This brochure accompanies the Pictures o f Facial Affect developed by Drs. Paul Ekman and Wallace V.

Friesen, Human Interaction Laboratory, University o f California Medical Center San Francisco.

Pictures of Facial Affect

For more than fifty years psychologists have explored relationships between facial expression
and emotions. What emotions can be judged from viewing a face? How reliable are such
judgm ents? How much does context influence judgm ents of emotion in faces? At what ages can
children judge facial expressions o f feelings? Do people o f different cultures interpret facial
expressions differently?
A review o f this research can be found in Ekman, Friesen and Ellsworth (1972). Recently studies
have addressed questions of personality differences in the ability to judge emotions and the
relationship of brain hemisphere laterality to judgm ents of emotion from faces. Another interest
in facial expressions has been to teach the accurate interpretation o f the emotions expressed on
the face. Allport in 1924 did one o f the earliest of such studies. Presently, professionals in a
number of fields are seeking to teach skills in interpreting emotions from facial expressions.
Recently Ekman and Friesen (1975) published an extensively illustrated text designed to help
those wishing to improve their skills in judging emotional reactions from facial expressions.
A major obstacle to all such research and training has been the lack of a comprehensive set of
photographs of different people expressing the different emotions, yielding high inter-rater
reliability, and widely available in pictures of consistently high technical quality. Frois-Wittman
(1930) pioneered a set o f photographs still in use. Unfortunately, the pictures are all posed by
one person and they lack the quality which modern photographic technology can provide. The
more recent Lightfoot Series (Schlosberg, 1954) suffers from the same defects. Both series have
many photos that fail to produce satisfactory consensus among subjects in many studies.
The present set of 110 pictures represents a serious attempt to overcome the limitations of earlier
efforts. With the aid o f the best current technology in lighting and photography, more than a
dozen persons were photographed repeatedly while attempting to express one o f six emotions.
Hundreds of photographs were studied over a period o f several years to obtain a series which
yielded consistent agreement among viewers about the emotion being expressed. The result is the
Pictures o f Facial Affect.
Development of the Pictures
Six frequently-experienced emotions believed to yield characteristic facial expressions were
chosen for study. These were: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise. Posers were
trained to contract or relax different facial muscles associated with various facial expressions.
Generally, posers were instructed to activate certain muscles rather than to pose a particular
emotion.
From hundreds of photographs, the present set was finally chosen on the basis o f empirical
studies which measured the consistency of judgm ents of the various pictures. Photographs which
yielded highly consistent judgm ents and which fit the authors theory of facial expressions of
affect were finally selected for inclusion in the set, which now provides 14 posers for the six

emotions (plus one photograph of each poser in a neutral expression).

Reliability Studies
The pictures o f each person which the authors thought best represented the expressions o f the six
emotions were shown to groups of observers. They judged which o f six emotion words best
described each photograph. There were two variations in the judgm ent procedure and the norms
were calculated differently for the two procedures to provide comparable normative data across
all photographs in this set.
V

Procedure 1. Each slide was shown for 10 seconds to small groups of U.S. born college students.
The number o f male and female observers was approximately equal. The answer sheet provided
a choice o f six emotions: happy, sad, fear, anger, surprise and disgust. The observers selected the
one word which best described the emotion expressed in each slide. The percentage o f observers
judging each of the six emotions was calculated for each slide.
Procedure 2. Each slide was shown for 10 seconds to small groups of U.S. born college students.
Again the number of male and female observers was approximately equal. The answer sheet
listed the same six emotion words, but each emotion word was presented on a seven point scale,
with neutral or no emotion at one end, and the intended emotion at the other. The observers rated
every slide on each o f the six emotion scales, i.e. they could rate a slide as showing maximum
happiness and neutral on all other scales, or maximum on all six emotions, or some degree
between the extremes.
To convert these data to a format comparable to the first procedure, each observers ratings were
reduced to a single judgm ent for each slide, i.e. the emotion to which he gave the highest rating.
If he gave the same intensity rating to more than one emotion, or there was not a difference of at
least two points between his ratings of two emotions expressed in a picture, his data were deleted
from the analysis for that slide. (This procedure required deleting the data from less than 5 per
cent of the observers.)
Procedure 2 was used in only one experiment. It is the only data source where observers could
give neutral as a judgm ent choice (by circling the zero-point on all six emotion scales.)
The following table summarizes the results of these studies. All photographs in the present set
were judged to show the intended emotion by at least 70 per cent of the observers. All but 11
were correctly rated more than 80 per cent of the time; 59 were correctly judged by more than 90
per cent of the raters.

Table 1. No. of Photographs Achieving Various Levels of Correct Judgments

Percent o f
correct
judgm ents
71-80%
81-90%
91-100%
totals"

Happy
M

9
9

Sad

9
9

2
3
8

F
3
4
5
9

Fear
M
1
2
4
7

F
1
6
1
8

Anger
M
2
3
2
7

F
2
1
7
10

Surprise
M

F
1
0

Disgust
M

Am*

5
6

6
8

3
3
7

F
1
2
6
8

* Photos intended to pose a neutral face (N = 14) were not included in this table as some were not used in the
experiment which allowed neutral as a choice.

Complete data for each photograph are provided in Tables 2 and 3 at the end of this report. Table
2 is organized by poser, Table 3 by the six emotions expressed (plus neutral), but the data arc
identical in the two tables. The last column (N) showing number of judges appears only in Table
2.
References
Allport, F.H. Social Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1924.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W.V. Unmasking the Face. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975.
Ekman, P., Friesen, W.V., & Ellsworth, P. Emotion in the Human Face. Elmsford, N.Y.:
Pergamon Publishing Co., 1972.
Frois-W ittmann, S. The judgm ent of facial expression. Journal o f Experimental Psychology.
1930, 13, 113-151.
Schlosberg, H. Three dimensions of emotion. Psychological Review. 1954, 6 /, 81-88.

Ordering Information
Price:

CD-ROM

$165.00

Please order online at www.paulekman.com, under RESEARCH CDs.

*

Anger and fear, 5 males each; Fear, 6 females

Table 2. Per cent o f Judgm ents o f Each Emotion for Each Photograph (Asterisk shows intended emotion for
each picture)
Photograph
No.
ID
A -1-06
1
2
A-2-06
A -1-14
3
4
A -1-24
A -1-25
5
6
A -1-02
7
C-2-18
C -l-18
8
9
C -l-23
10
C-2-12
11
C -l-10
12
C -1-04
13
C-2-03
EM-4-07
14
EM-4-24
15
16
EM-5-21
17
EM-5-24
E M -5-14
18
19
E M -2-11
20
EM -4-17
21
EM-2-04
22
GS-1-08
23
GS-2-01
24
GS-1-25
25
GS-2-08
26
GS-1-16
27
GS-2-25
GS-1-04
28
29
JB -l-09
30
JB-1-23
31
JB -1-12
32
JB -1-16
33
JB-1-03
34
JJ-4-07
35
JJ-4-08
JJ-5-05
36
37
JJ-5-13
38
JJ-3-12
39
JJ-4-13
41)
JJ-3-20
41
JJ-3-04
JM -1-04
42
43
JM-3-11
44
JM-5-03
45
JM -1-16
46
JM-2-08
47
JM-1-09
48
MF-1-06
49
M F-I-30

Ha]2
100*
0
0
0
1
14
99*
2
0
3
1
1
6
100*
0
0
0
0
3
0
25
96*
0
0
0
0
0
13
100*
0
0
0
0
100*
97*
3
0
0
0
0
17
100*
0
0
0
0
63
100*
0

Sad
0
90*
3
0
0
30
0
90*
0
0
0
1
35
0
97*
0
10
0
0
0
3
0
71*
0
0
0
3
21
0
7
3
0
13
0
0
93*
4
0
0
12
47
0
96*
4
0
0
21
0
90*

Fear
0
6
0
3
0
II
0
5
88*
0
5
0
0
0
0
92*
83*
0
0
0
3
0
3
77*
4
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
3
0
0
0
96*
15
3
0
0
0
0
4
4
0
8
0
3

A ns
0
3
97*
0
6
30
1
1
13
74*
1
2
26
0
0
0
3
83*
0
3
0
0
13
0
70*
0
13
21
0
81*
0
0
3
0
0
3
0
76*
0
0
17
0
0
92*
0
3
0
0
0

Sur
0
0
0
97*
0
2
0
0
0
3
94*
0
0
0
3
8
3
3
91*
0
0
4
0
19
0
100*
0
4
0
0
93*
0
0
0
3
0
0
3
97*
0
0
0
0
0
96*
0
0
0
0

Disg
0
0
0
0
93*
13
0
2
0
19
0
96*
32
0
0
0
0
13
3
97*
0
0
13
3
26
0
84*
42
0
11
0
1(H)*
3
0
0
0
0
6
0
88*
20
0
4
0
0
97*
8
0
6

Neu
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
69*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0
0
0
78*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0

N
31
31
31
31
146
141
147
145
24
31
147
147
31
32
31
24
30
30
32
30
32
24
31
31
23
24
31
24
32
27
29
30
32
31
31
30
25
33
30
33
30
24
23
24
24
31
24
31
31

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85

86
87

88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
101
10
Io:

MF-1-26

88*

M F -1-27
M F-2-05
MF-2-07
M F -1-09
M F-2-I3
M F -1-02
M O -1-04
M O -1-30
M O -1-23
M O -1-26
MO-2-11
MO-2-13
M O -1-14
MO-2-18
M O -1-05
N R -1-06
NR-2-15
NR-1-19
NR-2-07
NR-1-14
NR-3-29
NR-1-03
PE-2-06
PE-2-12
Ph-2-31
PE-5-07
PE-5-10
PE-3-16
PE-3-21
PE-2-21
PE-6-02
PE-4-05
PE-2-04
PF-1-05
PF-1-06
PF-2-12
PF-2-16
PF-2-30
PF-2-04
PF-1-16
PF-I-24
PF-1-02
S W -3-09
SW-2-16
SW-2-30
SW-4-09
SW-1-16
SW-1-30
S W -3-03
WF-2-11
WF2-12
WF-3-28

83*

17
84*
100*

96*

10
16

90*
10

68

0*

100 *

88 *

88 *

13

88*
100 *

96*
90*
1(H)*

26
92*

61

10

0*

83*
38

0*

94*
10

84*
100*

81*

16
17
97*

17
13

29

100 *

74*
92*
83*

16
13
91*
92*
83*
74*

23

90*

10

16
96*

16

63*

100 *
100*

100 *

1(H)*
79*

21

93*
96*
47

0*

30

100 *

92*
79*
100 *

100*
25
97*

46

100 *

79*

94*
29

0*

WF-5-06
103
104
W F-3-I6
105
WF-3-01
106
WF-3-04
107
WF-2-16
108
WF-3-11
109
WF-4-22
110
WF-2-05
0 In all cases where a zero
in the study (sec text).

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
appears in

0
4
0
8
0
24
88*
4
4
4
88*
0
0
25
0
0
100*
0
0
0
30
2
96*
2
0
0
0
45
0
0
9
0
91*
0
69
97*
0
0
3
0
0
29
20
30
0
0
0
80*
0
7
0
28
0
7
59*
29
this column for a p loto intended as neutra , neutral was not an available choice

Table 3. Per cent of Judgments o f Each Emotion for Each Photograph* (Based on 10 second exposures)
Photograph
No.
ID
Happy Photos
1
A -1-06
7
C-2-18
14
EM-4-07
22
O S -1-08
29
JB-1-09
JJ-4-07
34
35
JJ-4-08
42
JM-1-04
48
M F -1-06
57
M O -1-04
66
N R -1-06
73
PE-2-06
74
P E -2-12
84
PF-1-05
PF-I-06
85
SW-3-09
93
100
W F-2-11
101
WF-2-12
Sad Photos
2
A-2-06
8
C -1-18
EM-4-24
15
GS-2-01
23
36
JJ-5-05
43
JM-3-11
49
M F-1-30
58
M O -1-30
67
NR-2-15
75
PE-2-31
PE-5-07
76
77
P E -5-10
86
PF-2-12
87
PF-2-16
94
SW-2-16
102
WF-3-28
103
WF-5-06

Hao

Sad

Fear

An u

Sur

Dise

100
99
100
96
100
100
97
100
100
100
92
97
100
96
100
100
97
100

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
0
4
0
0
4
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0

0
2
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0

90
90
97
71
93
96
90
87
94
74
92
83
100
100
92
79
88

6
5
0
3
0
0
3
4
0
16
8
0
0
0
0
0
0

3
1
0
13
3
0
0
0
3
3
0
4
0
0
0
3
4

0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0

0
2
0
13
0
4
6
8
0
6
0
13
0
0
8
7
8

Neu*
-

0
-

0
0
0
-

3
0
-

0
0
-

0
-

0
-

0
-

Fear Photos
9
C -l-23
16
EM-5-21
17
EM-5-24
24
GS-1-25
37
JJ-5-13
50
MF-1-26
51
MF-1-27
59
M O -1-23
60
M O -1-26
68
NR-1-19
78
PE-3-16
79
PE-3-21
88
PF-2-30
95
SW-2-30
104
WF-3-16
Anger Photos
A -1-14
3
C-2-12
10
18
EM -5-14
25
GS-2-08
30
JB -1-23
JJ-3-12
38
44
JM-5-03
52
MF-2-05
MF-2-07
53
61
M O -2-11
62
M O -2-13
NR-2-07
69
PE-2-21
80
89
PF-2-04
96
SW-4-09
105
WF-3-01
106
WF-3-04
Surprise Photos
4
A -1-24
11
C -l-1 0
19
E M -2-11
26
G S -1-16
31
J B -1-12
39
JJ-4-13
45
JM-1-16
54
MF-1-09
MO-1-14
63
70
NR-1-14
81
PE-6-02
90
P F -1-16
97
S W -1-16
107
WF-2-16

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0

0
0
10
0
4
4
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
4

87
92
83
77
96
87
83
88
88
84
91
92
100
79
88

13
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
2
4
0
0
0

0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

3
0
0
0
7
0
4
3
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
4
0
15
4
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2

97
74
83
70
81
76
92
84
100
100
96
100
83
79
100
100
96

0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0

0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

3
5
0
0
3
3
4
0
6
16
23
0
0
9

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0

0
8
3
19
0
8
17
13
4
3
7
4
0
8
4

0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
8
4

0
3
3
0
0
3
0
6
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0

0
19
13
26
11
6
0
3
0
0
4
0
7
21
0
0
2

97
94
91
100
93
97
96
96
90
81
74
93
100
91

0
0
3
0
0
0
0
4
0
3
3
0
0
0

0
-

0
-

0
-

0
-

0
-

0
-

3
-

0
0
-

Disgust Photos
A -1-25
5
12
C -l-04
EM -4-17
20
27
GS-2-25
32
JB-1-16
40
JJ-3-20
46
JM-2-08
55
MF-2-13
64
M O -2-18
71
NR-3-29
82
PE-4-05
91
PF-1-24
98
SW-1-30
108
WF-3-11
WF-4-22
109
Neutral Photos
6
A-1-02
13
C-2-03
21
EM-2-04
28
GS-1-04
33
JB-1-03
41
JJ-3-04
47
JM-1-09
56
M F -1-02
65
M O -1-05
72
N R -1-03
83
PE-2-04
92
PF-I-02
99
SW-3-03
110
WF-2-05
* Where a dash appears in the
study (see text).

1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0

0
1
0
3
0
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

6
2
3
13
0
0
3
10
0
17
10
0
6
3
20

14
30
11
30
35
0
26
6
25
3
3
0
21
0
21
13
13
3
3
0
17
47
17
0
21
8
63
0
16
68
3
0
26
61
3
0
17
29
13
0
3
16
16
0
47
7
30
3
25
46
0
0
7
28
0
0
Neutral column, the judges did not have Neutral as

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

93
96
97
84
100
88
97
90
100
83
90
96
94
97
80

0
-

0
-

0
-

0
-

2
13
32
0
69
0
0
4
42
0
3
78
20
0
8
0
3
10
0
10
4
38
3
0
63
7
7
0
29
7
59
0
an alternative choice in the
-

Copyright > 1976 by P aul E km an. A ll photographs, transparencies, and written m aterial in
this series are protected by copyright and m ay not be reproduced in any fo r m by any process
w ithout specific written authorization.