30.00
20.00
RL ()
10.00
0.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
RL (), Amperes (A)
RL (), Amperes (A)
407.34 to 117.60 watts of P from the computational data.

Therefore T-1000 can be used for different variable load to
obtain the required P in several sectors and even Federal
1 3 5 7 9 11
Sample Data
Fig. 9 Experimental data of load versus A from 1.2 kW

PEM Fuel Cell
Fig. 9a Computational data of load versus A from 1.2 kW

PEM Fuel Cell
60.00
60.00
50.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
RL ()
20.00
10.00
RL (), Voltage(V)
RL (), Voltage(V)
A
1 3 5 7 9 11
Sample Data
0.00
40.00
30.00
RL ()
20.00
10.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sample Data
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sample Data
Fig. 10 Experimental data of load versus V from 1.2 kW

PEM Fuel Cell
RL (), Amperes(A), Power

(P),
RL ()
Fig. 10a Computational data of load versus V from 1.2 kW

PEM Fuel Cell
400.00
350.00
300.00
250.00
RL ()
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
1
6
7
Sample Data
10
11
12
Fig. 11 Experimental data of load, A and P from 1.2 kW PEM Fuel Cell
384
RL (), Amperes(A), Power (P)
450.00
400.00
350.00
300.00
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
RL ()
A
P
10
11
12
Sample Data
Fig. 11a Computational data of load, A and P from 1.2 kW PEM Fuel Cell
IX. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the basic operation of a Fuel Cell
[5], the working principle of PEMFC [6] and the features
[11] and benefits [12] of T-1000 is discussed and the
experiment is carried out using T-1000. Based on the
researches, it confirms that the solution for production
losses due to power outages [4] and environmental
disasters can be T-1000. The T-1000 is mainly designed for
communications backup power applications in different
sectors [10].
The experimental data and the computational data
derived during the experiment denote that the T-1000 is
valid and operable. The dynamic performance with varied
load to obtain required power, points out that it can be used
as the primary candidate for automobile industry, telecom,
banks, government, utility and many other sectors [12].
REFERENCES
[1] Fuel Cell Market to Reach $1.2B By 2014. [Online] Viewed 2010
September 17. Available:
http://www.sustainablebusiness.com/index.cfm/go/news.display/id/21111
[2] Yuvarajan, S.; Dachuan Yu;, "Characteristics and modelling of PEM
fuel cells," Circuits and Systems, 2004. ISCAS '04. Proceedings of the
2004 International Symposium on, vol.5, no., pp. V-880- V-883 Vol.5, 2326 May 2004
[3] Hydrogen Fuel Cell Applications. [Online] Viewed 2010 September
15. Available: http://www.relioninc.com/pdf/ReliOnGovtApplications0508.pdf
[4] Global Outage Management Relies on Robust AMI. [Online]
Viewed 2010 September 16. Available:
http://www.elp.com/index/display/articledisplay/8879943835/articles/utility-automation-engineering-td/volume15/issue-1/features/global-outage_management.html
[5] Fuel Cell Basics. [Online] Viewed 2010 September 6. Available:
http://www.fctec.com/fctec_basics.asp
[6] Introduction to Fuel Cell Technology. [Online] Viewed 2010
http://www.nd.edu/~msen/Teaching/DirStudies/FuelCells.pdf
[7] Types of Fuel Cells. [Online] Viewed 2010 September 8. Available:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.htm
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[8] Tanrioven, M.; Alam, M.S.; "Modeling, control and power quality
evaluation of a PEM fuel cell based power supply system for residential
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Oct. 2004
[9] Fuel Cells Types of Fuel Cells. [Online] Viewed 2010 September
10. Available: http://science.jrank.org/pages/2880/Fuel-Cells.html
[10] T-1000 HYDROGEN FUEL CELL. [Online] Viewed 2010
http://directory.officer.com/product/10051297/RELION_T1000_hydrogen_fuel_cell
[11] T-1000 Hydrogen Fuel Cell. [Online] Viewed 2010 September 8.
Available: http://www.relioninc.com/pdf/ReliOnGovtApplications0508.pdf
[12] T-1000 1200W PEM Fuel Cell. [Online] Viewed 2010
September 12. Available: http://www.relion-inc.com/products-t1000.asp
[13] The Economic Value of Reliability. [Online] Viewed 2010
September 14. Available: http://certs.lbl.gov/certs-rtinakey-evr.html
[14] Highlights Hydrogen on Demand. [Online] Viewed 2010
September 15. Available: http://www.nrccnrc.gc.ca/eng/news/nrc/2006/08/06/hpod.html
[15] Global Outage Management Relies on Robust AMI. [Online]
Viewed 2010 September 16. Available:
http://www.elp.com/index/display/articledisplay/8879943835/articles/utili
ty-automation-engineering-td/volume-15/issue-1/features/globaloutage_management.html
385

Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines and their

Feasibility for Pakistan
Safi Ullah
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Engineering & Technology Lahore
Safi_mech@hotmail.com
Abstract- Renewable energy has attracted a great deal of
attention among academics, industries and governments all over
the world in recent times. Wind energy has catered to the
increasing demand for pollution-free production of energy in a
number of countries, and has a lot of potential in our country.
Offshore winds flow at higher speed than onshore winds over a
much larger space. All the basic designs of offshore towers are
discussed briefly with specific emphasis on the Monopile
foundations. The main challenges for the installation of offshore
wind farms must be minimized. The objective of this paper is to
review the parameters of design of the monopile foundations for
offshore wind turbines which has a great potential in the shore
areas of Sindh and Baluchistan and to discuss the environmental
impacts of the offshore wind farms.
Keywords: offshore wind energy, monopile foundation,
Wind turbines.
I. INTRODUCTION
Increasing energy demand coupled with pollution free
production of energy has found a viable solution in wind energy.
Land based windmills have been utilized for power generation
for more than two thousand years. In modern times wind
generated power has become popular in many countries.
Offshore wind turbines are being used in a number of countries
to tap the energy from wind over the oceans and convert to
electric energy. The advantages of offshore wind turbines as
compared to land are that offshore winds flow at higher speed
than onshore winds and the more available space. In some land
based settings, for better efficiency, turbines are separated as

much as 10 rotor diameters from each other. In offshore
applications where only two wind directions are likely to
predominate, the distances between the turbines arranged in a
line can be shortened to as little as two or four rotor diameters.
Today, more than a dozen offshore European wind facilities
with turbine ratings of 450 KW to 3.6 MW exist offshore in
very shallow waters of 5 to 12 m. Compared to onshore wind
turbines, offshore wind turbines are bigger and the tower height
in offshore are in the range of 60 to 80 m. The water depths in
oceans where offshore turbines can be located are within 30 m
[1] . However as the distance from land increases, the costs of
building and maintaining the turbines and transmitting the
power back to shore also increase sharply. The objective of this
paper is to review the designs of foundations for offshore wind
turbines and to discuss the feasibility of monopile foundations in
Pakistans shore areas.
In Europe, first offshore wind facilities were installed
in the early 1990s where there was limited land available for
onshore wind energy production. Since then, the trend has been
to move wind turbines offshore to take advantage of higher wind
speeds; smoother and less turbulent airflows and larger amounts
of open space. As a result, larger and more cost-effective
turbines are being developed. Today, more than 15 offshore
European wind facilities with turbine ratings of 450 kW to 4
MW exist offshore in very shallow water depths of 5m to 15 m.
386
II. OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Fig.1. Nameplate generating capacity of offshore wind projects (19912010) [1]
Offshore winds tend to blow harder and more

uniformly than on land, providing the potential for increased
electricity generation and smoother, steadier operation than
land-based wind power systems. The availability of these high
offshore winds close to major Pakistani coastal cities and
industries significantly reduces power transmission issues.
The offshore wind resource in Pakistan has been sufficient
potential. Offshore wind sites as shown in Fig. 2.
The development and operation of offshore wind

facilities are as follows. Once a suitable place for the wind
facility is located, piles are driven into the seabed. For each
turbine, a tower is installed on the pile foundation for supporting
the turbine assembly, for housing the remaining plant
components and for providing sheltered access for personnel. A
matrix of fiber glass mats impregnated with polyester or epoxy
is used for making the rotor blades. The turbine consists of a
rotor with three blades, connected through the drive train to the
generator. After the turbine is assembled, the wind direction
sensors turn the nacelle to face into the wind and maximize the
amount of energy collected. The nacelle is the part that encloses
gearbox, generator, and blade hub. The wind moving over the
blades makes them rotate around a horizontal hub connected to a
shaft inside the nacelle. This shaft, through a gear box, powers a
generator to convert the energy into electricity. Offshore
turbines have different technical requirements compared to
onshore turbines due to the climatic environmental exposure that
is more demanding. Even though offshore and onshore turbines
look similar, design modifications are required to suit their
different environmental conditions. These include protecting the
nacelle components from sea air, adding brightly colored access
platforms for navigation and strengthening the tower to cope
with wind-wave interactions. Offshore turbines are typically
equipped with built-in service cranes corrosion protection,
internal climate control and high grade exterior paint. To
minimize expensive servicing, offshore turbines have automatic
greasing systems to lubricate bearing and blades. Also, they
have pre-heating and cooling systems to maintain gear oil
temperature within a narrow temperature range. Lightning
protecting systems minimize the risk of damage from lightning
strikes that occur frequently in some offshore locations.
Turbines and towers are typically painted light blue or grey to
help them to blend into the sky. To aid in navigation and to
highlight the structures for passing vessels, the lower section of
the support towers may be painted with bright colors such as
yellow. There are also lights for navigation and aerial warning.
III. REASONS FOR GOING TO OFFSHORE
Fig.2. Offshore wind sites of Pakistan
A. Land Sites in Short Supply in Some Countries

One of the primary reasons for moving wind farm
development offshore is the lack of suitable wind turbine sites
on land. This is particularly the case in densely populated
countries like Denmark or the Netherlands with a relatively flat
landscape.
B. Higher Wind Speeds
Equally important, however, is the fact that wind
speeds are often significantly higher offshore than onshore. An
increase of some 20 per cent at some distance from the shore is
not uncommon. Given the fact that the energy content of the
387
wind increases with the cube (the third power) of the wind
speed, the energy yield may be some 73 per cent higher than on
land. Economically optimized turbines, however, will probably
yield some 50 per cent more energy at sea than at nearby land
locations.
around the globe, in fact, the wind varies substantially, with

high winds occurring rather infrequently, and low winds
occurring most of the time.
Fig.4. Relationship between Variability Decrease and Distance from shore [2]
Fig.3. Relationship between Capacity Factor and Distance from Shore [2]
In countries like the UK, however, the difference

between good land sites and offshore sites may be smaller or nil,
since turbines on land are often situated on hilltops where the
wind speeds up significantly compared to the speed in flat
terrain.
C. Low Surface Roughness: Cheaper Turbines
Another argument in favor of offshore wind power is
the generally smooth surface of water. This means that wind
speeds do not increase as much with the height above sea level
as they do on land. This implies that it may be economic to use
lower (and thus cheaper) towers for wind turbines located
offshore.
D. Lower Turbulence: Longer Lifetime
The temperature difference between the sea surface and
the air above it is far smaller than the corresponding difference
on land, particularly during the daytime. This means that the
wind is less turbulent at sea than over land. This, in turn, will
mean lower mechanical fatigue load and thus longer lifetime for
turbines located at sea rather than land. No precise calculations
are as yet available, but we may guess at something like 25 to 30
year lifetime for a turbine with a design lifetime of 20 years on
land.
E. Huge Offshore Wind Resources
Offshore wind resources are enormous: Wind energy
resources in the seas of the European Union with water depths
up to 50 meters are easily several times larger than total
European electricity consumption.
The offshore wind resource is obviously somewhat unevenly
distributed among countries. In the case of Pakistan, offshore
wind energy may theoretically supply more than ten times
national electricity consumption, due to large areas with shallow
waters (5 to 15 m depth).
F. More Stable Winds
It is a frequent misunderstanding that wind power
generation requires very stable winds. In most wind turbine sites
If we look at the typical statistical wind distribution,

most of the energy output is in fact produced at wind speeds
close to twice the average wind speed at the site. In addition, in
e.g. Europe and a number of other locations around the globe
wind speeds happen to be positively correlated with peak
electricity use (more wind during the day than at night, more
wind in winter than in summer) raising the value of the wind to
the grid by 40 to 60 per cent, compared to a completely random
wind pattern.
Having said this, it should be added, that of course it is
generally an advantage to have a stable power output form a
wind farm. At sea, periods of complete calm are generally
extremely rare, and quite short-lived. Thus the effective use of
wind turbine generating capacity will be higher at sea than on
land.
IV. OFFSHORE WIND TOWER FOUNDATIONS
The most far reaching adaptation demanded by
offshore sitting is associated with the tower design and its
foundation on the sea floor. This is in fact much more than a
foundation on the land site. A large number of foundations have
been designed according to the depth of the water and the size of
the structure resting on it.
In general, three different types of foundations have
been used to support the offshore wind turbines. They are
shallow water foundations, transitional foundations and floating
type foundations. These types are discussed briefly here.
Fig.5. Different types of Offshore wind foundation [2]
388
A. Shallow Water Foundations

The most common shallow-water foundations being
deployed today are monopiles, gravity-base, and suction-bucket
substructures, with the latter in the experimental stage.
C. Floating Wind Turbine Technology

At deeper water sites, it might be more economical to
use floating substructures, but the technology is at a nascent
stage of development. The development of floating wind
technology will dictate a new set of wind turbine design
specifications to handle the coupled hydrodynamic/aerodynamic
forcing, as well as the added weight and buoyancy stability
requirements. For floating systems, the benefits derived from
turbine weight reduction will increase and could spur a new
class of novel, lightweight wind turbine technologies that might
be economical only in the context of floating substructures. The
marine industry has demonstrated that a large portion of the
buoyancy structure is needed to support the mass above the
waterline. In the case of wind energy, this is the tower and rotornacelle assembly.
Fig.6. Shallow-water foundation technology [4]
B. Transitional Technology Foundations

Transitional substructure technologies are used to
support offshore wind turbines in waters deeper than 30 m but
shallower than 60 m [4]. Transitional depths are often referred
to as intermediate depths but are thought of in this report as
transitioning from the current technology into deeper waters
but still fixed to the bottom. This means that projects installed in
transitional water depths will be deeper and farther from shore
than projects in the current experience base. For water depths
greater than 30 m, or at sites with softer soil compositions, a
wider substructure base is needed to counteract overturning
forces and to conform to turbine design requirements for
stiffness. In most cases, transitional substructures will result in
higher costs and add incremental technology challenges.
Transitional substructures use multiple anchor points, using
jackets or tripods. Deeper water means more structure placed
below the waterline, and logistically, a more difficult installation
process. A fleet of installation vessels will need to be adapted to
perform the needed functions at these greater depths. New
installation methods and quayside infrastructure would need to
be developed to make this technology competitive with shallowwater wind. Figure gives a range of conceptual transitional
substructures.
Fig.7. Transitional substructure technology [4]
Fig.8. Floating deepwater platform concepts [4]
V.
MONOPILE FOUNDATIONS
A foundation with a free standing steel pipe which is

rammed into the sea floor is called a monopile foundation. This
is comparatively simple solution and is preferred wherever the
external conditions are suitable especially for cost reasons.
The monopile consists of a steel pipe pile up to 6 m in diameter
with wall thickness as much as 150 mm. depending up on the
subsurface conditions, the pile is typically driven into the seabed
by either large impact or vibratory hammers, or the piles are
grounded into the sockets drilled into rock. Compared to the
gravity base foundation, the monopile has minimal and localized
environmental impact.
From the point of view of vibrational characteristics, a
monopile foundation is a soft system. The natural frequencies of
the tower of wind turbine can only be determined in the overall
tower with monopile system. The soft response of the structure
effectively reduces the fatigue load spectrum.
The monopile is the most commonly used foundation for
offshore wind turbines in shallow water depths, as they are
flexible in design. The required section properties will be
389
governed by dynamic considerations than by strength and

fatigue requirements. When the water depth increases, they have
to be stiffer to avoid large natural periods and so end up with
large, heavy and expensive structures. Therefore, this type of
foundation has a water depth limit of about 25 m. [9]
Fig.9. Monopile foundation for shallow water [5]
VI. LOADS ON MONOPILE FOUNDATION

A. Wind Loads
The wind load applied on the turbine tower comprises
of the effects of the direct wind pressure on the tower and the
wind turbine. Therefore in designing the tower, calculations are
made to reflect each characteristic load and suitable safety
factor. Loads that occur simultaneously are combined whenever
necessary. The wind turbine loads have two components namely
stationary and cyclic. The cyclic loads are aerodynamic loads
from a uniform, steady wind speed and the stationery loads arise
from the centrifugal forces. A stationary but spatially uneven
flow field over the swept areas causes cyclic load changes on
the turning rotor. Further, the inertia forces that result from the
rotating rotor blade masses cause periodic, non-stationery loads.
In addition to the stationary and cyclic loads, the rotor is
exposed to non-periodic and random loads caused by wind
turbulence. The variables to be considered are direct wind
pressure, gust factor and force coefficient. The static lateral
wind load along the tower height is calculated by the direct wind
pressure on the projected area that varies with the diameter. The
wind shear force, the overturning moment along the tower
height and the tower deflection along the height are computed
using formulae. If site specific wind loads and directions are
used, the design of the tower becomes more economical. Also
the optimum hub height for the location will result in increased
production.
B. Wave and Current Loads

Wind tower at sea would be subjected to forces from
waves, and water current. When the waves impinge on
structures, their energy is transferred as loads on the structure.
The wave forces are calculated for slender structures using
simplified linear theory and based on the Morison equation. The
wave loads comprise of the inertia component and the drag
component and they depend on the wave height, wave periods
and water depth at the location. Since the wave loads depend on
the water depth the shallow water and deep water structures are
influenced by the wave loads. The shape of the structure
influences the drag and the inertia coefficients. The wave loads
decrease exponentially towards the sea bottom. The loads due to
the water current are dependent on the square of the velocity of
the current and similar to wind loads and calculated using drag
coefficients of members.
C. Loads from Wind Rotor
The static and dynamic reaction components from the
rotor on to the wind tower have to be properly accounted for as
they will produce axial force, shear force, overturning moment
and twisting moment on the foundation. It is worthwhile to
mention here that special wind rotors that transfer minimum
reactions on to the tower have been developed recently.
D. Dynamic Behavior
A designer is required to study the dynamic
characteristics of the tower with the help of simulation or
modeling to understand dynamic properties of the tower. It is
necessary to understand the extent to which the flexibility in the
foundation plays a role as a design parameter in influencing the
dynamic behavior of the tower. The dynamic magnification
effects can directly influence the fatigue loads to be considered
in the tower design. It is necessary for the designer to design the
tower frequency such that it avoids excitation of the resonant
oscillations that result from rotor thrust fluctuations at the blade
passing frequency or at the blade rotational frequency.
Larger and heavier turbines will inevitably experience
longer periods of natural oscillation. Offshore wind turbines are
also bigger than onshore turbines (to take advantage of the
steadier offshore winds and economies of scale). A typical
onshore turbine installed today has a tower height of about 60 to
80 m, and blades about 30 to 40 m long; most offshore and
onshore wind turbines are at the top end of this range. Offshore
turbines installed today are generally between 2 and 4 MW, with
tower heights greater than 60 m and rotor diameters of 75 to 105
m.
E. Pile Soil Interaction
The interaction between the monopile and the soil
around has to be properly accounted for by incorporating the
measured soil properties in to the calculation of the immersed
weight, lateral soil pressure, soil stiffness and the soil friction.
The details depend up on the assumptions and are not dealt in
this paper.
390
VII. ECONOMICS OF OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES

The estimated cost of offshore wind energy varies
depending on the project. Some studies indicate that the cost of
offshore wind turbine systems is significantly more than land
based systems because of the higher cost of foundations,
installation, operation and maintenance. The typical breakdown
of the costs for a wind farm in shallow water is shown in Fig.2.
Fig.10.Cost breakdown for offshore wind plant in shallow water [5]
A. Marinization
The Marinization component covers special preparation
for all components to increase their survivability in the extremes
of an offshore ocean environment. These preparations include
special paints and coatings, improved seals for gearboxes,
generators, electrical components, and electrical connections. It
is calculated as a percentage of all turbine costs from the tower
up. These numbers suggest marinization factors of between 10%
and 15%.[7]
B. Offshore Support Structure
Land-based turbines are normally installed on concrete
foundations. Offshore turbines must be attached to a form of
foundation that extends from sea bed to sea level so that the
tower can be affixed atop it. These foundations can take several
forms, but the most often used is a driven pile (a steel pile
driven into the sea bed) that protrudes above the water line. The
wind turbine tower is bolted to the top of this structure. The cost
for installing such a pile is normally significantly greater than
the basic concrete footers used for a land-based turbine.
C. Offshore Transportation
There are two elements of transporting an offshore
wind turbine. One element is to get the turbine components to
the port staging and assembly area. The second is to get the
assembled turbine to the installation site. This second of these
cost elements is covered in the offshore installation cost. The
costs for 3 to 5 MW turbines show a significant increase over
smaller machines due to the premiums for moving such large
structures over the road or by rail to wind farm sites in the
central plains. These costs may be significantly reduced by

locating fabrication facilities close to the port and staging areas.
D. Offshore Turbine Installation
In the future, to help lower costs, specialized
equipment should be developed for installing turbines on piles
or floating platforms. Ocean-going cranes and special barges
capable of station keeping in currents and winds will be needed
to allow erection of the turbine. An alternative to special ships
with cranes will be land-based cranes loaded onto special barges
and maneuvered into place for installation. Regardless, it is
expected that the installation of very large offshore turbines will
be more cost effective in the long run than similar land-based
installations, due to the greater hauling capacity of barges and
lifting capacity of offshore crane equipment. For shallow water
installation, this cost element also includes transport of the
turbine from shore to the installation site.
E. Offshore Electrical Interface and Connection
In most cases, offshore wind installations will require
their own electrical transmission system to bring the turbine
power to shore. In addition to the connections to shore,
underwater electrical cables will be required to go from turbine
to turbine to gather the turbine power. Some forms of
redundancy may also be considered for such installations.
Because few such large-scale installations have been built, very
little detailed information for this cost element has been
developed, though a modeling effort is under way. The cost in
this element includes the cost of cabling between turbines and
the cable to the grid interconnects at the shore.
F. Personnel Access Equipment
Wind turbines located offshore must be accessed from
marine vessels, small boats, or helicopters for servicing.. To
improve the safety for these operations, special personnel access
equipment will be required. Aside from typical equipment such
as for fall protection, servicing may require special boat access
ramps or docking equipment, lifesaving equipment located at
each turbine, special tool lifts, and emergency survival
equipment in case service personnel are stranded at a turbine.
G. Scour Protection
Shallow-water turbines are mounted on towers or piles
that are fixed to the ocean bottom. These foundations may be
driven piles or large concrete footers sitting on the bottom. In
any case, currents swirling around the base of the footing will
have a tendency to scour bottom material from the base, causing
danger of foundation failure.
H. Offshore O&M
Because of the extreme operating environment, the
remote location, and the specialized access and servicing
equipment (barges, ships, boats) needed, offshore O&M costs
are expected to be much higher than those for land-based
installations, at least during the early period of development.
391
VIII. CHALLENGES FOR OFFSHORE

A. Costs
The primary reason delaying offshore development of

wind farms has been cost.
Although the price of wind turbines has been falling some 20
per cent per kW installed power over the past three years, and
installation costs per kW installed on land have declined due to
up scaling of turbines, installation costs offshore have remained
more or less stable.
Foundations and grid connection of large wind farms
on land may be purchased at a relatively modest cost of less than
60,000 EUR per wind turbine [7]. Foundations costs were 6 per
cent of project costs, while grid connection accounted for 3 per
cent.
Offshore, however, foundations and cables add significantly to
project costs.
B. Environmental Impacts:
Wind turbines are large infrastructures that must be
mounted into the ground and connected to transmission lines.
They produce no emissions from energy generation, but will
have some impact on the environment though construction or
operation. Wind turbines are known to cause bird deaths if they
are located in the migration route of low-flying birds. But it
should be noted that bird kills resulting from wind turbines are
probably many magnitudes less than bird kills resulting from
strip mining, pollution, and eventually, from climate change
(Allison 2007).
C. Noise:
Wind turbines also generate noise when operating,
though the noise of large, industrial turbines is low frequency
and does not carry over long distances. When wind projects are
sited at required distances away from residential property, noise
levels generated by the turbine and natural background noise are
less than EPA outdoor noise standards, and are roughly
equivalent to the ambient noise of a quiet office or library
(AWEA 2007).
D. Interference:
Radar and aviation impacts have also been a concern
for larger wind projects that are located near airports or radar
stations because the frequency of operating wind turbines can
sometimes interfere with radar or radio equipment. Denmarks
Middelgrunden Wind Project is near the
Copenhagen airport, but air traffic controllers have a computer
program that removes the frequency changes caused by the
turbines. Though wind turbines can affect military radar,
identifying and avoiding wind development near radar sites can
mitigate this interference.
IX. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF OFFSHORE WIND
FARMS
A. Wildlife Considerations
The existing offshore projects have been very
thoroughly researched by biologists. The result was a surprising
increase in fishing yields, attributable to the fact that the
turbines foundations appear as an artificial stone reef. Mussels
grow on the foundations of the turbines, and the flora and fauna
in the area have generally improved in variety since the
construction of the wind farm.
The result has been that the birds' presence is well
correlated with the presence of suitable food, but no statistically
significant impact on bird behavior from the farm itself has been
detected. Bird studies will continue with the erection of future
farms, however, since different species of sea birds will be
involved.
B. Human Considerations
Light reflections, noise, reduced property value and a
negative impact on the local fauna were among the fears of the
critics of the offshore wind farm. No one has complained about
the wind turbines, however, since they started rotating in 1995.
[8]
Once the turbines are there, people seem to accept
their presence. This corresponds to the experience gained
onshore.
Some are located so far from the coast (at distances ranging
from10 to18 km) that the visual impact of the farms is expected
to be minimal or non existent when viewed from the shore,
depending on weather conditions.
C. Global Energy Balance Considerations
Wind turbines generate no CO2, NOx or SOx during
their operation, and very little energy is required for the
manufacture, maintenance and scrapping of a wind power plant.
In fact, with moderate wind onshore sites, a wind turbine will
recover all the energy spent in its manufacture, installation and
maintenance in less than three months. With a 20 year lifetime
that gives a thermal efficiency (comparable to conventional
power plant's 45 per cent) of no less than 8,000 per cent! For
offshore turbines the results may be even better due to longer
expected lifetime of the turbines.
X. CONCLUSIONS
As we know that our country is facing a severe energy
crisis, we must utilize the available resources and potential for
the energy must be transformed into suitable form.
A. Economic Benefits
Offshore wind energy is clearly an economically viable
technology for the 21st century. Even without the environmental
benefits included, offshore wind energy is thus very close to
being competitive, both in comparison with onshore wind, and
in comparison with other generating technologies. Once the
wind farm is installed and starts working, its running cost is far
392
less than the thermal power which is the major source of energy
in our country.
B. Environmental Benefits
Offshore wind energy can make a significant impact on
the emission problems related to conventional power generation
technologies, partly because the offshore wind resource base is
huge, partly because the technology is cost competitive.
C. System Requirements
Large amounts of wind power will of course require a
more flexible electrical grid than what we know today, both in
terms of handling a fluctuating power input, and in terms of the
flexibility of other types of power plant (and possibly user load)
in the system. In cases where there is a possibility of combining
hydro power and wind, large scale introduction of wind would
appear to be a particularly attractive option, since hydro is the
cheapest form of electricity storage available.
D. Challenges
Offshore wind energy opens a new frontier of
technological challenges. Further up scaling of wind turbines,
which are already the largest rotating machinery on earth, will
be a challenge to manufacturers. Other challenges can be found
in mass production of cheap foundations, and improving the
logistics of installation, surveillance, and efficient maintenance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author gratefully acknowledge the encouragement,

Support, facilities and literature provided by the Department of
Mechanical Engineering U.E.T. Lahore and for the fruitful
guidance by Dr. Ejaz. Choudary and Dr. Asad Naem Shah.
REFERENCES
[1] Large-scale offshore wind power in the United States assessment of

opportunities and barriers sept. 2010 [NREL]
[2] Feasibility analysis of coordinated offshore wind project development in the
U.S [M.I.T]
[3] Ahndorf, Thomas; Witzmann, Rolf; Bopp, Siew. The German Offshore
GridA. Successful Integration of Offshore Wind Power. European Offshore
Wind Conference 2007. Berlin, Germany. December 4-6, 2007.
[4] BWEA (British Wind Energy Association). (2010). Web site.
http://www.bwea.com/aviation/radar.html. Accessed September 12, 2010.
[5] Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines.
[6] NSW Wind Energy Handbook 2002 [SEDA]
[7] Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model L. Fingersh, M. Hand, and A.
Laxson.
[8] Offshore Wind Energy: Full Speed Ahead By Soren Krohn, Managing
Director, Danish Wind Industry Association October 2002
[9] Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, and economics by
Erich Hau
393

ADVANCED DUST CONTROL TECHNIQUES IN CEMENT

INDUSTRY ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR - A CASE
STUDY
Zulfiqar Khattak and Jamil Ahmad
Department of Electrical Engineering, COMSATS, Abbottabbad, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
The case study deal with the current day problem of pollution by industrial zones in Pakistan with emphasis on the cement
Industry which has been proved to be the 2nd revenue generating hub after textile sector of the Pakistan.
A pilot study into the identification & available removal Techniques of particulates from the exhaust of a cement plant
clinker cooler was carried out. The objective of this work was to study the performance of the each technique in detail in
the removal of a particulate with a wide range of sizes, under different operational conditions and to compare the results for
collection efficiency with predictions by available theoretical models.
A brief & comprehensive discussion regarding design, construction & bottlenecks of each tool has been discussed to fully
ascertain its scope & usability.
First part of the study identifies the various pollutants being emitted from the chimney of a specific cement plant in
Pakistan & while last portion deals with the ways to curtail these pollutants.
.Key words: Clinker Cooler, Collection Efficiency, Pollutants,
INTRODUCTION
The priority in the cement industry is to minimize the
increase in ambient particulate levels by reducing the mass
load emitted from the stacks, from fugitive emissions, and
from other sources.
Collection and recycling of dust in the kiln gases in
required to improve the efficiency of the operation and to
reduce atmospheric emissions. Units that are well
designed, well operated, and well maintained can normally
achieve generation of less than 0.2 kilograms of dust per
metric ton (kg /t) of clinker, using dust recovery systems.
NOx emissions should be controlled by using proper kiln
design, low -NOx burners, and an optimum level of excess
air. NOx emissions from a dry kiln with pre heater and pre
calciner are typically 1.5 kg /t of clinker, as against 4.5
Kg/t for the wet.
An electrostatic precipitator was employed, consisting of a
conventional plate-wire precipitator to handle 12 000
actual cubic feet per minute (acfm) of exhaust gas. To
offset the high electrical resistivity of the clinker dust,
moisture was added by spraying water directly onto the
clinker bed in order to alleviate the problems caused by
back corona. Overall collection efficiencies in excess of 90
percent were achieved, and in excess of 40 percent by the
grid precipitator section alone.
1. Materials
Emissions from cement works are determined both by

continuous and discontinuous measuring methods, which
are described in corresponding national guidelines and

standards. Continuous measurement is primarily used for
dust, NOx and SO2, while the remaining parameters
relevant pursuant to ambient pollution legislation are
usually determined discontinuously by individual
measurements [1,8].
The following descriptions of emissions refer to modern
kiln plants based on dry process technology [5].
1.1 Climatically relevant gases / carbon dioxide:
During the clinker burning process climatically relevant
gases are emitted. CO2 accounts for the main share of
these gases [1, 5]. Other climatically relevant gases, such
as dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) or methane (CH4), are
emitted in very small quantities only [1]. CO2 emissions
are both raw material-related and energy-related. Raw
material-related emissions are produced during limestone
de carbonation (CaCO3) and account for about 60 % of
total CO2 emissions. Energy-related emissions are
generated both directly through fuel combustion, and
indirectly through the use of electrical power.
1.2 Dust:
To manufacture 1 t of Portland cement, about 1.5 to 1.7 t
raw materials, 0.1 t coal and 1 t clinker (besides other
cement constituents and sulfate agents) must be ground to
dust fineness during production. In this process, the steps
of raw material processing, fuel preparation, clinker
burning and cement grinding constitute major emission
sources for particulate components. While particulate
emissions of up to 3,000 mg/m3 were measured leaving
the stack of cement rotary kiln plants as recently as in the
394
1950s, legal limits are typically 30 mg/m3 today, and

much lower levels are achievable.
1.3 Nitrogen oxides (NOx):
The clinker burning process is a high-temperature process
resulting in the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx). The
amount formed is directly related to the main flame
temperature (typically 1850-2000 C). Nitrogen monoxide
(NO) accounts for about 95 % and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
for about 5 % of this compound present in the exhaust gas
of rotary kiln plants. As most of the NO is converted to
NO2 in the atmosphere, emissions are given as NO2 per
m exhaust gas..
1.4 Sulphur dioxide (SO2):
Sulphur is input into the clinker burning process via raw
materials and fuels. Depending on their origin, the raw
materials may contain sulphur bound as sulphide or
sulphate. Higher SO2 emissions by rotary kiln systems in
the cement industry are often attributable to the sulphides
contained in the raw material, which become oxidized to
form SO2 at the temperatures between 370 C and 420 C
prevailing in the kiln pre heater. Given the sulphide
concentrations found e.g. in German raw material deposits,
SO2 emission concentrations can total up to 1.2 g/m3
depending on the site location. In some cases, injected
calcium hydroxide is used to lower SO2 emissions.
1.5 Carbon monoxide (CO) and total carbon :[{[7]
The exhaust gas concentrations of CO and organically
bound carbon are a yardstick for the burn-out rate of the
fuels utilized in energy conversion plants, such as power
stations. By contrast, the clinker burning process is a
material conversion process that must always be operated
with excess air for reasons of clinker quality. In concert
with long residence times in the high-temperature range,
this leads to complete fuel burn-up[1,5].
The emissions of CO and organically bound carbon during
the clinker burning process are caused by the small
quantities of organic constituents input via the natural raw
materials (remnants of organisms and plants incorporated
in the rock in the course of geological history). These are
converted during kiln feed preheating and become
oxidized to form CO and CO2. [7]
1.6 Dioxins and furans (PCDD/F):
Rotary kilns of the cement industry and classic
incineration plants mainly differ in terms of the
combustion conditions prevailing during clinker burning.
Kiln feed and rotary kiln exhaust gases are conveyed in
counter-flow and mixed thoroughly. Thus, temperature
distribution and residence time in rotary kilns afford
particularly favorable conditions for organic compounds,
introduced either via fuels or derived from them, to be
completely destroyed. For that reason, only very low
concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and
dibenzofurans (colloquially "dioxins and furans") can be
found in the exhaust gas from cement rotary kilns.
1.7 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB):
The emission behavior of PCB is comparable to that of
dioxins and furans. PCB may be introduced into the
process via alternative raw materials and fuels. The rotary
kiln systems of the cement industry destroy these trace

components virtually completely.
1.8 Trace elements:
The emission behavior of the individual elements in the
clinker burning process is determined by the input
scenario, the behavior in the plant and the precipitation
efficiency of the dust collection device. The trace elements
introduced into the burning process via the raw materials
and fuels may evaporate completely or partially in the hot
zones of the pre heater and/or rotary kiln depending on
their volatility, react with the constituents present in the
gas phase, and condense on the kiln feed in the cooler
sections of the kiln system.
2. Pollution Control Technique
The case study objective is to minimize the increase in
ambient particulate levels by reducing the mass load
emitted from the stacks, from fugitive emissions, and from
other sources.
Collection and recycling of dust in the kiln gases in
required to improve the efficiency of the operation and to
reduce atmospheric emissions. Units that are well
designed, well operated, and well maintained can normally
achieve generation of less than 0.2 kilograms of dust per
metric ton (kg /t) of clinker, using dust recovery systems.
NOx emissions should be controlled by using proper kiln
design, low -NOx burners, and an optimum level of excess
air. NOx emissions from a dry kiln with preheater and
precalciner are typically 1.5 kg /t of clinker, as against 4.5
Kg/t for the wet.
Within each of the five main categories of particulate
control techniques, there are many different design types
[9, 13]:
Gravity settling chamber
Mechanical collectors
Particulate wet scrubbers
Electrostatic precipitators
Fabric filters
2.1 Gravity Setting Chambers:
As the name implies, this category of control devices
relies upon gravity settling to remove particles from the
gas stream. Gravity settling chambers are used only for
very large particles in the upper end of the super coarse
size range (approximately 75 micrometers and larger). The
very low terminal settling velocities of most particles
encountered in the field of air pollution limits the
usefulness of gravity settling chambers.
2.2 Mechanical Collectors:
Mechanical collectors use the inertia of the particles for
collection. The particulate-laden gas stream is forced to
spin in a cyclonic manner. The mass of the particles
causes them to move toward the outside of the vortex.
Most of the large-diameter particles enter a hopper below
the cyclonic tubes while the gas stream turns and exits the
tube.
A typical large-diameter cyclone system is shown in
Figure 2.2.1. The gas stream enters the cyclone
tangentially and creates a weak vortex of spinning gas in
395
the cyclone body. Large-diameter particles move toward

the cyclone body wall and then settle into the hopper of the
cyclone. The cleaned gas turns and exits the cyclone.
Large-diameter cyclones are used to collect particles
ranging in diameters from one-sixteenth inch to more than
6 inches.
A small-diameter cyclone tube is shown in Figure 2.2.2.

Vanes located on the inlet of each of the tubes create the
spinning movement of the gas stream. Most of the
commercial tubes are six, nine, or twelve inches in
diameter. Due to the limited gas handling capacity of each
tube, large numbers of tubes are mounted in parallel in a
single collector.
The small-diameter of the cyclone tube creates more rapid

spinning of the gas stream than is possible in largediameter cyclones. Furthermore, the particles moving
outward in the spinning gas stream have a relatively
shorter distance to travel in a small-diameter multi-cyclone
tube before they reach the cyclone body wall. These
features allow small-diameter multi-cyclones to collect
considerably smaller particles than large-diameter
cyclones can. Small-diameter multi-cyclones, such as the
one shown in Figure 2.2.2 are capable of removing
particles having diameters down to 5 micrometers.

Conversely, the small-diameter multi-cyclones are not
generally used for very large diameter material, such as
one-eighth inch and above, because large particles may
plug the spinner vanes in the multi-cyclone tubes.
2.3 Particulate Wet Scrubbers:
There are a number of major categories of particulate wet
scrubbers. The list provided below is not exhaustive (nor
is it listed in order of efficiency).
Venturis
Impingement and Sieve Plates
Spray Towers
This case study discusses three of the above types of
scrubbers: venturis, impingement plate scrubbers, and
spray towers.
2.4 Wet Scrubbing Systems
Each particulate wet scrubber vessel is part of a large, and
sometimes complex, wet scrubbing system. For example,
Figure 2.7.1 illustrates a venturi scrubber in a scrubbing
system. The evaporative cooler, located before the venturi
scrubber in the system, cools the gas stream, which serves
the following purpose:
It protects the construction materials of the venturi throat.
It helps to homogeneously and heterogeneously nucleate
vapor phase material emitted from the process before it
reaches the scrubbing system.
It prevents the water droplets from evaporating and
inhibiting inertial impaction.
Fig: 2.9.1
Many types of particulate wet scrubbers can provide high
efficiency control of particulate matter. One of the main
advantages of particulate wet scrubbers is that they are
often able to simultaneously collect particulate matter and
gaseous pollutants. Also, wet scrubbers can often be used
on sources that have potentially explosive gases or
particulate matter. They are compact and can often be
396
retrofitted into existing plants with very limited space.

One of the main disadvantages of particulate wet scrubbers
is that they require make-up water to replace the water
vaporized into the gas stream and lost to purge liquid and
sludge removed from the scrubber system. Wet scrubbers
generate a waste stream that must be treated properly.
3. METHODS
During the process of cement manufacture, considerable
amount of dust is emitted at almost every stage. For
control of dust emission, various emission standards are
being formulated around the globe for cement industry.
Since then, significant developments have taken place in
terms of cement production as well as technologies.
The cement plant under the case study is of Chinese origin,
which is situated in NWFP, PAKISTAN with less
emphasis on dust emission control than to keep the feed
rates (production) to the optimum level. However due to
growing concern by the neighboring inhabitants over the
regular dust bombardment & also production loss due to
un-availability of any dust control equipment, a thorough
discussion was held by the senior management to curtail
the worsening situation & it was decided go for a best
emission control equipment. Various emission control
equipments available in the market were evaluated one by
one in detail & finally latest, state of the art, Electro-static
Precipitator System was chosen keeping in view its
justification as discussed earlier of this case study.
A brief introduction of histry, construction & operation is
given below [2, 3, 4, , 6].
3.1 Electrostatic Precipitator:
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or electrostatic air
cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes
particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of
an induced electrostatic charge [2]. Electrostatic
precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that
minimally impede the flow of gases through the device,
and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust
and smoke from the air stream.
3.2 Invention of the electrostatic precipitator:
The first use of corona to remove particles from an aerosol
was by Hohlfeld in 1824. However, it was not
commercialized until almost a century later. In 1907 Dr.
Frederick G. Cottrell applied for a patent on a device for
charging particles and then collecting them through
electrostatic attraction the first electrostatic precipitator.
He was then a professor of chemistry at the University of
California, Berkeley. Cottrell first applied the device to the
collection of sulfuric acid mist emitted from various acidmaking and smelting activities.
3.3 How Electrostatic Filtration Works:
Electrostatic dust collectors use electrostatic charges to
separate dust from the dusty air stream. A number of high
voltage, direct current electrodes (carrying negative
charge) are placed between grounded electrodes (carrying
positive charge). The dust borne air stream is passed
through the passage between the discharging (negative)
electrodes and collecting (positive) electrodes. Dust
particles receive a negative charge from the discharging

electrodes (ionizing section) and are attracted to the
positively charged grounded electrode (collection plates)
and fasten on to it. Cleaning is done by rapping or
vibrating the collecting electrode wherein dust particles
fall away. Cleaning can be done without interrupting the
flow.
Fig: 3.1
The basic components of an electrostatic precipitator are
(i) power supply unit (to impart high voltage,
unidirectional current) (ii) an ionizing section where
charge is imparted to dust filled air stream (iii) cleaning
system to remove dust particles and (iv) housing for the
precipitator
3.4 The Plate Precipitator:
The most basic precipitator contains a row of thin wires,
and followed by a stack of large flat metal plates, with the
plates typically spaced about 1 cm apart. The air stream
flows through the spaces between the wires, and then
passes through the stack of plates.
A negative voltage of several thousand volts is applied
between wire and plate. If the applied voltage is high
enough an electric discharge ionizes the air around the
electrodes. Negative ions flow to the plates and charge the
gas-flow particles. The ionized particles, following the
negative electric field created by the power supply, move
to the grounded plates. Particles build up on the collection
plates and form a layer. The layer does not collapse,
thanks to electrostatic pressure (given from layer
resistivity, electric field, and current flowing in the
collected layer).
3.5 Electrostatic Precipitators
Types of Electrostatic Precipitators
There are three main styles of electrostatic precipitators:
(1) negatively charged dry precipitators, (2) negatively
charged wetted-wall precipitators, and (3) positively
charged two-stage precipitators. The negatively charged
dry precipitators are the type most frequently used on
large applications such as coal-fired boilers, cement kilns,
and Kraft pulp mills. Wetted-wall precipitators
(sometimes called wet precipitators) are often used to
collect mist and/or solid material that is moderately sticky.
The positively charged two-stage precipitators are used
only for the removal of mists. In the remainder of this
section, the discussions will focus only on negatively
charged dry precipitators because these are the most
common types of precipitators.
Figure 3.2 shows the scale of a typical electrostatic
397
precipitator used at a coal-fired boiler.
Fig: 3.2
Essentially all of these units are divided into a number of
separately energized areas that are termed fields.
Precipitators have between three and ten fields in series
along the gas flow path. On large units, the precipitators
are divided into a number of separate, parallel chambers,
each of which has an equal number of fields in series.
There is a solid partition or physical separation between
the 2 to 8 chambers that are present on the large systems
[12].
Fig: 3.3
Figure 3.3 shows a single gas passage in a typical
electrostatic precipitator. A high-voltage electrical charge
is applied to the small-diameter electrode shown in the
center of the picture. The large vertical surfaces on both
sides of the electrode are electrically grounded collection
plates. The particles in the gas stream, which is moving
horizontally through the unit become charged and then
move to either side.
The Selection Criteria for ESP
Electrostatic precipitators can have very high efficiencies
due to the electrical forces applied to the small particles.
These types of collectors can be used when the gas stream
is not explosive and does not contain entrained droplets or
other sticky material.
The composition of the particulate matter is very important
because it influences the electrical conductivity within the
dust layers on the collection plate. Resistivity, an
important concept associated with electrostatic
precipitators, is a measure of the ability of the particulate
matter to conduct electricity and is expressed in units of
ohm-cm. As the resistivity increases, the ability of the

particulate matter to conduct electricity decreases.
Precipitators can be designed to work in any resistivity
range; however, they usually work best when the
resistivity is in the moderate range (108 to 1010 ohmscm).
Electrostatic precipitators have the following
advantages. [12].
They have high efficiencies (exceeds 99.9% in some
applications)
Fine dust particles are collected efficiently
Can function at high temperatures (as high as 700 degree
F 1300 degree F)
Pressure and temperature changes are small
Difficult material like acid and tars can be collected
They withstand extremely corrosive material
Low power requirement for cleaning
Dry dust is collected making recovery of lost product easy
Large flow rates are possible
Electrostatic precipitators have the following
disadvantages:
High initial cost
Materials with very high or low resistivity are difficult to
collect
Inefficiencies could arise in the system due to variable
condition of airflow (though automatic voltage control
improves collector efficiency)
They can be larger than bag houses (fabric collectors) and
cartridge units, and can occupy greater space
Material in gaseous phase cannot be removed by
electrostatic method
Dust loads may be needed to be reduced before
precipitation process (pre cleaner may be needed)
The efficiency of electrostatic precipitators can be
increased by:
(i) larger collection surface areas and lower air flow rates
give more time and area for dust particles to collect
(ii) increased speed of dust particles towards collection
electrodes
4. Performance & Efficiency Parameters
To evaluate the performance analysis of an ESP, a formula
was devised by Bundy, D. S. and T. E. Hazen [5], which is
given below.
R=1-e{-AVd/Q}
Notations for Inputs:
Electrodes collecting area (A) (meter^2)
Particles drift velocity (Vd) (meter/second)
Gas flow rate (Q) (meter^3/second)
Actual Data for the particular ESP:
Electrodes collecting area (A)= 18 m2
Particles drift velocity (Vd)= 100 ~102 m/sec
Gas flow rate (Q) = 797 ~800 m3/sec
Solution:
Collection efficiency (R)
= 92% ~ 99%
398
Change Equation
To evaluate the various unknown parameters, following
change equations were devised by P. Aarne Vesilind, J.
Jeffrey Peirce and Ruth F. Weiner {Ref # 3 & 4}, as given
under.
collection efficiency estimate
electrodes collecting area
particle drift velocity
During this case study, different values for all the three
parameters were aimed in Foxpro sub routine to check for
maximum efficiency. By keeping value of electrodes
collecting area fixed, data table sheets along with the
corresponding bar charts were made by varying the
Particles drift velocity (Vd) & Gas flow rate (Q) for
optimum R value.
The data sheet # 01 shows the effect of Gas flow rate (Q)
to ESP efficiency keeping Particles drift velocity (Vd) in a
fixed range showing a inversely proportional relation.
Similarly the data sheet # 02 shows the effect of Particles
drift velocity (Vd) to ESP efficiency keeping Gas flow
rate (Q) in a fixed range showing a proportional relation.
The actual data is enclosed which is the soul work of
the author. Also before implementation to cement
plant, consultation regarding environment similarities
should be done.
gas flow rate
Results & Discussions
Table- 1. Efficiency graph keeping Drift Velocity Constant.
399
EFFICIENCY VS FLOW RATE (With Drift Velocity=100~102)
800
709
621
700
500
581
548
600
659
498
391
429
400
300
200
100
0
flow_rate
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
391
429
498
548
581
621
659
709
DATA SHEET # 1
Efficiency (%age)
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
Air Flow Rate (m3/sec)
391
429
498
548
581
621
659
709
400
Table-2. Efficiency graph keeping Flow Rate Constant.
EFFICIENCYVSDRIFTVELOCITY(WithFlowRate=797~800)
186
200
164
180
149
160
137
127
140
121
115
112
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
drift_velo
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
186
164
149
137
127
121
115
112
DATA SHEET # 2
Efficiency (%age)
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
Drift Velocity (m/sec)
186
164
149
137
127
121
115
112
CONCLUSIONS
Although the Electrostatic precipitator system was
installed at the site of cement plant & in operation but
the optimum efficiency could not attained due to
difficulties in sorting out the proper value ranges for
Particles drift velocity (Vd) & Gas flow rate (Q) as
other parameters were bounded by the design. With the
help of R=1-e{-AVd/g}, optimized values of Vd & Q
were tabulated while keeping the electrode collecting
area(A) constant, collection Efficiency in the range of
92~99% were attained.
The raw meal (semi finished product in form of dust)
which was exhausted previously, added up to the
production of the plant. As the total capacity of the
clinker production of under study plant is 2500
TPD(Tons per day), it was estimated on the basis of

physical stock taking that , by using a electrostatic
precipitator equipment on the optimized operation
parameters, overall collection efficiencies greater than
99 percent are possible. An estimated 8~ 10 TPH (Tons
per hour) of feed lost in the form of dust /emissions
from main exhaust were recovered as well as the
calorific value of the pre-heating system was improved.
REFERENCES
[1] 1) Barber, E. M., J. R. Dawson, V. A. Battams, and
R. A. C. Nicol. 1991. Spatial variability of airborne and
settled dust in a piggery. Journal of Agricultural
Engineering Research 50: 107-127.
2)
Laboratory
Analysis
of
an
E.D.C
by
401
K.A.Rosenter,April,2004
testing of a particulate and viable aerosol removal

system for livestock housing. In International
Conference on Agricultural Engineering 1992. Uppsala,
Sweden, 1-4 June.
3) Bundy, D. S. and T. E. Hazen. 1973. Particle-size

characterization of dust in swine confinement systems.
ASAE Paper No. MC-73-501. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.
8) Bundy, D. S. and M. A. Veenhuizen. 1987. Dust and

bacteria removal equipment for controlling particulates
in swine buildings. In Latest Developments in Livestock
Housing. Champaign, IL, 22-26 June.
4) Bundy, D. S. and T. E. Hazen. 1974. Effect of relative

humidity and ionization on dust control. ASAE Paper
No. 74-4524. St. Joseph, MI. ASAE.
5) P. Aarne Vesilind, J. Jeffrey Peirce and Ruth F.
Weiner. 1994. Environmental Engineering. Butterworth
Heinemann. 3rd ed
6) Bundy, D. S. and T. E. Hazen. 1975. Dust levels in
swine confinement systems associated with different
feeding methods. Transactions of the ASAE 18(1): 137144.
9) Butera, M., J. H. Smith, W. D. Morrison, R. R.

Hacker, F. A. Kains, and J. R. Ogilvie. 1991.
Concentration of respirable dust and bioaerosols and
identification of certain microbial types in a hoggrowing facility. Canadian Journal of Animal Science
71: 271-277.
7) Bundy, D. S. and S. J. Hoff. 1992. Development and
402

Cogeneration an Opportunity for Industrial Energy Saving

Mirza Jahanzaib
Mechanical Engineering Department
College of Engineering, Qassim University, KSA
mirza@qec.edu.sa
Riffat Asim Pasha
UET, Taxila, Pakistan
and
Zahid Suleman Butt
UET, Taxila, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
This paper is about the cogeneration from industrial energy savings opportunities perspective.
The energy crisis in these days forces industry to find ways to cope with critical situation.
There are several energy savings options which if properly planned and implemented would
be beneficial both for industry and community. One way of energy saving is Cogeneration
i.e. Combined Heat and Power. The paper will review the basic methods, types and then
discuss the suitability of these options for specific industry. It has been identified that
generally process industry can get benefits of energy savings.
Key Words: Cogeneration; Combined Heat and Power; Energy Savings
1. Introduction:
Thermal power plants are one of major source of electricity supply in Pakistan. The
traditional way of power generation and supply to the customer is wasteful. About a third of
the primary energy is actually made available to the user in the form of electricity. In
conventional power plant, efficiency is around 35% and remaining 65% of energy is lost
which is in the form of waste heat or useful energy. The major source of loss in the
conversion process is the heat rejected to the surrounding water or air due to the inherent
constraints of the different thermodynamic cycles employed in power generation. Also
403
further losses of around 1015% are associated with the transmission and distribution of
electricity in the electrical grid.
Co-generation is the simultaneous production of electricity and heat using a single fuel such
as natural gas, and a variety of other fuels such as bagasses, coal, waste gas, liquid fuels. In a
conventional power plant, fuel is burnt in a boiler to generate high pressure steam. This steam
then drives a turbine which in turn impels an alternator to produce electricity. The exhaust
steam is condensed to water, which is returned to the boiler. As the low pressure steam has a
large quantity of latent heat which is lost in the process of condensing, efficiency of
conventional power plant is only around 35%. This is shown in figure 1 below.
Figure 1 Conventional Power System

In the CHP process as shown in figure 2, heat produced from electricity generator i.e. exhaust
gases from gas turbine, different level of exhaust steam from steam turbine can be effectively
utilized as a heat source both for industrial & domestic purposes. As a result, co-generation
plants achieve high efficiency levels up to 90%. In view of high cost of electricity and its
shortage especially in these days, this concept is highly beneficial to the process industries
which require both steam and power.
Figure 2 Cogeneration System
2. Classification Based on Energy Usage

There are two major types based on the sequence of energy use. These are:
404
1. Topping cycle in which power generation is first performed and then utilization of
thermal energy as process is used
2. Bottoming Cycle in which utilization of thermal energy first and then power is
generated from it.
It is necessary to give an overview of these classifications and then potential candidates for
the two systems.
2.1 Topping Cycle System:

In topping cycle, the energy is obtained from the combustion of a fuel and used to produce
power electricity. The heat exhausted from power generation unit is then used to satisfy
process heat or other thermal energy requirements. This thermal energy is usually lowpressure, low temperature heat. Typical applications of this type of heat include space heating
and cooling, drying, distillation and concentration etc. Other than gas turbines, steam turbines
and internal combustion engines can be used as prime movers in a topping cycle cogeneration
system. The options of the cogeneration system can include one of the following:
(i) Boiler/ steam turbine
(ii) Waste heat recovery boiler or gas turbine
(iii) Waste heat recovery boiler or Internal Combustion engine and
(iv) Waste heat recovery boiler/ gas or steam turbine
The waste heat recovery boiler/ gas or steam turbine is more commonly known as combined
cycle and is frequently used by power utilities to enhance the overall power plant efficiency.
this is shown in figure 3.
Figure 3 Topping Cycle Cogeneration Systems
405
2.2 Bottoming Cycle Cogeneration System:

In this cycle, fuel is burnt first to satisfy process heat requirements, and the waste heat
rejected from the process is generally used to generate power (electrical or mechanical).
The thermal energy used in bottoming cycle is usually of high grade which is high
pressure, high temperature steam. As an example, bottoming cycle systems are
appropriate for some manufacturing processes which require high temperature heat in
furnaces, and reject waste heat significantly at high temperatures. This waste heat can be
used to generate power in a variety of ways.
Figure 4 Bottoming cycle Cogeneration with Steam Turbine

Fig 4 shows a typical bottoming cycle cogeneration system with a steam turbine as primemover. There are basically two types of bottoming cycle cogeneration systems used in
industrial applications which are steam bottoming systems and organic fluid bottoming
systems. If a large amount of exhaust stream is available at a temperature higher than 250
C, the steam bottoming systems are normally employed. If the temperature of available
waste heat is lower than 250 C, the organic fluid, which has lower boiling point in
comparison with water, is used in the bottoming cycle. The most common organic fluids
in use are R-l 1, R-l 13, R-14, ammonia, and a pyridine-water mixture.
3. Cogeneration Potential
A detailed survey need to be carried out in the sectors as given in table 1 to estimate the
cogeneration potential. Different types of industries which can benefits from the
cogeneration are summarized in the table. Each potential CHP project is unique, hence
there is no substitute for a site specific study That is whilst there is thread as to where
CHP is likely to be of benefit, there is diversity of fuel, cost of process steam or heat, and
406
the general needs of the company. Typical elements of feasibility study include but are
not limited to: Primary products produced by site; Examination of electricity and heat
demand; profile cost shutdown/holidays; Current company thinking on system
configurations and permutation included in the Investigation; Plant schematic and
description of steam/hot water, cold water use on site; Percentage and temperature of
condensate to be returned from process; Type of water treatment plant; Requirement for
waste incinerators; air compressors; refrigeration appropriate; Whether there is
somewhere that low- grade surplus heat can be disposed; Determination of age, condition
and redundancy in exiting plant; The sensitivity to loss of supply, and consequences if the
supply is lost.
Table 1 Potential in Cogeneration for specific type of Industry

Type of Industry
Cogeneration System
Potential (MW)
Refineries
Pharmaceuticals and chemicals
Hybrid
Topping /Hybrid
220~250
50~80
Paper and Board manufacturing Topping /Hybrid
550~600
Aluminium Industry
Topping
50~80
Cement
Bottoming
70~90
Iron and Steel
Bottoming
350~400
Textile
Hybrid
500~550
Sugar
Hybrid
Above 500
Fibre
Topping
150
Total Cogeneration Potential 2790 MW

Source: Enercon Pakistan and Bureau of Energy USA
4. Requirements for successful Implementation of Cogeneration

There are requirements too for the successful implementation of the cogeneration option.
These requirements must be considered before starting any cogeneration option. The
requirements are summarized in the following passage:
407
a) Have all other energy saving measures been recognized and implemented or
taken into consideration?
This requirement deals with whether energy measures have been recognized or not. Since,
in the industrial scenario, there are many options which exist, sometimes waste heat is
used in the form of waste heat recovery boilers. In other cases some get benefits of
directly optimal usage of energy. Therefore, it is required to identify and then devise an
implementation plan for cogeneration.
b) Is there a suitable fuel supply from the process?
The supply of fuel is the most important in any cogeneration project. The major source
fuel in the sugar industry is bagas and in cement plant is the waste heat from the system.
Both types of examples use topping and bottoming cycles which need specific system
configuration and potential as given in table 1.
c) Is there suitable access and space for a cogeneration unit?
The space for the cogeneration system demands some extra land and facility for
operational of cogeneration. This is an additional cost which an industry has to bear, but
in the long run, this cost is minor as compared with benefits associated with combined
heat and power i.e. cogeneration.
d) Are the fuel and electricity consumption statistics available on a monthly basis?
The monthly data of the fuel and electricity consumption must be available. This data is
used for the feasibility study whether conventional system is retrofitted into cogeneration
or not. This needs some statistics on the monthly, quarterly or semi annual basis in order
to conduct the further study of cogeneration process.
e) Is there a requirement to improve any part of the existing heating, electrical
distribution or control system as a result of the cogeneration installation?
An improvement questionnaire must be developed by the managers or person responsible
for the power system. The questionnaire is filled up by the line supervisors or technician
who worked days and nights on the plant. This questionnaire may help the system to
improve for successful implementation of new system.
f) Is the proposed heat user near to the proposed cogeneration location and
electrical distribution system?
During winter season, there is acute demand of warm water and heating for domestic use.
The waste heat from the system normally at lower temperatures can be used in nearby
408
locality. This would save the billing and electricity load which otherwise have to be borne
by the end users.
These questions must take into consideration and a complete feasibility answering all the
above questions be answered. This can be done by the local agencies involved in the
energy planning issues.
5. Conclusion
Energy options from the cogeneration have been discussed and there are certain
requirements before selecting the cogeneration. There is a lot of potential exists in
cogeneration versus conventional system. The acute shortage of energy and electricity
demands the authorities to take concrete actions for industry energy options. The paper
discussed the basic system, cogeneration types and potential which can benefit industry.
Two basic types of cycles discussed are topping and bottoming which have certain
applications in different sectors. Then potential of the two types for specific industry has
also been explored. This has been learnt from industry option exploratory paper that there
is a potential of energy exists like cogeneration. This is therefore imperative for the
respective agencies to take stringent actions for the survival otherwise our industrial
future will be in peril in future.
6. References
[1] Simon Minett, Cogeneration energy: market of', Renewable energy world, UK, pp
156-67, (1999).
[2] G. Saunier and B. Mohanty, Barriers to cogeneration in Europe, Agendce de l
Environment et de la Maitrise de l Energie, 27 rue Louis Vicat, 75015 Paris, France,
(1996).
[3] M. A. R. Sarkar, M. Obaidullah, M. A. T. Ali, Pre feasibility of cogeneration in a
vegetable oil refinery, pp 495-500, World Engineering congress, Malaysia, (1999).
[4] R. H. Spinks, The business of cogeneration project, Industrial power conference,
PWR Vol. 27, 153 158, (1995).
409

Spintronics
Syed Ahmad Waseem Kazmi

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal, Pakistan
Abstract
Spin FET is one of the most promising
types of electronic devices. This paper
investigates two aspects of this Novel Device.
First One is to investigate the parasitic
capacitance which has worst effect on the
performance of this device as well as
conventional FET. The Spin-FET is built in
nanoscale dimensions and the effect of this
capacitance on the power consumption is
investigated. The other one is to measure the
frequency response of the Spin-FET, which is the
higher frequency handling capacity of this
device.
Simulation results have shown the effect
on power consumption of the device and the
clock speed in the digital circuits.
The microprocessors are going to get
higher processing speed day by day but facing
scaling and electrical problems.
Channel in the Spin-FET was built with
the other conductor (gold) in order to show the
change of resistance of 2DEG from the magnetic
effect. Any increase or decrease in the applied
voltage on the Gate makes channel low or high
resistive.
Three prototypes are created in the
ConventorWare software for investigation. Two
Prototypes with two different channel lengths
were built in Design and Analyzer Design Flow,
layers were created in Process Editor and after
processing 2-D layout was created. After that,
this 2D layout was converted into 3-D Model
and Meshed. The parasitic capacitances and
charges on the layers were calculated. The
results showed low power consumption over the
conventional device with low parasitic
capacitances and low operating voltages.
Third Prototype was built with shorter
channel length in Architect Design Flow, and
used to measure the frequency response. The
results also showed high frequency handling
compared to conventional FET.
Mathematical/analytical modeling was
tried to model in B2Spice to show the validation
of above mentioned results.
The conclusions of this research
confirms that Spin-FET can be used as a basic
building block in the electronic circuits and can
be swapped with the conventional FET having
higher speed and low power consumption.
1. Introduction
Recent developments in microelectronics
have prompted an active search for extra
functionality of novel devices. One of the most
promising types of devices is spintronicselectronics devices that use charge as well as
spin of electrons to store and process
information. Current interest in spintronics is
largely motivated by a belief that spin-based
devices (e.g., spin field-effect transistors) will be
faster and consume less power than their
electronic counterparts. This belief has recently
been challenged [appl. Phys. Lett. Vol.85,8
p.1488 (2004)].
A great work has been done in the physics
side (a number of physicists have done a great
job to investigate the physical properties of spin
in the ferromagnetic materials). The main intent
of this project is to make a bridge between the
physics and engineering, translate these
experiments into the Electrical/Electronic ethics.
The aim of this project is to investigate the
true nature of spintronics devices improvement
over the conventional microelectronics devices.
This analysis performed on a Spin Field Effect
Transistor (SpinFET).
Parameters for comparison criteria are
operating voltage, operational speeds, power
consumption
and
the
potential
for
miniaturization and integration. The schematic of
the Spin Field-Effect Transistor is shown below,
Fig.1 Schematic of a Spin Field Effect

Transistor.
In the real sense, this project is primarily
theoretical, and has been modeled in the
appropriate finite element software.
410
2. Motivations
A number of experiments have shown that
quantum interference effect plays a significant
role in electron transportation in nanostructure at
low temperature [1]. But the problem is that to
find out the behavior at or above the room
temperature (for commercial and military
purpose). Atomic model of any material in the
III, IV and V groups of the periodic table have
several unpaired electrons. Theoretically it is
proven that devices can be made using the fact
that those electrons give a net spin polarization
[2]. The most structures [2-7] for the spin based
devices arise from spin precession due to the
spin-orbit coupling in narrow-band gap
semiconductors (2DEG) and having the
magnetized contacts (such as Iron) are used to
preferentially inject and detect specific spin
orientations. The idea [2] came up from the
Electro-optic modulator as shown in fig.2,
Fig.2 Electro-optic modulators [2]

An optical polarizer at the input polarizes the
light at 45o to the y axis (in the y-z plans) which
can be represented as a linear combination of zand y-polarized light. As this light passes
through the electro-optic material, the two
polarization suffer different phase shifts k1 L
and k2 L . The output power Po is given by [2],
Po = 4cos 2
(k1 k2 ) L
2
(1)
The light output is modulated with a gate

voltage that controls the differential phase shift
= ( k1 k2 ) L . The analogous device based on
electron waves is shown in Fig.3.
Fig.3 Electron wave analog of the electronoptic modulator [2].

The polarizer and analyzer shown in figure 2
are transformed into the contacts of the
ferromagnetic materials like Iron which can be
seen in Fig.3. At the Fermi level in such
materials, the density of states for electrons with
one spin greatly exceeds with respect to other
which is shown in the Fig.4, Where the spin of
the different metals is presented.
Fig.4 Schematic diagram of the spin

resolved DOS available to electrons in (a) a
normal metal, (b) a ferromagnetic metal, and
(c) a half metal [8].
The density of the spin gives the idea that
which type of spin based metals can be used in
making of the spin based devices. A contact
magnetized in the x direction preferentially
launches and detects electrons spin polarized
along with positive x which is represented as a
linear combination of positive z-polarized and
negative z-polarized electrons [2] and it is given
by as [2],
1

1
( + x p o l .)
0
( + z p o l .)
1
( z p o l .)
(2)
2DEG narrow bandgap semiconductor is

used to split the energy between the up-spin and
down-spin, as shown in fig 3.
GMR, MTG and MRAM are most recently
used spintronics devices. The Magnetic solitonbased logic has been proposed not only for the
logic operation but also controlled information
transfer in linear, fan-out, and crossover manner
[9].
411
2DEG in the suggested device [2] is actually

the channel for the device and this channel is
controlled by gate applied voltage. Roughly
speaking, the Rashba spin-orbit coupling is
proportional to average electric field normal to
the interface.
Gate control of the spin-orbit coupling
constant is a crucial ingredient to the operation
of this device (spin-FET). An external gate
essentially changes the slope of the confining
potential thus altering . Upon crossing the
length L of the channel the electrons undergo a
rotation by the Rashba angle R = 2m L / 2 .
So, by adjusting the gate voltage, the rotation
angle can be varied continuously which
modulates the electric current through the
channel between the Drain and Source of the
device. When the electrons spin are rotated so as
to be the anti-aligned to the ferromagnetic drain
or source lead to the zero current hence show the
high resistance. Due to the orientation of the
spins of the electrons in the 2DEG, experimental
values of the high and low resistance has been
shown [10].
In that experiment, High Electron Mobility
Transistor heterostructure that contains a 2DEG
in which multiple magneto-electric barriers are
applied through a periodic series of
ferromagnetic gates deposited on top of the
heterostructure. This is shown in Fig.5,
Fig.6 (a) High resistance state at all energies

in (b) lower gate electrical barriers shows lowresistance states in [10].
3. Spin polarizations
In ferromagnets there exist an
imbalance between the number of charge carriers
having a particular spin orientation at the Fermi
level EF, which can lead to a net spin
polarization of the conduction electrons in the
ferromagnets. The spin polarization P of a
material can be defined as [8],
P =
(3)
Equation 3 can be related to the density

of states (DOS) definition, which becomes
inadequate in that transport phenomena usually
are not defined by DOS alone, so the electrical
determination of P is found by measuring
current densities and it is given by [8],
P =
Fig.5 (a) Asymmetric-A configuration that

can induce P creates a low resistance state.
J J
J + J
(4)
4. Spin Devices
Spin-FET is based on the 2DEG (two
dimensional electron gas that can be formed in
semiconductor heterostructure, like InAlAs and
InGaAs. Basically, in 2DEG, a narrow band gap
semiconductor makes sandwich in between two
wide band gap energies semiconductor.
(b) Symmetric-A configuration that cannot

induce P creates a high-resistance state [10].
When the voltage is applied on the free
align
magnetization part, the electrons spin
to the drain and shows the low resistance and
when the voltage is not applied, the electrons
are anti-align to the drain and shows

spin
the high resistance. The simulation results are
shown in the Fig.6.
This concept of the high and low resistance from
the proved experiment [10] has been used in this
project for the assumptions.
Fig.7 Device structure of the Spin-FET [3]

In the above figure, 2DEG channel is
made from the narrow band gap semiconductor
InGaAs and was sandwiched between two
InAlAs semiconductor. Usually the electron
412
moves in three z , x , y orbitals. For the

channel formation electron should be limited to
y
x or
orbitals, now
the two dimension in
because of the wide bandgap semiconductor, the
electron is limited to spin in two orbitals
px and
py
. The reason is that electron needs more

energy to jump to the valance shell of the wide
band gap semiconductor which has been
sandwiched between the narrow band gap
semiconductor. So there is an energy split
between up-spin and down-spin electrons even
when there is no magnetic field or applied
voltages. The dominant mechanism for this
zero-field spin splitting is believed to be the
Rashba term in the effective mass Hamiltonian
[2] and it is given by the relation,
H R = ( z k x x k z )
(5)
5. Types of Spin devices

There are three types of devices
a)
b)
MAGNETIC p n JUNCTION.
MAGNETIC BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR.
c)
SPIN-FET.
6. Present problems with Spintronics

The challenges of spintronics are,
New fundamental physical question are
there to be solved.
There
will
be
translation
or
transformation between the physics of
the devices and the electrical properties
of the devices.
New phenomenon should be made and
defined.
And there are lot of slots for the new
devices and application and should be
worked on this area.
In order to implement spintronics devices
several challenges must be resolved.
How efficient is it to inject spinpolarized
currents
into
a
semiconductor?
What happens to spin current at
interfaces between injectors and
semiconductor?
How long can a spin current retain its
polarizaiton in a semiconductor?
Can
semiconductor
become
ferromagnetic at room temperature?
Will the capacitance of the spin devices

be low RC constant of the whole
circuit?
What is the minimum size of the device
that can be achieved?
As the size of these spin devices will
shrink,
after
applying
voltages,
producing current, what will be the
affect on the heat of these devices?
What are the operational frequencies of
the devices ?
What will be the power consumption in
these devices?
7. Advantages of Spintronics
Advantages of spintronics over conventional
electronics:
Non-volatility of the memory
which can store and protect the
data from lost.
Increased data processing speed.
Increase integration densities in
the chips.
Decreased
electric
power
consumption.
8. Prototype Modeling
The model was made with the materials
like Silicon, InAlAs, Gold and has been used for
the further calculation of the electrical properties
of the Spin-FET), Copper, and Iron. The Silicon
layer was used as substrate layer over that
InAlAs layer was deposited. After deposition of
the InAlAs, the gold layer was deposited for the
channel and again InAlAs material was
deposited over the gold layer to create the
insulation between the channel layer and the gate
metal contact. After that some materials like
InAlAs over the gold channel layer and below,
and gold channel around the corner were etched
to make the Source and Drain with the
deposition of the Iron. The copper was used for
the deposition of the Gate. To make the isolation
between the Gate and the Source, drain, the
etching technique was used. This process has
done in Process Editor, 2D Layout Editor
and Preprocessor and dimensions are shown in
the Figure 8,
413
Dimensions of prototype 2
Material
Length Width Thickness
(nm)
(nm)
(nm)
100
Silicon
550
400
Substrate
400
500
InAlAs
550
175
400
10
Gold
(Channel)
InAlAs
175
400
40
(Insulator)
400
80
Drain
187.5
(Iron)
400
80
Source
187.5
(Iron)
Gate
150
400
60
(Copper)
Table 1 Dimensions of the spin-FET prototype
model 2.
Editor with the names of straight

cut are appeared.
Using each layer (for example
substrate, gate, final etc) the
rectangles were drawn using the
command prompt. The length (xaxis distances) and width (y-axis
distances) were entered repeatedly
according to the requirement of the
materials deposition for making the
spin-FET models.
Measurements were taken from the
paper sketch that is included in the
appendix A.1 for the two layer
design.
For the model 2, few layers
(actually three extra rectangles)
were drawn to reduce the sizes of
the Drain, Source and Gate.
8.1 Process Editor Procedure

The Process Editor supplies the
information needed to construct the 3-D solid
model of the device from the 2-D masks viewed
in the Layout Editor. Material layers are
constructed in a deposit and etch sequence that
emulates the actual fabrication process. The
Process parameters that can be used and adjusted
include:
Material thickness (during deposition)
Deposition type (stacked , conformal,
planar)
Sidewall angles (profiles of the angular
slope allowed during an etch operation)
A mask perimeter offset
Mask polarity (positive or negative tone
to determine whether light or dark areas
of the mask are etched.)
8.3 Mesh
After the process and layout files were
completed, a 3-D model was built using the
thickness and etch profile information from the
process file and the 2-D mask information. Fig 8
is showing the 3-D model of the prototype 2.
Fig.8 3-D model of the prototype 2.

8.2 Layout Editor
After defining material properties and
the deposit and etch sequence, the next step is to
create a model design in the 2-D layout. The 2-D
Layout Editor is used to create, import, view,
and edit 2-D mask information. The 2-D layout
information can be used to create foundry masks
for building the devices and is used as the source
for rendering a 3-D model for meshing and
solving. For 2-D mask layout, the adopted
sequences are,
In the layout editor, the layers
which were defined in the Process
For the sake of the Spin-FET, the

geometry of the models were cubic, so the
Manhattan mesh solver was used to mesh the
models. Manhattan method is used to mesh
the models in the form of too small elements
of cubical shapes.
414
Fig.9 Model 2 meshed at x=5, y=5 and z=10

with Manhattan method.
The total capacitance between the gate and
ground shown in Fig.9 also represented in the
electrical circuit shown in Fig.10 is the sum of
the C gs , C gd and C gc , and it is given by [33],
C gs + C gd + Cgc = Cox = Cox/ . Ldrawn . Wdrawn
(Scale)2
The equivalent capacitance of the spin-FET is
shown in the Fig.10,
Fig.11 is showing the relation between the

applied varying Gate voltages from the 0v to
1v and measured the charges on the Gate and
Channel for the model 2.
9. Architect Design and Modeling
Modeling of the third prototype was done in
the architect design flow to measure the
electrical properties of the Spin-FET which
could not be possible in the Design and analyzer.
Before creating the Schematic, material
properties were entered, Layer with declared,
properties of the saber design were entered. By
using the Coventor part library, the Schematic
was created and shown in Fig. 12,
Cgd
C gs
C gc
Fig12 Schematic of the Spin-FET created in

the ARCHITECT SaberSketch.
Fig.10 Expected Spin-FET capacitances.
Both Models were simulated to calculate the
results for the charges on the source, channel,
gate, and drain, capacitance of the C gs , C gd
and C gc .
Schematic is showing the Architect SaberSketch

rigid_plate_fixed_electrode for Gate, Source and
Drain, rigid_plate for Channel, Wide-bandgap
and Insulator, and Voltages. Reference Frame is
used to initialize the Schematic.
10. Frequency Response Measurement
For the measurement of the frequency
response, the schematic was used, Fig 12 and 13
is showing the schematic and results.
415
Fig.12 Schematic diagram of the Common

Source Amplifier of HEMT-n-FET.
Fig.13 The straight line (parallel to x-axis) is

showing the linear relationship between the
frequencies and the output voltage.
11. Conclusions and results
Most of the results has been discussed
in the chapter 5 and 7. But here is the summary
and some more results are included to understand
the real word problems. From the simulation of
the two models (prototype 1 and prototype 2) for
the measurement of capacitances, the
conclusions are,
From the model 1 Cox with the channel

length 250nm and tox of 40nm (4A0 )
was 52.6aF/nm2. If this result is
compared with the FET technology now
/
a day, which is having Cox =25fF/um2

with the channel length 50nm and
tox oxide layer of 14A0 [11], the
improving factor is 475.28E+6 which is
better result over the Spin-FET over the
Conventional FET.
For the model 2 Cox with the channel

length 200nm and tox of 40nm (4A0)
was 26.25aF/nm2 which is more better
result over the model 1 spin-FET as
well as the conventional FET. In this
case the improving factor is 952.38E+6.
Fig. 5.3 shows the equal charge density

over the whole surface of the channel,
may be it will help in the future to
minimize the size more to decrease the
power consumption. This will also help
to decrease the time constant for
charging and discharging the parasitic
capacitor hence decrease the rising and
falling time for the digital circuits.
In model 2 the capacitances of
the C gs and C gd are slightly different,
that might be because of the nano size
of the Drain and Source. So it means, in
the nanoscale, it might be possible to
reduce one of the capacitance over each
other.
Four graphs on the charges Vs. gate
applied voltage are showing good
results about the charges and in the
future one of the parasitic capacitance
may be grounded without distorting.
The two models of the Spin-FET were
working on the lower Gate applied
voltage (1-0.1v). That is a good result
for the improvement to decrease the
threshold voltage for the device.
As the graph between the output
voltages against frequencies showing
the higher selection of the frequencies,
so in the digital designs, the speed of
the higher clocks will not affect on the
overall performance of the whole digital
systems.
From the equation 5.1 if the
frequency of the on-off switching
of that Spin-FET increases, the
power consumption of that FET
will increase linearly so, there
should be some compromise
between the power and frequency
selection for the FET.
As the Spin-FET will work on
higher frequency, it can handle the
higher data processing in the
digital system.
Due to low size of the device (in
nm) it will draw very low current
and will give the low power
consumption.
But due to low size the problem

will be of heating in the Spin-FET
(due to low size the collision
between the electrons and atoms
increases).
416
The input frequency and output to

FET are given by the relation [11]
f in =
f out
(9.1)
2 in
1
(9.2)
=
2 out
Where the is the time constants

for the input (series resistance of
the signal source and C gc ), time
constant for the output (output
resistance
connected
series
with C gs or
C gd
).
The
College of Arts and Science. 2006, The

Florida State University: Florida. p. 78.
[9] Cowburn, R.P., et al., Appl. Phys., (2000).
87: p. 7067-7069.
[10] S.G.Tan, et al., Superconductivity:
Incorporating Novel Magnetism,
(2005). 18: p. 357-365.
[11] R.J.Baker, CMOS Circuit Design, Layout,
and Simulation. Revised 2nd ed. (2008),
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1038.
[12] [Cited 10/09/2009 ]; Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEMT
3dB
frequency is given by,
f3dB =
1
2 RS CM
(9.3)
Where CM is the Millers capacitance which is

based on the parasitic capacitance. So from this
expression as the CM decreases, the 3dB
frequency increases and the overall frequency
response increases. So, at this stage, device can
dissipate but give higher frequency response.
This is the good result compare with the
conventional FETs. Some of papers are claiming
that HEMT were demonstrated at current gain
frequencies over 600 GHz in April 2005 [12].
12. References
[1] G.Timp, et al., Physical Review Letters,
(1998). 60: p. 2081
[2] S.Datta and B.Das, Appl. Phys., (1990).
56(665-667).
[3] S.Saikin, M.Shen, and M.C.Cheng, IEEE
Transaction on Nanotechnology,
(2004). 3: p. 173-179
[4] G.Engles, et al., Physical Review B, (1997).
55: p. R1958-R1961.
[5] J.Nitta, T.Akazaki, and H.Takayyanagi,
Physical Review Letters, 1997. 78: p.
1335-1338
Incorporating Novel Magnetism,
(2005). 18: p. 357-365.
Incorporating Novel Magnetism, (2005). 18: p.
357-365.
[8] J.G.Braden, Determining Spin Polarization
of Ferromagnetics using
Superconducting Spectroscopy, in
417

Energy Dynamics of Pakistan

M. I. Azhar, B.B. Rana, A. Sultan, A. Nouman, M. K. Saleem and A. Javed
University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Sub Campus, Chakwal-48800, Pakistan
Abstract:
The paper analyzes energy requirements of
Pakistan and the rate at which these requirements are
increasing. Various energy sources in Pakistan are
analyzed and their potentials and limitations are
presented. Global trends suggest that the world will
depend more on renewable energy resources in the
future. So Pakistan should also consider these
sources. The way this situation is handled will have a
great effect on the future development of Pakistan.
The worst and best case scenarios are presented.
Solutions to the problem and some methods to deal
with the situation are also suggested with keeping
2025 in view.
Introduction:
For the development of a country, sustainable
energy supply has the key importance. The more
developed a country, the more energy it consumes.
Pakistan is one of the developing countries and its
economy over the years is known to be unpredictable.
There are days when Pakistans economy is on the
verge of take off, and then there are also days when
there is a danger of a major collapse!
This volatile nature of Pakistans economy is due
to the fact that Pakistan is not self-sufficient in its
energy needs. Slight variations in factors like
fluctuating oil prices, global politics and weather
changes can cause huge imbalances in energy supply
system of Pakistan. If Pakistan can reduce its
vulnerability to these factors, it might cross the line
between an unstable economy and a stable one!
Over the years, Governments have targeted
ambitious GDP growth rates. In the past, According
to Statistics [1], Pakistans economy has had a GDP
growth rate as high as 8%. For Pakistan to become a
prosperous country, a high rate of GDP growth is
imperative. It is possible for Pakistan to attain high
GDP growth rates if and only if the industrial sector
grows and Pakistan is less dependent on imports.
Pakistan also has a high population growth rate.

Moreover, changing life styles of people will have an
impact on Pakistans energy demands. Thus, the
energy needs of Pakistan should be carefully planned
and this will have a great impact on future progress
of this country.
Main sources of energy:
Up till now, the world has relied heavily on fossil
fuels for the energy needs. Oil, coal, natural gas etc
have a big share in fulfilling worlds energy needs.
Nuclear energy has emerged as another useful source.
Also, renewable energy sources like solar, hydro,
wind and tidal energy contribute to energy needs. The
table [2] below shows the contribution of various
energy sources in electricity production in the world.
Table 1: Electricity Resources of the World.
Source of
% contribution in electricity
energy
production
Coal
40
Gas
19
Nuclear
16
Hydro
16
Oil
7
Source: WAPDA [2]
Figure 1: Contribution of various sources in Worlds
Electricity Production
Source: WAPDA [2]
418

However, it is estimated that after 2020, use of oil
for energy will decline. Issues like global warming
and pollution demand that the use of coal and other
conventional fuels should be limited for energy
consumption. As a result, it is estimated that after
2050, renewable energy sources will take a lead from
conventional energy sources like oil and coal.
Due to this situation, all leading economies in the
world are preparing themselves for the shift from
conventional energy sources to renewable ones. A lot
of research is conducted on renewable energy sources
and as a result, the prices of such setups are
decreasing day by day. Emerging economies like
China and India are also investing a lot of money on
alternate energy sources.
How Pakistans energy situation is shaping up:
Pakistans economy was growing at an
average rate of 5-8% per year at the start of this
decade [1]. The per capita energy use increased to
0.372 tons of oil equivalent (TOE) [2]. This amount
is quite low if compared with other countries, (USA
for example has 8 TOE) however; energy
requirements are increasing at a high rate. According
to WAPDA, [2] during ten years, the demand has
increased by 50%.
A massive energy crisis hit the world in 20072008, resulting in great fluctuation in oil prices. That
situation directly or indirectly affected the economies
of almost all countries including some giant
economies like EURO, Japan, and USA. That was the
time when Pakistans economy began to suffer as
well. The GDP growth started to slow down, the
currency started to devalue, further exacerbating the
problems. As a result, the industrial sector began to
suffer as well. This power break downs not only
disturbed the continuity of production, but also
caused the quality of production to suffer. This
caused a heavy fall in key exports.
As a result, many industries halted their production.
Some industries stopped their operations in Pakistan
and moved to Bangladesh. So, Pakistans productions
shrink by 3.6 % in 2009 as reported by CIA World
Fact Book [1] and Bangladeshs production increased
by 5.2%. In 2010, Pakistan suffered one of the worst
disasters in its history when around 30 million people
were affected by flood. That has caused further

problems for the economy that is already recovering
from setbacks.
Due to the difference between supply and
demand of energy, Pakistan has been facing the
problem of load shedding. The gap between supply
and demand of electric power is increasing every
year. Pakistan is dependent on thermal and
hydroelectric power stations for electricity
generation. Table 2 below shows the contribution of
various energy sources in electricity production in
Pakistan [2].
Table 2: Electricity Resources of Pakistan.
Source of
energy
% contribution in electricity
production in Pakistan
Coal
0.16
Gas
29
Nuclear
2.84
Hydro
33
Oil
35
Source: WAPDA [2]

Figure 2: Contribution of various sources in
Pakistans Electricity Production
Source: WAPDA [2]

These figures suggest that several energy resources
have not been utilized properly. The balance is not
right. These figures should have the resources
abundant in Pakistan in greater percentages.
However, dependence on oil for electricity generation
is 35%, which is the greatest share. Also, issues like
419

fluctuating oil prices, power losses, electricity theft,
variable rainfalls, and lack of proper planning have
caused huge problems in the Pakistans energy
sector.
X10^4
4
Demand
5
Supply
Gap
Pakistan Energy Balance:
Power
Pakistan energy needs are increasing as a result of

increasing population and development. Electricity
needs are increasing at about 10 percent per year. At
this rate, by 2020, the electricity needs will be in
excess of 50000 MW and the short fall will be around
13000 MW! Table 3 presents the situation of supply
and demand from 2011 to 2020. Demand is assumed
to increase at a rate of 10% per year. Data shows that
after 2016, the situation will start to go out of hand.
The electricity supply and demand deficit will exceed
9000 MW. Here, it is assumed that electricity
generation also grows at a rate of 10% per year! The
effects of this deficit could be damaging. To cope
with this situation, new power stations will be needed
and the timing of making these new power stations
functional will be crucial. The sources used for power
generation are important too. Since Pakistans oil and
gas resources are depleting, other resources and
especially the renewable ones should be given
priority. There are many limiting factors in that like
time of acquisition, cost, technology, expertise,
environmental effects associated with a power
source.
(MW)
Year
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Expected
Peak
Demand
(MW)
22000
24200
26620
29282
32210
35431
38974
42871
47158
51874
Expected
Supply
(MW)
Expected
Deficit
(MW)
16500
18150
19965
21961
24157
26573
29230
32153
35369
38906
5500
6050
6655
7321
8053
8858
9744
10718
11789
12968
Table 3: Supply and Demand Forecast for the next 10

years.
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Year
Figure 3: Supply and demand Forecast for the next 10 years
Analysis of energy resources of Pakistan:

Pakistan is blessed with a lot of natural resources.
However, these resources are not fully utilized.
Today, the total installed capacity of electricity
generation is around 20000 MW [2]. However, due to
poor efficiency only about 75% of this capacity is
utilized at best! At worst, 50% utilization of this
capacity has also been experienced in the past. There
are 30 % power and line losses [5] as well. This is a
huge concern. And some steps should be taken in
order to increase that efficiency.
Oil Resources:
According to EIA [3], Pakistan is ranked 58th in oil
producing countries. However, Pakistans oil
production declined from 62.35 barrels per day in
2008 to 59.14 barrels per day [3] in 2009. Lack of
technology is a huge obstacle in exploring more oil
reserves. However, Pakistan has proved oil reserves
of 0.39 billion barrels which makes Pakistan 49th in
the ranking [3]. Also, the capacity of refining this oil
is another area where there is a room for
improvement. As the number of vehicles increases,
the need for petrol and other fuels will also increase.
Research on hybrid cars is one of the most popular
topics these days. Pakistan should also consider it as
an option. It is necessary that dependence on oil is
reduced. Oil is the key import of Pakistan and
importing less oil will save a lot of money for
Pakistan.
420

Natural Gas:
50% of the energy requirements in Pakistan are
fulfilled by natural gas. However, the resources are
expected to decline in the next 15-20 years, resulting
in higher prices of natural gas. Import of natural gas
should be an option. Reliance on natural gas should
be reduced to avoid any crisis situation in future.
Currently, 35% of electricity is produced from this
source in Pakistan [2]. It should come down to 20%
by 2025.
Bio Mass Energy:
Biomass provides another important source of
energy especially in villages where wood, dung and
other organic materials are used for domestic food
cooking. Organic materials from plants and animals
store a lot of energy. These biomasses can be
converted to energy. However, this source of energy
is not efficiently utilized. According to a study
conducted by ARRPEEC [4], if the older stoves are
replaced by new and efficient stoves, potentially
35.5% of that energy could be saved. Also, Pakistan
has constantly decreasing forests, causing a lot of
environmental problems. Planting more trees will not
only save Pakistan from environmental problems like
floods, land sliding, extreme weather changes but
will also provide a reliable source of energy. At the
same time, forests should be saved from damage.
Pakistan has only 2.27% of its land covered with
forests. So, increasing this Percentage of forests
gradually to 10% till 2025 will save Pakistan from
many problems. Pakistans neighbor India has about
21.17% of its area covered with forests. So, this
should be made a bench mark. School and college
students can be instrumental in campaign to plant
more trees. This will also cause a realization of the
importance of forests in the youngsters who hold the
key for the future of Pakistan.
Coal Energy:
Coal is one of the cheapest sources of energy.
Pakistan has a lot of coal reserves and is ranked 36th
in terms of having coal reserves [3]. Pakistan is
expected to have 185 billion tons of coal reserves, the
fourth largest in the world. However, coal is not the
cleanest source of energy causing a lot of
environmental problems. Internationally, coal
contributes to about 40% in fulfilling the electricity

needs [2]. Again that resource is underutilized in
Pakistans energy sector as well. Pakistan produces
only 0.16% of its electricity from coal and coal
fulfills only 7% of overall energy needs [2]. This
should rise to about 20-25% in future.
Nuclear Energy:
Pakistan has an installed capacity of 462 MW of
electricity generation as reported by AEDB [5]. Due
to trade difficulties in this domain, the progress has
been slow. However, the Government has a plan of
lifting this capacity to 8800 MW by 2030. China is
the main partner in that trade. By 2015, the existing
capacity would increase by 900 MW and by 2020;
further 1500 MW will be added. The cost of
producing nuclear electricity is comparable with
other sources like using fossil fuels. The capital
investment is lower than the one incurred in coal
power generation stations, if environmental hazards
are taken into account.
Water Energy:
Around 33% of the electricity produced in Pakistan
is from water resources [2] .This is probably the best
case of resources utilization in Pakistan. However,
still this has a lot of potential for improvement.
According to WAPDA, [2] Pakistan stores only 13%
of its annual river flow. Contrast this with 497% of
annual river flow of Colorado River in the U.S.A.
Another problem with this source is dependence on
rainfall. For efficient utilization of dams, sufficient
rainfall is the key. Again, the environmental issues
cause unpredictable rainfalls each year. Heavy floods
this year are an example of this inconsistency. So,
making the system less sensitive to natural issues is
essential. The key in this regard is more storage.
Pakistan has a potential of 100000 MW of
hydropower [2] and Pakistan has a target of
42000MW of installed capacity of electricity
production from this source by 2020. Political
consensus is another issue that has hampered the
progress in this sector.
Wind Energy:
Wind is the fastest growing source of energy.
According to World Wind Energy Report [6], 2% of
421

worlds electricity requirements are fulfilled by wind
energy. According to AEDB [5] Pakistan has a
potential of 50000 MW of wind power. However,
this potential is not being utilized at all. Only a small
number of micro plants are operational.
conducted and optimization, cost analysis should be

done. By 2025, at least 5% of the energy needs
should be fulfilled by solar energy. Solar energy
should have a share of at least 2-3 % in electricity
generation in the next few years.
Wind power stations can be installed in lesser

time as compared to other power stations. They also
provide a cleaner source of electricity. However,
wind farms provide an intermittent source of power
because wind does not necessarily blow at the same
rate. Also, the electricity generation does not vary
linearly with wind speed. Generally, as the wind
speed doubles, electricity generation increases by a
factor of 8. As a result, backup supplies and load
management systems are necessary while using wind
mills. Also, the site for a wind farm should be
selected very carefully. Pakistans neighbor India has
a well established infrastructure for wind power
generation. India has ambitious plans regarding this
form of energy. Around 6000 MW of electric power
is generated from wind energy [7]. Technology
enthusiasts have significant interest in this form of
energy in Pakistan. Small wind mills producing up to
1000 watts do not need strong constructions and can
be built economically. These enthusiasts should be
encouraged for utilizing wind energy. Also, wind
pumps are a good option for irrigational purposes.
Other Energy Sources:
Solar Energy:
Solar energy prices are also lowering due to
technology maturity over the years. So, solar energy
is becoming popular as prices are declining with the
added advantage of efficiency increase. Solar energy
is the biggest source of energy on earth. Solar
geysers, cookers are good options for solar energy
utilization. The biggest hurdle in this area is the lack
of technology. Government incentives are necessary
to attract entrepreneurs to invest money in this area,
given that Pakistan is located in the part of the world
where solar energy is abundant. Pakistans annual
average temperatures are higher than most of the
countries being in the range of 25-27 degrees Celsius.
According to AEDB, [5] the average daily insolation
rate is about 5.3 KWh/m^2. In some area, the sun
shines for about 8 to 8 and half hours a day. Efficient
solar tracking will make sure that this source of
energy is well utilized. For that, research should be
There are also other unconventional sources of

energy available. These include geo thermal energy,
tidal and wave energy, waste energy etc. Through
research these resources can make useful contribution
towards the energy sector of Pakistan and can solve
some of the most threatening problems of Pakistans
society. For example if electricity is produced from
garbage, it will not only provide power to millions of
masses but will also help reduce environmental
effects and diseases caused by that waste.
One method of converting that waste into
electricity is using thermo-photovoltaic (TPV) cells.
These cells convert radiations from heat source to
electricity.
Losses and Remedy:
There are about 30% losses due to weak grid
infrastructure and theft in Pakistans electricity sector
[5]! This is a whopping figure. For the inefficient
delivery system, using efficient cables is one of the
solutions. Also inefficiency in electricity and gas
appliances cause huge losses of energy. By properly
managing these issues, a lot of energy can be saved.
Use of modern technology and strict policies will
make sure that these losses are minimal. Use of data
mining techniques, as reported by Ian Witten and
Eibe Frank [8], will provide useful information about
periodicity of electric loads i.e. periods when the
usage of electricity is maximum or minimum. This
data will help in determining the trends of electricity
usage and thus the fuel inventory could be managed
properly. This has caused huge damages to Pakistans
economy in the past when untimely acquisition of
fuel cost billions of rupees loss and caused prices of
electricity to shoot. Power management soft wares
should be employed for improvement. Optimization
techniques should be used to make sure that
resources are utilized in the best possible way.
422

Best and worst Case scenarios:
The future of Pakistan depends on how the energy
issue is handled. One way of planning future
requirements is to consider the worst and best case
scenarios. This will help in visualizing the extreme
cases of future demand. To meet that demands, some
steps need to be taken, which is the output of this
analysis. For example, Tao [9] forecasted Chinas per
capita energy use to increase by 3% during 20102025. Resources can be planned accordingly to meet
that demand.
For Pakistan, it is obvious that the demand will
increase as a high rate. However, there are serious
concerns about the resources. As fossil fuel resources
are depleting and some of the hydroelectricity
generation stations would have completed their life
spans or will not be efficient by 2030, new power
generation stations will be needed to make up for the
shortage that will be caused .
Computer simulation can be very useful to predict
the worst and best case scenarios. A production
system analogy can be used to visualize the effects of
energy crisis. One model was simulated and the
results show how the situation varies with availability
of energy. Here, different parts arrive at a station
where a machine will process them. After the
completion, these parts will exit the system. For
simplicity, suppose 100 parts enter the system. The
first part enters the system at time 0. Ideally, the
machine should be able to process all of the parts
entering the system, given that time of processing is
within limits. So, parts leaving the system should be
100 in the absence of any power or resource failure.
Analysis about the worst and best cases is presented
next. The example will help to visualize the situation.
The Worst Case Scenario:

If by 2025, Pakistan fails to install enough power
stations and the environmental conditions continue to
deteriorate, things will be dismal! The way forests are
being depleted signals a disastrous situation where
below 1% forests will be left! That would mean
further more disasters like floods, temperature rise,
extreme weather conditions and land sliding will
occur. Pakistan might also lose a reliable source of
energy, as wood and other biomasses will be scarcely
available for villagers for cooking and home warming
purposes. Natural gas might not be available as
readily as it is available today and if not enough
reserves of oil and gas are discovered, the energy
prices will shoot up as a result of this shortage. As a
result, energy will have to be imported. The
electricity situation will be worse too. If new projects
are not initiated or delayed then, by 2020, there will
be an electricity shortage of a huge magnitude. Even
if the current installed capacity of electricity
production is doubled and 80% of that capacity is
available, considering power losses, unpredictable
weather changes, inefficiencies and plant shut downs
to be minimum, then around 31000 MW will be
generated. This will fulfill only 60% of the electricity
needs! The local industry will be affected badly.
Exporters might not be able to compete with other
competitors due to high prices of electricity. Quality
of production will suffer too.
If the situation is simulated, and the production
system analogy is used, the results will show that not
many parts will be completed for the production
system! A lot of parts will be waiting either in the
queue or will be under process. Machine utilization
will be poor. This can be correlated with the situation
that would arise as a result of energy shortage in
Pakistan. Table 4 shows the performance of the
system. Here, up time and down for the machine are
assumed to be 0.6 and 0.4 respectively, that is,
Power is available for about 15 hours in a day (24
hours).
Figure 2: A production system analogy to visualize

the energy crisis
423

Number of Parts in
100
64
Number of Parts out
36
Work in Process
Number of Parts in
35
Queue
Machine Utilization
65 %
Total Average time
4.31
(hours) a Part spends
in the system
Total Average Wait
4.07
Time (hours) For a
Part
8.4
Maximum Wait Time
(hours )for a Part
Table 4: System Performance For the worst case
The last row of the table shows the maximum time
a part will spend waiting to be processed. Here its
value suggests that it will be 32 times greater than the
time a part spends if it is processed immediately! A
real world system can be far more complicated and
these statistics can be worse.
Further more, there will be social effects of this
energy shortage too. Like parts in the example above,
people will have to wait for a lot of time for their
needs to be fulfilled and for opportunities for better
life styles. Productivity will decrease like the
machine utilization in the example above. This will
result in social instability. People might become
restless. Crimes might increase. Transport sector will
suffer as well because oil prices will be out of reach.
The economy might suffer a lot as a result of this
situation.
Best Case Scenario:
Although many solutions can be provided for the
current energy crisis, but there are certain constraints
that limit the prospects of using certain energy
sources. For example suppose that the whole energy
requirements can be fulfilled by using coal as the
energy source. Refining that coal might be an issue
because that imposes technology constraints on using
coal as the major energy source. Pollution could be
another factor limiting the prospects of using coal for
energy. Further, reliance on only one or very few
energy sources is not the best idea. It makes the
system vulnerable to unexpected changes. What if the
resources of a certain source begin to diminish very
quickly and there are no other alternatives?
So, the constraints associated with each energy

source should be considered. Methods like linear
programming can be used to get the optimized
results. For example, if cost of electricity is needed to
be optimized, a model can be made in which
optimized cost is obtained keeping in view the
demand situation, constraints associated with each
source etc. the constraints could be time a plant takes
to be functional, capital cost, availability of that
source etc. For example if it is decided that no more
than 5% of electricity will be produced from solar
energy or electricity generated from natural gas
cannot be more than 30%. Depending on the
objective, optimized results can be obtained.
If the requirements are carefully planned,
Percentage of forests and greenery is increased,
resources are economized and natural resources are
utilized timely, Pakistan can easily survive the crisis.
If it is assumed that 80% of energy needs are fulfilled
and the production system analogy is used for
simulation, the results will show dramatic
improvement in the performance of the system.
Machine utilization will improve resulting in increase
in productivity. Total time in system, queue length,
average and maximum wait times will improve.
Table 5 shows the performance of the system.
Number of Parts in
100
82
Number of Parts out
Work in Process
18
17
Number of Parts in
Queue
Machine Utilization
83.33 %
Total Average time
2.19
(hours) a Part spends
in the system
1.95
Total Average Wait
Time (hours) for a Part
Maximum Wait Time
4.0
(hours )for a Part
Table 5: System Performance for the Best Case
It is clear from the table that waiting time for the
best case scenario is half the waiting for the system in
the worst case scenario. This is after improving the
uptime for the machine to 0.8 that is; power is
available 19 hours a day. In real life, that could be the
difference between a restless and a peaceful society!
424

If by 2025, Pakistan manages to produce around
45% of electricity from renewable sources (water,
wind, solar, biomass etc) and around 25% from coal
and nuclear energy that would mean that only 30% of
electricity needs would depend on oil and natural gas.
So, the cost of electricity will reduce. If Plant factors
are improved , losses are minimized and at least 80%
of the installed capacity is converted in energy, better
electric appliances, stoves, furnaces and other
industrial equipments are used, not only will the
energy deficit reduce but also the quality of
production in factories and life styles of people will
improve. During these 15 years, an infrastructure
should be built to further capitalize on the natural
resources available in Pakistan.
Conclusion:
Pakistan is facing energy crisis for many years.
Despite having rich energy sources, Pakistan lacks
technology to convert these resources into energy.
There is a worldwide shift from conventional energy
sources like coal and oil towards renewable energy
sources. So Pakistan also needs to make best use of
these resources like water, wind and solar energy.
Also, as long as conventional energy sources like
coal and oil are available, they should be utilized in
the best possible way. Preserving and increasing the
forests will also provide additional energy and will
save the country from natural calamities like floods,
land sliding etc. use of modern technology and proper
planning will make sure that the available energy is
used efficiently without losses. Techniques like linear
programming; data mining will help in the best
possible resource utilization. Pakistans energy sector
is quite fragile and is susceptible to variations in
factors like oil prices and decreased rainfalls. Shock
absorbers should be introduced in the system and
dependence on these factors should be made less.
Government alone cannot fulfill the whole energy
needs of the country. So people should play their role
in saving the ecosystem, minimize electricity theft
and using ingenious methods of producing energy
from sources like wind, solar energy and garbage.
Government at the same time should encourage
investment in the energy sector and should give
incentives for power generation from renewable
energy sources. A strategy should be adopted to shift
slowly and timely from conventional energy sources

to renewable ones.
References
[1] Pakistan Economy, CIA World Fact Book 2010
[2] M. Imtiaz Tajwar. (May 2010) Report: Hydro
Potential in Pakistan by WAPDA.1-3.
[3] Pakistan Energy Data 2010, EIA World Energy
Report.
[4] G. Q. Qamar, S. R. Somro, et al: A Study of
Biomass as Energy Source and Technical Option
for Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction. Report
by Asian Regional Research Programme in
Energy, Environment and Climate-Phase I
(ARRPEEC-I)
[5] Power Sector Situation in Pakistan: Report by
Alternate Energy Development Board
(AEDB) in collaboration with Deutsche
Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit
(GTZ) Gmbh, Islamabad ,(September 2005).
2-10.
[6]WorldWindEnergyReport2009:World
WindEnergyAssociation,(February2010)
[7]PeterMeisen(October2006).Renewable
EnergyPotentialofIndia;GENI.Page5.
[8]IanH.WittenandEibeFrank(2005).Data
Mining:PracticalMachineLearningTools
AndTechniques.2ndEditionbyElsevier
Publishers.2425.
[9]ZaipuTao. Scenarios of China's oil consumption

per capita (OCPC) using a hybrid Factor
DecompositionSystem Dynamics.
Energy:theinternationalJournal.(January
2010)Vol.35,Issue1.
ElsevierPublishers.168180.
425
Authors Index
A. Bahadur
Asif Mehdi
A. Hellany
Anjum Munir
Attaullah Shah
Ajaz Bashir Janjua
Aijaz Mangi
Adeela Mahjabeen
Andaleeb Gufran
I. A. Shah
Akhtar Kalam
Aamir Rasool Dar
A. Ahmad
Ahmed Faraz Khan
Abdul Rauf Bhatti
Abdul Rashid,
10
16
50
56
76
103
108
131
138
165
184, 343,378
297
305
333
351
337
Jamal O. Jaber
Jay F. Kunze
Junaid A Qureshi
J. Rizk
Joevis Claveria
214
170
138
50, 117
378
Kh.S Karimov
Kh. M Akhmedov
K. Hizbullah
Kannan Jegathala Krishnan
Kamran Mansoor
Kamran Liaquat Bhatti
K. Mitchell
36
36
151
184, 343,378
196
203
117
Liaqat Ali
Lavanya Varadharajan
103
378
Bilal Asad
370,328
Ehsanul-Haq
76
Faisal Asfand
Fahad Saleem
92
328
G.N Petrov
Gary M. Sandquist
G.R. Athar
G.R.Athar
36
170
267
433
M.B Khan
M.Z Khan
M. Ahsan
M. S. Tahir
M. Ishfaq Khan
M. Nagrial
M. Hanif
Mehboob Alam
Muhammad Ashraf Butt
Muhammad Shahid
Muhammad Inayat Ullah
Muhammad Amin
Muhammad Ilyas Tariqa
M. Ajaz
Mohd Noh
Muhammad Sadiq
Muhammad Abubakar Siddique
M. Zafar-Uz-Zaman
Muhammad Taqi Mehran
M. Sarfraz Alam
M. Abid
M. Junaid Khan
M. Usman Haider
M. Ayub Khan
M. Sohaib Irshad
M. Qamar Raza
M. G. Bannikov
Muhammad Usman Haider
Muhammad Arslan
Muhammad Abid
Mansoor K. K
Muhammad Shahid Khalil
Mirza Jahanzaib
M.I.Azhar
10
10
21
30
46
50,117
61
92
103
112
112
122
127
161
191
197
261
276
96,276
287
305
323
328
249
328
328,337
333
370
364
36
61
233
403
425
N. Ul-Haq
21, 30, 165 ,179
H. Nasir
Heike Hoedt
H. A. Khan
Hamid Raza
H.T Hassan
21, 30,165, 179

56
305
209
351
Irfan Ullah
Irfanullah Jan
Imran Haider
Inam Shah
Ijaz Ahmad
Irshad Ahmad
Imran Akhtar
I. P. Vasilev
IrshadAhmed
41
76
96
108
267
272
318
333
418
Jamil Ahmad
J.A. Chattha
John Burns
Jeff Borggaard
Junaid Khan
Jawwad Baig
Jawaid Quamar
394
333
318
318
323
249
249
426
N. Islam
Noraih Bidin
Nazabat Hussain
Norashikin Bt Yahya
Nazir Muhammad
Nasir Mahmood
30,179
112
191
191
122
276
Saqib Nasir
S.M. Bhutta
Shafiq A. Khan
Sadiq Ur Rehman
Safi Ullah
Syed Ahmad Waseem Kazmi
241
290
356
370
386
410
Ovais Mahfooz
Oliver Hensel
41
56
Paul T. Williams
312
Qari M.K. Waheed
312
T. Hussain
Tashia Zaman
Tahira Sultana
Taslim Akhtar
Tarek Tarawneh
Thomas A. Sladek
10
87
87
127
214
214
Razaullah Khan
Rehana Tariq
Rehan Liaqat
R. Saleem
Riffat Asim Pasha
76
267
351
305
403
Umber Shafiq
U. Javed
82
10
Shahab Alam
Syed Waqar Hasan
Syed Faraz Hasan
Syeda Amber Yousaf
Salamat Ali
Sharifullah
Sadaf Noureen
Syeda Maria Ali
Shahid Hussain
Sultan Khan
Shahid Iqbal Rana
S. Anjuman
S. Muhammad Ali
S.Tahira
S. Anam
S. Irum
S. Tahir
S.E. Benjamin
Shah Muhammad Haroon
1
16
16
72
72
76
87
87
96
96
127
151,157
337
151, 157
157
157
179
209
209
Wolfgang Scheffler
Waqar A. Qureshi
Wajdi M.Ratemi
Waqas Sherani
Waseem Qaiser Awan
Waseem Akhtar
56
138
143
196
203
261
Yacoob Mat Daud

Yasir Arrfat
Yousuf Zai,
112
323
257
Zeeshan Najam
Zahid Khan
Zafar Ullah Koreshi
Zulfiqar Khattak
Zahid Suleman Butt
46
108
272
394
403
427

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PROCEEDINGS

Power Generation Systems & Renewable Energy

Dr. M. Afzal Khan

Higher Education Commission

Organized and Published by:

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Copyright 2011 Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET), International Islamic

PGSRET 2010 Sponsors

M.B.Khan, M.Z.Khan, U.Javed, A.Bahadur, T.Hussain

Syed Waqar Hasan, Asif Mehdi, Syed Faraz Hasan

Kh.S.Karimov, Kh.M.Akhmedov, Muhammad Abid, G.N.Petrov

Ovais Mahfooz, Irfan Ullah

Zeeshan Najam , M. Ishfaq Khan

M. Nagrial, J. Rizk, A. Hellany

Anjum Munir, Oliver Hensel, Wolfgang Scheffler, Heike Hoedt

Syeda Amber Yousaf , Salamat Ali

Attaullah Shah, Irfanullah Jan, Ehsanul-Haq, Sharifullah, Razaullah Khan

Energy Harvesting Usingpiezoelectric Effect Through Wind

Faisal Asfand, Mehboob Alam

Imran Haider, Shahid Hussain, Sultan Khan and M. Taqi Mehran

Ajaz Bashir Janjua, Muhammad Ashraf Butt , Liaqat Ali

Muhammad Shahid, Noraih Bidin, Yacoob Mat Daud, Muhammad Inayat

M. Nagrial , K. Mitchell, J. Rizk

Muhammad Amin, Nazir Muhammad

Taslim Akhtara, Muhammad Ilyas Tariqa, Shahid Iqbal Ranaa

Junaid A.Qureshi, Andaleeb Gufran , Waqar A. Qureshi

Wajdi M. Ratemi, Tripoli, Libya

S. Anjuman, S.Tahira, K. Hizbullah

Simple Energy Auditing of Male and Female Campus International Islamic

A. Shah, N. Ul-Haq, H. Nasir

Gary M. Sandquist, Jay F. Kunze

N. Islam, N. Ul-Haq, H. Nasir, S. Tahir

Kannan Jegathala Krishnan, Akhtar Kalam

Nazabat Hussain, Mohd Noh, Norashikin Bt Yahya

Muhammad Sadiq, Kamran Mansoor, Waqas Sherani

Kamran Liaquat Bhatti, Waseem Qaiser Awan

S.E. Benjamin, Hamid Raza, Shah Muhammad Haroon.

Jamal O. Jaber, Tarek Tarawneh, Thomas A. Sladek

Muhammad Shahid Khalil, Ajaz Bashir Janjua

Prospective of Solar Thermal Energy Utilization: Applications for Rural

M.Ayub Khan, Yousuf Zai, Jawwad Baig, Jawaid Quamar

Muhammad Abubakar Siddique, Waseem Akhtar

G.R. Athar, Rehana Tariq, Ijaz Ahmad.

Irshad Ahmad, Zafar Ullah Koreshi, M. Anwar

Nasir Mahmood, M. Zafar-Uz-Zaman, Muhammad Taqi Mehran

Aamir Rasool Dar

M. Abid, A. Ahmad, H. A. Khan, R. Saleem

Qari M.K. Waheed, Paul T. Williams

Imran Akhtar, Jeff Borggaard, John Burns

M Junaid Khan, Yasir Arrfat

M Usman Haider, M Sohaib Irshad,Bilal Asad, M Qamar Raza, Fahad Saleem

Kannan Jegathala Krishnan, Akhtar Kalam

Rehan Liaqat, Abdul Rauf Bhatti, H.T.Hassan

Muhammad Usman Haider, Bilal Asad, Sadiq Ur Rehman

Kannan Jegathala Krishnan, Joevis Claveria, Lavanya Varadharajan Akhtar

Zulfiqar Khattak, Jamil Ahmad

Mirza Jahanzaib, Riffat Asim Pasha, Zahid Suleman Butt

Syed Ahmad, Waseem Kazmi

M. Azhar, B.B. Rana, A. Sultan, A. Nouman, M. K. Saleem, A. Javed

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC (REVIEW) COMMITTEE

Prof. Dr. Zahid Hussain, USA

Power Generation Systems and Renewable Energy Technologies

Dr. M. Afzal Khan

Dams and Civil Structures