Design of Direct Heated Rotary Dryers Jordan Konidis ‘ A Major Technical Report —. in A ‘the Department of Mechanical Engineering 5 Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering at Concordia University Montréal, Québec * March 1984 @ Jordan Konidis, 1984ABSTRACT” j a DESIGN OF DIRECT HEATED ROTARY DRYERS : ; . Jordan Konidis : ( Drying is the term applied to thermal processes for renovitg undesired moisture from a product. Dryers utilize air tO carry away the vaporized water and-deliver the ne- cessary heat required for the process: . The model of drying of solid particles (pellets, dust, ete.) presented ih this report assumes that the liquid mois- ture within a solid is carried to its surface through one or more mechanisms, namely, diffusion and capillary motion. ~- It i also assumed that the solid surface is at the wet- bulb temperature of the drying medium and evaporation tak place at the surface only. It is still often assumed at the constant drying rate the surface of the exposed material “behaves” as if it were completely wetted, while at the fal- ling drying rate some of the solid surface is wet and some dry depending on the physical properties of the solid. The volumetric heat-transfer coefficient and pressure drop in a rotary dryer are examined as a function of the contact area between showering particles and air flow.fe ’ 7b f Nome gize of a dryer is determined by the applicatiot of theoritical formu@e and expérimental factors. The heat- transfer rate principle is used as the main requirement coon eee be satisfied in order to establish the overall design of the drying equipment. The validity of this prin- ciple.and the specific dteps involved in the design of a rotary dryer are presented by a numerical example at the end of this report.* TABLE OF CONTENTS NOMENCLATURE INTRODUCTI! CHAPTER T. Saal 12 a ad 1s 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.20 CHAPTER IT 2 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.204 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8 ‘ON ‘The Mechanism of Drying General ‘The drying of solids Internal drying mechanisn External drying mechanism The periods of drying Constant rate period Falling rate period Heat and mas&, transl , Volumetric hedt transfer coefficient Pressure drop . Direct-Heated Rotary Dryers General Design of rotary dryers Percentage loading Moisture content ‘Air flow through a dryer Physical properties of the material Slope of dryer Rate of rotation Dryer length Dryer diameter vi 12 15 21 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 27 28: ' ‘ pr te - dv - te . # qe 7 2.2.9 Lifting flights shape and arrangement 29 A 2.2.9.1 Design = _ 33 . 3.2.10 Retention time y 39 2.2.10.1 Calculation of volume 4a. a 2.3 Sizing of direct-heated rotary dryers 43 . ‘ 23.1 General t 43 2.3.2 Heat balance " 44 2.3.3 Gas flow rate oy 45 w 2.3.4 Design velocities . . 46 2.3.5 Dryer diameter - , t. 48 2.3.6 Dryer length - as 2.3.7 dew point ve (49 a CHAPTER III, Design Data : 50 1 3.1 General y 50. 3.2 The problem 50 3.3 Design example 51 : 3.3.1 Capacity 51 : 3.3.2 Design discussion 51 3.3.3. Mass balance . ~ 82, 3.3.4 Heat balance . 54 i 3.3.5 Velocity of gas 1 , 89 . 3.3.6 Dryer diameter 61 : "3.3.7. pesign of lifters . 61 3.3.8 Bed load calculations 67 oe 3.3.9 Horsepower calculations 69 3.4 Auxiliary equipment ’ n ‘TABLES ‘ 78°Se eeue A A @ al NOMENCLATURE cross sectiom1 area of the dryer, m? crogs sectional area of material retained by a lifter, m? crosg sectional drea of element ¢ a\ shown in Fig. 24, m2 specific heat of air, kJ/kg-°c shecific heat of material, kJ/kg-°c diameter of dryer, m equivalent diameter of a particle, m drag force between a falling particle and air stream, N comfonent of F to the direction of air flow, N Froude number path of a falling particle, m mass velocity of air, kg/nr-m? gravitational acceleration, m/s? thickness of bed load, m heat transfer coefficient, w/m?-°c total he t of evaporation of water at T,, kJ/kg thermal conductivity of air, w/m-°c a constant in case of lifters a constant in case of heat transfer a constant in case of pressure drop 5 aryer length, m falling distance of a particle in x direction, m ”+ vii - falling distance of a particle in y direction, m mass flow rate of air, kg/nr speed of rotation of dryer, rpm effective number of lifters per showering cycle number of lifters installed in a dryer pressure drop in a dryer, N/m? average number of showering particles number of showering particles in case of heat transfer number of showering particles in case of pressure arop ) Prandtl number heat loss from a surface, W/m? total heat required, kW radius of dryer, m Reynolds number radius of a circle depicted by a tip of lifter as shown in Fig. 19 specific gravity of material slope of dryer, cm/m effective slope of dryer, cm/m change in effective slope of dryer, -cm/m ambient temperature, °C “ ary-bulb temperature of drying air, % inlet temperature of gases, °C ° outlet temperature of gases, °c inlet temperature of material,outlet temperature of material, °c wet-bulb temperature of drying air, %& overall mean temperature difference, retention time due to Kiln action, min. time of a completely showering cycle, s falling time of a particle, s lifting time of a particle, s period of rotation of dryer, s volumetric heat transfer coefficient, W/m?-°c a air velocity, m/s . air flow rate, m3/min. velocity of a conveying particle, m/min. horizontal velocity of a conveying particle, m/min. ; lifting velocity of a particle, m/s water vapour flow rate, m?/min. | total gas flow rate leaving the dryer, m3/min. average falling velocity of a particle, m/s average relative velocity of a particle, m/s mo volume of material between two obstructions, m? showering load, kg hold-up, % of dryer volume drying rate at the constant period, kg water/t/ kg dry material = — overlap angle of lifters an angle as shown in Fig. 17 air viscosity, kg/m-s air density, kg/m?ve ~ . oO r Se ee om, = bujk density of material, kg/m? oa : .o an angle as shown in Fig. 20 . . . a : : ae ye ¢ rotational angle from horizontal plane/ _ ™ angle of repose of material 7 : oo ; so, ‘ ‘ = angular velocity of dryer, s op . - ot . \ : mo yy —EwrRopuerroN : Direct heated rotary dryers as shown in Fig. 1 are more widely used in a drying processing plant than any other type of dryer. This is understandable of the wide range of materials which can be dried in them and if they are correctly designed and operated high thermal efficiencies are obtained. In this report the movement of moisture inside a @rying specimen is assumed to occur through various mechanisms including liguid diffusion, capillary flow an@ surface activated diffusion. The two mechanisms mainly involved during drying are heat-transfer and mass-transfer. Heat is needed to be supplied to the materials ,in order to vaporize the water, and the resulting vapour’ is assumed to be carried away by some means, such as an air stream (1). The volumetric heat-transfer coefficient and the -pressure drop in a rotary dryer is analyzed by estimating the contact area between showering particles and air flow. The effective number of the showering particles per unit length is obtained experimentally or by assuming that their exposed surface is equal to the theoritical cross sectional area of the material showered by the lifters. In a direct heated rotary dryer the heat-transfer Gagfficient is determined by assuming the heat is transfered mainly by convection from the hot gases to the wet surface of the product. The model of the dryer studied consists of a slightly inclined rotating shell, provided with internal-3- z lifters in order to promote agitation of the solids, with feed entering at’ the high end of the dryer, and hot gases flowing parallel or countercurrent to the material flow. The most impértant factors influencing dryer design and perfomance are examined from a practical point of view to be optimized under some specified operating conditions. The capacity of a rotary dryer is determined to be ralated to the lifters shape and arrangement. The percen- tage of hold-up of the material during showering is used to estimate the depth of the lifters, while their number and arrangement are determined by the physical characte- ristics of the feedstock. ‘The length of the time the material stays in the dryer, known as retention time, is defined as the ratio of the ma- terial retained in the dryer to the feed rate of the product. ‘The amount of the material held in the dryer between two obstructions is estimated as a function of the geometric con- figuration of the obstructions and shell diameter, and by neglecting any effect due to dryer slope. Most of the design work for a direct heated rotary dryer is governed by experience with the product to be pro- cessed, and by the application of certain theoritical prin- tiples and experimental factors. Although the enclosed data are applicable to more types of thermal dryers, the illustra- tive example is concerned only with direct heated rotary dryers. ychapter 1 ~ ‘The Mechanism of Drying 1.1 General The drying of solids is an important operation in certain industrial chemical processes. One can hardly find a process plant where the final solid products or materials technically processed do not undergo a drying operation. Therefore, for a practical approach to drying problems, certain basic theories and concepts of the mechanism of drying should be understood. 1.2 The drying of bulk solids’ When a solid is subjected to thermal drying, there is complicated interaction (2) between heat-transfer and mass- transfer both on the surface and in the structure of the solid. : Heat-transfer during drying occurs through the flow of — heat as a result of convection, conduction or radiation and in some cases as a result of a combination of any of these effects. Mass-transfer during drying of a wet solid depends on two mechanisms: the internal movenent of the moisture as a function of the internal structure and moisture content of the solids, and the external movenent of the water vapour from the material surface as a result of temperature, air flow, and area of exposed surface.1.3 Internal drying mechanism In spite of the extensive literature studies available, the overall internal drying mechanism has not yet been presented in a single model theory (2). Among the theories that have won general recognition (3) are the diffusion theory, the capillary theory, and the moving-boundary models. The diffusion theory assumes that the liquid moisture moves through the solid boay as a result of a concentration difference. The capillary theory assumes that the flow of liquid moisture through the capillaries is caused by solid-liquid attraction. In moving-boundary models, the solid is divided into @ wet and a dry zone. The wet zone is in the interior and gives very little resistance to moisture transfer. The dry * zone is separated from the wet one by an interface at which the evaporation takes place. It is supposed that the moisture moves in the dry zone by vapour diffusion and in the wet zone by capillary motion. . Therefore, the migration of moisture within a solid to its surface will occur through one’or more mechanisms, name- ly, diffusion and capillary flow. These phenomena may occur simultaneously and one or more may be predominant at dif- ferent stages of drying. The net result, however, will be an outward movement of moisture within the solid. 1.4 ‘External drying mechanisn The mechanism of external evaporation at the-solid sur- face 8 essentially the diffusion of vapour from the surfaceof the solid to the surrounding atmosphere through a rela~ tively stationary film of air in contact with its surface~ This air film, in addition to presenting a resistance to the vapour flow, itself is an insulant. The thickness of this film rapidly decreases with an increase in the velocity of the drying medium, The rate of diffusion, and hence evaporation of’ the moisture, is directly proportional to the exposed area, of the solid, inversely proportional to the film thickness, and directly proportional to the difference in the vapour pressure of the moisture at the surface of the solid and the surrounding air. In practice, these conditions are produced through agitation of the solid, the use of fans to promote forced convection, and by controling the, supply of fresh air in order to obtain optimum humidity conditions. It is important to note at this point that, since the layer of air film in contact with the solid during drying remains saturated, the temperature of the solid surface may assume to lie very close to the wet-bulb temperature of the air. 1.5 The periods of drying ‘The selection of a suitable dryer size therefore, involv- es the experimental determination of the retention time of “the material to be dried as a function of the established operating condition! In the case of testing for drying characteristics under rk d convection, it is customary to work with a standardbed load. The bed load is the weight of the material left in the rotary drum when both the dryer feed and rotation are stopped. Empirically it has been established that the bed load should not exceed 16% of the total drum volume (4). A series of tests is then carried out to determine the rate of drying under different inlet air temperatures, and outlet air velocities. These tests*indicate the optimum combination of air temperature ané flow to secure the desired dry product in the minimum time. If now the rate of moisture loss is plotted against time, as shown in Fig. 2, a curve is obtained which more or less is applicable to most solid porous materials. These materials show three distinct stages in the drying-rate curve, namely, section "ab" in which the wet material is warming up; section "be" in which the rate of drying is assumed to be constant; section "cd" in which the rate of drying falls away by increasing the retention time. Section "be" is referred to as, the period of constant drying rate, while "cd" is referred to as the period of falling rate. 1.6 Constant rate period It has been often stated that the presence of & con- stant rate period is explained by the fact that the-surface "behaves" as if i¢ were completely wetted (5). The evaporat- ion is taking place from the surface of the solid and so long as this “remains surface-wet, is independent of the internal mechanisms within the solid.aw/at Drying Rate Time t + Fig. 2. The periods of drying The temperature of the air film and of the adjacent solid surface remains substantially constant and is appro- ximately equal to\the wet-bulb temperature assuming radiat- ion and conduction effects are negligible. In practice, on e two effects an operating convection drying plant, the are unlikely to be wholly absent and result in a highersurface temperature than the wet-bulb temperature and produce a-higher constant drying rate. Summarizing the above, it is evident that the rate of rying during the constant. rate period of a capillary porous © medium depends on the heat-transfer or mass-transfer coef- ficient, the area‘of the solid exposed to the drying medium and the difference in temperature between the drying medium and the wetted surface. 1.7 Falling rate period In most cases the period of constant rate of drying is followed by a period during which the rate of drying pro- gressively decreases. The trasition from one period to the other takes place at the point of critical moisture content of the solid. Most materials, in a commercial drying scale will not follow exactly the drying curve as indicated in Fig. 2 (6). iy While during the constant rate drying period, if it exists, the surface of the exposed solid behaves as if it were completely wetted, at the change to the falling rate period some of the solid surface will be still wet and some dry depending on the physical properties of the feedstock. The rate of evaporation of the less moist surfaces will be lower than that of the completely wetted portions, tHe net result being a drop in the rate of drying as drying proceeds. Where the initial moisture content of the feedstock is low and the final required one is extremely low, the falling rate period becomes predominant, and the rate of drying va-Sine ries as the square of the bed load thickness, which indicates the desirability of granulating the feedstock. 1.8 Heat: and mass transfer : The rate of heat-transfer in a dryer depends upon the dégree of agitation of the solid within the drum and in the case of forced convection dryers, the initial and final temperature and the velocity of the air pr gases used to transfer heat. High air velocities will reduce the thickness of the stationary gas or air film on the surface of the solid and hence increase the heat-transfer and mass-transfer coeffi- cients. In the designing of commercial dryers, it is found to be more practical to consider h¢at-transfer rates than [> mass-transfer rates, as the later~is a function of the surfate temperature of the wet solid which is difficult to determine and cannot, in practice, be assumed to be that of the wet-bulb temperature of the air with an adequate degree of accuracy, due to the effects of conduction.and radiation 2). ‘ane heat-transfer coefficient,in forced convection dryers where the hot gases movement is parallel with the surface of the wet material, can be expressed (7) in terns of the mass velocity of the heating medium as: mw 8 1g 7 0-02286 is the heat-transfer coefficient, w/m*-°c5 G: is the mass velocity of the air, kg/hr-m? In the case of air blown perpendicular to the surfa- ce of the solid, the heat-transfer coefficient is greater and has been estimated to be covered by the expression (8) 237 h, = 0.376 ay Both the above expressions ignore the effects of con- duction and radiation. Ignoring the heat required to raise the temperature of the solid, which will be low relative to the total one, a heat balance on the drying operation will yield the expression (9) ow A= nit, - Ty) /og8 ae eb” TW /Ps 3) wheres ow. A SH. is the drying rate at the constant period, see i kg water/nr/kg dry material is the thickness of solid bed, m is the total heat of evaporation of water at 7, is the dry-bulb temperature of the drying air, °c is the wet-bulb temperature of the drying air, °c og: ‘is the bulk density of material, kg/m? ; ‘The above expression assumes that the evaporation is taking place from one surface of the material, if evaporat- ion is taking place from both surfaces, as in the case of wire mesh trays, H — 1/2 the total bed thickness. In case of direct heated rotary dryers, the drying rate during the constant period is more complicated as it-i- is a function of several variables. Not only does it depend on the rate of air flow, air temperature and humidity, but also particle size and the pretreatment given to the wet solid in‘order to produce a permeable bed. For the design of rotary dryers, it is necessary to know the velue of the volumetric heat-trarlsfer’ coefficient and pressure drop. 1.9 Volumetric heat-transfer coefficient only recently some published data have been available to serve the purpose of studying the heat-transfer mecha- nism in a rotary dryer based on the following three assumpt- ions (10). (i) The heat-transfer between particles and air flow occurs only when the particles are showered by the lifters. (ii) The particles are approximately spherical and free flowing (iii) The volumetric heat-transfer coefficient U,, is equal to the product of the effective number of showering particles and the heat-transfer coef- ficient. The following Equations are obtained from the above assumptions: = bor Dy (Pyy/AL) « = S 1/2 1g th y/Dp) (2 ~ 0.6R,, (5) where: u,: is the volumetric heat-transfer coefficient, W/m?-°c= 13 A: is the cross sectional area of dryer, m” Dp: is the equivalent diameter of a particle, m is the thermal conductivity of air, W/m-°C is the dryer length, m is the effective number of showering particles in case of heat-transfer is the Prandtl number Pr Rg! is the Reynolds number The Reynolds number is determined from: Ry DSF oa/Ha . (6) is the average relative velocity of a particie - m/s is the density of air, kg/m? ut is the air viscosity, kg/m-s * The average relative velocity vee is given by = we vt (3 + v2) wher is the average falling velocity of a particle, ‘m/s is the air velocity, m/s The average falling velocity of a particle Ye is approxi mated by (11) ¥ =" (Dg/2)* (8) D: is the dryer diameter, mSS Loe : is the gravitational acceleration,’ ni/s” The average number of showering particles is approximated grafically to be given by (10) 1.34 = e Boy/l — ky 41 ELS) 0) is*the average number of showering particles X: is the hold-up, percentage of dryer volume the Froude number ‘The Froude number is obtained from PL = (D8/2)Dg (10) where: is the angular velocity of dryer, ss ‘The effective number of the showering particles, P.., is proportional to the power e of the average number of showering particles per unit length, BL) /L. 5 e Pan 7 ®p(Pan/®) 2D aye Pan 7 ky (Bp) ae (a2) Substituting Equation 12 into 4, and Yearranging the . following is obtained U,A/b xD? = kA, , ay ane ~ KnPp When the left side of Equation 13 is plotted on the ordinatd and i, is: plotted on the abscissa in a logarithmic chart, the two parameters, in Equation 13, k, and e, canbe determined from the intercept and the slope of the line correlating the data. S 1.10 Pressure drop. The pressure drop inside a rotary dryer is analysed and approximated based on the following three assumptions (10) . . (i) The pressuze drop due to particle presence is caused y only by the contact between air and particles showerea by the Lifters. (ii) The’particles are spherical and free flowing. (iii) The force unit length that the air flow loses is equal to the product of theidrag force, F, and the effective number of falling particles, P.,/L~ Furthermore, it is assumed that P,./L is proportional to the power e of the B,,/L. : The proportionality constant and the exponent must be deter- mined experinentally, i Thus, the following Equations are obtained from the above assumptions: 5 ye (apya/L = KPA /E)e (14) where: , ap: is the pressure drop, N/m” - a ‘ is the component of F to the direction of air flow, N Pipi is the effective number of showering particlés in case of pressure drop The drag force componeht F,, im the direction of air flow,= 16°- is determined from Fig.'3 F, 7 F(v,/¥,) (15) where: F: is the drag force between a falling particle and air fldw, N F, 7 Flv,/v) Pig. Explanation of Fy Figure 3 is derived by assuming that the particles fall perpendicular to the dryer axis having an average falling velocity Vor furthermore, is assumed that the air stream in a dryer is acting as the piston flow. Rearranging the above Equations, the following is obtained P)A/E,L AP JL Kio” (OP)A/I ‘a Pap/h kp (ny) (16) The coefficient, Kye and the exponent, e, in Equation 16 are obtained by plotting (4P)A/F,L and ay on a logari- thmic chart. 5 .so Direct-Heated Rotary Dryers 2.1 General With a few possible exceptions, rotary dryers are more widely used in the process industries than any other type of aryer (12), When the material to be dried can be brough! safely into contact with the heated medium, direct-neat rotary dryers are used. A direct-heated rotary dryer operating at atmosphe: pressure mainly consists of a cylindrical shell through which the heated medium flows. The shell rotates throug t ed ric ha reduction gear drive arrangement, usually inclined from its horizontal position so that the movement of the materia: “tue to the combined effects of gravity from the higher 1 is to the lower end and the action of lifting during showering of the shell. Direct-heated rotary dryers may be operated with the gas flow parallel to or countercurrent to the material The counter-flow arrafigément gives higher overall mean flow. tem- peratures and consequently higher drying efficiencies than + parallel-flow. This may be advantageous when a high product temperature is necessary but is highly undesirable with heat-sensitive materials. Typica® arrangements of parallel-flow and counter-: dryers are shown in Figs 4 and 5. Fig. 6 shows the gene low ral arrangement of a-dryer and cooler in an actual installation. 68 zeAxp Ax0303 nots-TeTtered: pageay 3007TG *y “BtE Teseen ‘SynyD peed- 19- . mols zekap Kxe30% -zequnoo pezveg 30eTTd *S “ora- 20 - moras =< || esanveneee ememee= 22- \ It can be seen, from Fig. 7, that a direct-heated rota- ry dryer easentially consists of a connection for the intro- duction of the heating medium, a feed connection for wet material, the cylindrical shell provided with machined girth riding rings on suitable roller bearings, a girth gear ring driven by a pinion reduction gear arrangement, an inlet and outlet housing connected to the vapour piping and dust col- lecting equipment, internals consisting of feed spirals, lifters and seals. 2.2 Design of rotary dryers Rotary dryers are designed by the application of theo- ritical formulae and modifying factors determined from operat- ing experience. Occasionally, the necessary factors may be established by pilot tests in case sufficient data are not available. ‘The most important of the factors influencing dryer design and performance ar 1. Percentage loading 2. Moisture content 3. Air flow rate through the dryer 4. Physical properties of the material 5. Slope of dryer 6. Speed of rotation 7. Dryer length 8. Diameter of the dryer 9. Lifting flights shape and arrangement 10. Retention time23 - . 2.2.1 Percentage Loading tos The percentage loading of a fotary dryer is-being defined as the ratio of hold-up with the dryer to the dryer volume per unit. length. Unlifted material within a dryer + Becomes’ subject to a rolling effect (kiln action) which, . must be avoided ag it reduces the retention tiite. : . As can be seen in Fig. @ (13) there is always an optimum loading due to the lifting material beyond which * this rolling effect of the material dominates and retention: ° + time decreases. 5 s “2 em slope/m (1/4 in slop/ft) © as]. 1 : 3 ca slopes "(3/8 in slope/ft) RETENTION TIME 2.4.6) 8 10 12 14 16 18 29 22 26 PERCENTAGE LOADING Fig. Effect of percent loading on retention time Depending upon the slope of the dryer, this loading usually + Lies between 9% to 128 of the dryer volume per unit length aay.2.222 . Moisture content Althotigh the effect of'moisture content on a dryer apacity is, generaliy realised, there are often doubts about the degree of its effect.’ Fig. 9 shows the direct effect on capacity. in tons per ‘hour (TPH) as moisture increases of a selected dryer, with the exhaust air held constant and moisture content, and feed rate of the material in the * dryer varied to absorb the supplied heat. 300 + 250 200 : 150 100 50 0 1012 MOISTURE REMOVED (%) — Fig. 9. Dryer capacity vs moisture removed 2.2.3 Air flow rate through a dryer ‘The velocity of the drying medium in a dryer has an important effect on the retention time and subsequently on the overall design both in parallel-flow and counter-flow arrangements. Air velocity limits depend on the physicalrio characteristics of the material. With materials which are dusty or become dusty during drying air velocities must be at a range where carry-over does not reduce the retention time required for the process. The influence of air velocity can be greater in counter-flow than in parallel-flow as can be seen in Fig. 10 (13). In practice air velocities range from 13.72 m/min. (45.0 ft/min.) for fine material to 640 m/min. (2,100 ft/min.) for coarse heavy material. 25 ; a} 2 . z wk 25 Z| 5 5 z 10 & 5 2 o DS) 30) 452 G0 275) AIR VELOCITY (M/MIN) Fig. 10. Effect of air ‘velocity on retention time 2.2.4 Physical properties of the material Most of the material other than those which are initially free-flowing will undergo considerable change in-physical or even chemical properties depending on the drying medium ” temperature and velocity, and retention time. .ae The rate of movemént of the material inside the dryer will tend’ to increase as drying proceeds and as break-down of lumps tekes place, leading finally to a free-flowing con- dition. 7 Some manufactures install chains inside the dryer in order to accelerate drying and-flow rate of the material based on tke following two assumptions: (i) Chain used as a means: to break-free a Sticky a material (ii) Chain used as a means of heat-transfer when pro- cessing fines of -200 mesh in the hot end of ‘the dryer where: the chain altenatively immersed in the bed of the material, is capable of assisting ewgporation of water. 2.2.5 Slope of dryer : : ‘the effect of the slope of the dryer shell should ‘be considered separately from the effect of speed of rotation " (13). As can be seen in Fig. 11, at a given speed of the shell the retention time is inversely proportional to the slope of ‘the shell.RETENTION TIME (MIN.) 12.24.36 48 1/SLOPE (CB/ §) . Fig. 11. Effect of dryer slope on retention time 2.2.6 Rate of rotation tt is found generally in practice that the speed of rotat- ion irrespective of lifter shape and spacing is inversely pro- portional to the retention time. However, the rolling (kiln action) effect is diminished at slow speeds which tend to re- duce retention time. Rotational speed (r.p.m.) times dryer diameter (m) usually lies between 9 and 12 (7). 2.2.7 Dryer length In comparing dryers with the same diameter or cross se- ctional area and with the same gas velocity, the production capacity may be increased with added length, but on less than a direct ratio. Some tests performed by Barber-Greene Company (4) show- ed that with all other factors held constant, increasing the length from 6 m to 9 m-(a 50% increase) produced only 20.5%Stripe . increase in capacity. In other words the additional length was only partially effective in the capacity of the dryer. The results are shown in Fig. 12 (4). 100 w 3 CAPACITY (% INCREASED) DRYER PRODUCTION 127] DRUM LENGTH (nm Fig. 12. Effect of dryer length on production capacity Although production’ capacity is not proportionally in- creased as the length of the dryer, the retention time is directly proportional to any change of the latter. 2.2.8 Dryer diangter ~ Generally it is’ found that on dryers of the same length with all other factors held constant, production will vary in direct ratio to shell cross sectional area. This means that a dryer with a 50% more cross sectional area will provide a 50% increase in production if the supplied heat and. gases are proportionally ircreased. This effett is shown graficallyin Fig. 11 (4). nog i 80 : al a ql 60 7 7 z 6 a] 2 o] A) 40 : B| S| 8 : ‘ SE) 20 «| gl : 5 3| & al & eof a 20 40.60 80 DRUM CROSS SECTIONAL AREA a. (% INCREASED) ee Fig. 13. Preduction capacity vs shell cross sectional ‘area 2:2,9 Lifting flights shape and arrangement The efficiency of a.direct-heat rotary dryer, apart from the quantity and temperature of the in-going gases, depends to some extend on the exposed surface of the matée- rial in contact with the hot gases, and the retention time ' of the product in the dryer. These parameters will be a function of ‘the nunber, (Size and shape of the lifting flights. wThe depth and shape of the lifting flights serve two - x purposes: firstly to produce a curtain veil of material in suspension in the path of the hot gases to assist in heat- transfer; and secondly to retard and control the flow of 1 ‘ %oo oo material through the cylindrical shell from a conveying stand point. ‘ The actual shape of the flights depend on the phys- ical characteristics of the wet feedstock during the course of drying. The shape of straight, single bend, and double bend lifters is shown in Fig. 14. Radial Lifters Single bend Double bend : Fig. 14. Lifting flights shapes gone principtes on the use of each type are: (4) where long retention times are nacessary straight lifters should be used. These materials obtain no benefits from the better showering pattern of the single or double bend lifters because time is the Gontrolling factor. (ii) if the material to be @ried is sticky and not free flowing, it is better to use single bend lifters rather than double bend ones. (iii) for free flowing material double bend lifters are usedo a ee (iv) some manufactures use another type’ of lifters, namely sawtooth after their shape as shown in Fig. 15. This type performs ‘best on rejatively free flowing materials whére long retention times are’ not required. (v) it is found that the drying performance éan be improved in particular cases by using combinat- dons of lifter shapes on the same unit. For example, straight or single bend lifters could be used at the feed end where the product is relatively wet and sticky, whereas double bend lifters could be used toward the discharge end where the product is sufficiently dry to be free flowing. Single bend sawtooth lifter Fig. 15. The shape of a sawtooth lifting flight Lifters may be installed as continuous pieces along the length of the dryer or may be ‘staggered in order to ~-32- improve “showering of the material. Their number should usually be between 0.6 and 1.2 times the diameter of the dryer measured in meters, while their depth stiould be bet- ween 1/12 to 1/8 the dryer diameter: _. 3 Before discussing the parameters réquired' to be deter- mined to arrive at a reasonable shape and. lifter design, let us clear some common and erroneous impressions. In a-conventionally designed dryer, a particle spends only a fraction of its time in the showering curtain,.usual-_ ly not over 3 to 5t of the time, while it spends the. rest of it in a layer on’the shell (4). A particular lifter shape gives a constant showering curtain of materials exposed to the drying medium, within normal operating ranges. From some tests (4), it appears that in a properly de~ signed dryer too mich showering of the material will inter- fere with combustion more than it will assist in increased heat-transfer. This was discovered during testing of lifter shapes that gave very efficient veils in the cross sectional area of the shell but proved to restrict maximum production cap- acity because of problems of combustion. There is a limi- tation as to how much fuel can be burned with a specified exhaust gas volume, as the volume includes the product of combustion, the moisture carry-out, and excess air. Com- bustion can only be increased by the presence of excess air in order to supply the oxygen required to atomize the additional fuel particles which are under sufficiently high temperature that will support combustion. These addi--3- tional fuel particles may be cooled off by a too heavy show- ering curtain of materials at the critical combustion point, and the unburned particles will then leave the stack as "black smoke" or be deposited on the material. The production capacity was increased by reducing the veil through rearranged lifter design. However, there is also a point where too limited a veil will restrict heat-transfer to the point that it will reduce production capacity. 2.2.9.1 Design + . This section will present the basic design philosophy which can be used to size lifters for a particular job. An optimum design condition for the lifters is estab- ‘ished through some experimental and theoretical parameters Their values will be seen to be a function of the physical characteristics of the product and geometry of the lifters. Fig. 16. Cross sectional view of bed load in a dryer 5 HR - Rose(17) : 4s the depth of bed load, m R: is the radius of dryer, m « @: is an angle as shown in Fig. 17, degrees. ‘The height.of the lifters 1s assumed to be equal, approximately, to the depth of the bed load as shown in Pig. 16, for a particular percentage of loaded area is determined from Fig. 17, by assuming all the material rest on the shell of the dryer. The physical size and shape of each lifter and the angle of repose of the product determine the amount of the material showered by each lifter as it goes through its “showering cycle. & 8 & LOADED AREA 5 SINE@ * Fig. 17. Percent of loaded area vs sine of angle °- 35 = ‘The number of lifters per meter of dryer diameter can be determined graphically in such a way that overlap of the lifters will not occur. In other ‘words, overlap will not be a problem, if angle a, as shown in Fig. 18, multiplied by the number of lifters is not greater than 360°. SHELL LIFTER Fig. 18. Cross sectional area of the material held-up by a lifter Once, the number of rows, shape and size of lifters “is established, the showering load must be estimated and compares with already existing limits. Generally, the showering load can be calculated by estimating the effe- ctive number of lifting and falling particles per shower- ing cycle. ‘The behavior of particles over the cross sectional area of a dryer is shown schematically in Fig. 19 (10). The solid line (a,a)) indicates an apparent falling locus a and the lines a,4. and a,4, indicate true fall- aay, igg loci.- 36+ Fig. 19. Motion of a particle over the cross section of a rotary dryer The average product particle picked up by the lifter falls a distance described by the following Equation (15). F(t) = (Rycose - 1,9? + Cy ~ Reine)? - RP (as) where: is the falling distance in the x direction, m ly: is the falling di tance in the y direction, m Ry: is the radius of a circle depicted by a tip of lifter, m Equation 18 was found to have an approximate value which is in good agreement with its practical use (15): . F(t) = D sing qs)ota 3 where: $: is the rotational angle from horizontal line | From the theory of kinematics (11), the falling path of a particle under the acceleration of. gravity, starting with zero velocity is given by ; a : 5 F(t) =g t$/2 (20) where is the falling time, s Equating 29 to 20, and solving for t, yields te = (20 sing/g)? (ay The lifting time is estimated fron the following two Equations: vy = 2De/ty - (22) where: t,: is the lifting time, s 2 vy: is the lifting velocity, m/s . and vy 7 10/60 of where: nz is the speed of rotation, rpm Equating 22 to 23, and solving for ty yields: = 120 ¢/nr (a> The total time ‘required for a complete showering cy- cle is the sum of the falling and lifting time. torte +t, (25) The number of lifters used per showering cycle is related to the number of lifters installed in a dryer by the following Equation (16) * (26) K,: is a proportionality constant N,: is the effective iumber of lifters per showering cycle is the number of lifters installed in a dryer ‘The proportionality constant is determined from : Reece te Qn “where: t,: is the period of rotation of the shell, s The -percentage of the cro tional area of the dryer covered by showering is X = LON, (A, L/AL) (28) where: 4a 7 At is the cross sectional area of material retained by a lifter, n? X: is the hold-up, # of dryer volume . ‘The other method of estimating the showering load was discussed in section 1.9 and is based on the average number of showering particles per unit length of dryer. 2.2.10 Retention time ‘The length of the time the material stays in the dryer, known as retention time, is affected by a number of factors and is determined experimentally for each particular appli- éation. Experimental work (17) has resulted in arriving at an empirical Equation from which the retention time can be approximately calculated taking into acount the effect of the previously mentioned variables: t = 3.09479 L/(nDs) x Factor (29) where t: is the retention time, minutes slope of the dryer, cm/m is the angle of repose of material, degrees ic Equation 29 simply assumes that if there is more than enough material in the dryer to fill the lifters, the extra material must progress through the shell by tumbling along the lower portion (kiln action) of the shell. In this section, the above Factor is determined ina0 relation to the obsrtuctions installed inside a dryer in order to increase the retention time of the material. The behavior of the material between two obstructions (annular rings) is shown in Fig. 20. The volume of the product is estimated from the basic assumption that the material will progress to the lower obstruction following an upward path. Fig. 20. Motion of particles between two obstructions The volume of the solids is determined by neglecting the effect due to the slope of the dryer, and using three different geometric elements to represent the cross sect- ional area of the material as shown in Fig. 21. -y~4l- 2.2.10.1 Calculation of volume 1, Element A Fig. 22. Presentation of element "A" a ‘The volume of the element A is given by v, 7 mid (30) Element B Fig. 23. Presentation of element "B" ‘The volume of the element B can be expressed as the volume of a pyramid with base 1/2 tc and height 1 Ip 7 1/6 (tml) (31)7426 : 5 Element _C ‘ a) : Fig. 24. Presentation of cross sectional area of element "B" : . 4 , The cross sectional area of the circular segment shown in Fig. 24 is given by te 4 | : ag - (1/2) R2(a, - sings), (32) . where . ‘ . a1 “os a 0, — 20- tan d/e (33). + . The volume of element C is 5 val (34) ‘The volume of the material between the two obstructions * is equal to:- . 7 ve At + 2, * Ve (35)- 43 - The dimentions shown in Fig. 21 can be determined by trigonometry from the calculated inside radius of the dryer and the percentage of the loaded area. ‘ a> R sing (36) b = R cosa (37) 7 c= R cose - 8) a= R sino . (39) : m=c-b mo (40) n=R are : . (41) : Gono . (42) where angle-a can be directly read from Fig. 17. % : The depth of the obstructions is established through a trial an error «procedix®’ until the value of the retention time in Equation 29 is “approximately equal to the retention time specified for this drying operation: The percentage of the loaded area due to the presence of the obstacle is cal~ “culated and angle @ is determined agin from Fig. 17. Finally, the Factor can be defined as the ratio of the “ voluye of the material-as calculated in this section to the voliime due to bed load. v . . 2.3 Sizing of direct~heated rotary dryers . 2.3.1 General The specific steps to determine the size of a rotary dryef under certain operating conditions are outlined in x~ 44 = their normal sequence, in which they occur, in order to establish the parameters of the drying process. ae Heat balance It is assumed that the ‘drying of solids in a dryer is taking place in three stages. (i) Heating the solids to the wet-bulb. temperature of . the drying médiun. (ii) Drying the material substantially at this tempe- rature. iii) Heating up the material to its discharge/tempe- rature and evaporating some of the moisture re~ - maining at the end of stage (ii). Direct-heating rotary dryers suffer considerable heat ot losses both from the combustion chamber and from the dryer shell surface unless adequate insulation is provided to mi- nimize this effect. This would mean the difference between a heat loss of 15,770 to 18,930 W/m? (5,000 to 6,000 Btu/ hr-ft?) when insulated and 790 to 950 W/m’, (250 to 300 Btu/ hr-ft?) when adequately insulgted. Major heat losses are also those in the exhaust gas- es. Their use in the heat recovering system to whatever ex- tent is permissible, will assist to increase the inlet tem- perature of the combustion and tempering air in the proces: The overall heat-transfer operation can be covered by the expression = U,AL(ST) (43)= 45 - is the total heat required, . kw “(eT),,2 i8 the overall temperature difference, Determination of the temperature difference at each + stage of drying is difficult, so that an.overall treatment of the heat-transfer mechanism covered by the above expres- sion is more practicable. Furthermore, where the product is high in moisture content, (s7),, can be considered to approximate to the log- arithmic mean temperature, which is defined to be: 1. For parallel-flow dryers (> Th) * (Teo 7 Tao! (an), - 34 “Bi go” *mo) (4a) (ler ie) ain Jogi 7 mi (Tyo ~ Tao! + 2. For counter-flow dryers (To - Tao) - (Teo - Ta? ‘ = [8gi ~ Fm go 7 mi (aT), ee G (45) : an {Tai "mo (B50 ~ Tmi) . ‘The logarithmic mean temperature difference can be determin- ed from Chart 3 (16). 2.3.3 Gas flow rate ‘The volume of air per minute required to transfer the= 46 - + heat is determined from the following Equations BL ~ Oe/eg (Ty > Ty) (46) (273 +9, x 359, —__9" x 0.06243 (47) 29 + (273 + 0) c.: specific heat of air, kJ/kg-°Cc : mass flow rate of air, kg/hr ambient temperature, °C inlet gas temperature, °C outlet gas temperature, °C, for Equ. 47 use °F inlet material temperature, °c outlet material temperature, °c air flow rate, m3/min. The total volume of the gases leaving the dryer is equal to the sun of the air and water vapoyr volume. a, - -Kadhr evaporated yg, voi. vapour (48) = 60 (49) where: water vapour flow rate, m3/min. total amount of gases leaving the dryer, m?/min™ 2.3.4 Design velocities A particle can be conveyed by the aerodynamic effect of the gas stream.,A relationship was developed between con--47- veyed material velocities and equivalent diameter of part- icles as a function of the bulk weight density (16). In a horizontal pipe on. fn 7 6000 sd," /(s + 1) (50) equivalent diameter of a particle, use inches specific gravity of the conveyed material velocity of conveyed particles, m/min. The calculated velocity is corrected at the design gas tem- perature in terms of density ratio. ae alee oa (51) where: corrected gas velocity in terms of density ratio, m/min. The formuld assumes that the gas velocity will be equal to the velocity of the picked-up particles at the discharge end of the dryer, and all fines of the calculated size will be lifted and conveyed. The conveyed load of the material is usually expressed in grains per cubic meter of the exhaust gases. The effect of gas velocity on the showering load is expressed as: shoe. . (52) C athe slope of dryer, cm/m the change in the slope as a result of gas Proetey em/m the effective slope, cm/m The variable S, has a positive value in parallel-flow dryer, and a negative in a counter-flow. 2.3.5 Dryer diameter The diameter of the dryer is related to the velocity of the gases by the following Equation %, p=2¢ 4 A (sa) vor e : It can be determined directly from the above expression as long as the velocity of the gases is known or is already established for this application. 2.3.6 Dryer length «The length of a dryer operating in either parallel- flow or counter-flow involves the calculation of the length corresponding to the overall heat-transfer process: Q, pod (54) ACST) Uy Actually, the calculated length of the dryer may be increased one to six times to meet the recommended value of, the retention time specified under the given set of ope: rating conditions.age 2.3.7 Dew point The exhaust gas temperature has a minimum range beyond which the water in the outcoming gases will condense on the drying products in a parallel-flow dryer. Experimentally it was found that the dew point of the exhaust gases should be i at least 10 to 20 °c higher than the final product témpera- | ture in order to avoid condensation on the outgoing product. a eeChapter Ir Design Data 3-1 General Most of thé enclosed data are applicable to more types of thermal dryers but the worked example below, is concern- ed specifically with direct-heated rotary dryers. In this system granulated material is exposed to a drying medium of hot gas stream. Solids and gas come in contact in a rotat- ing drum, where a direct-fired air heater provides the ma- ke-up gas for heating and absorption of the evaporated wat- er. 3.2 The problem The client specifies the drying of a material, its feed rate, initial and final moisture contents, and most of the time its physical size and characteristics. More often than not, the feed and also the air at inlet to the °, air heater are at ambient temperature, taken 16 °c (60 °F). In order to e the correct; size of equipment it is the object of the\biiclosed design procedure to give values to: W (i) the ;flow rate of gases entering and leaving the ary ih (ii), the pate of fuel consumption o (iii): the toe of loaded of the cross sectional aredj\per unit length (iv) | retention time \-51- (v) the dryer efficiency, dew point and moisture cont- ent of the exhaust’ gases (vi) the dust load in exhaust gas (vii) the horsepower requirements ~ The following example illustrateb the basic techni- ques of sizing a dryer. 3.3 Design example 3.3.1 Capacity It is required to dry 30,000 kg/hr of granular material from 14% to 3% of moisture. The specific heat of the material is 0.84 kJ/kg-°c (0:2 Btu/lb,-°F), and its bulk density is 1,760 kg/m? (110 1b,/£t3) wet and 1,440 kg/m? (90 1b, /£t?) dry. The screen analysis of the material on a percentage bas- is was recorder as: ° § of material mesh size - i.e 10 +100 46.2 100 +140 + 29.8 -140 +200 8.7 200 +270 3.5 : -270 3.3.2 Design discussion ‘The effectiveness of any form of dryer varies with the - nature and size of the feedstock and before the design can Proceed, it is necessary to know the safety range of tempera- ture of the drying medium, This can only be obtained by expe-= 52+ rience with similar materials, or by conducting pilot plant tests. For present purposes it is assumed the material is capable of being heated by gas, in a parallel-flow dryer, at 980 to 1,090 °c (1,800 to 2,000 °F) and it has been decided that an exhaust gas temperature of 149 °c (300 °F) will produce satisfactory conditions in the discharge with a material temperature of 100 °c (212 °F). The true duty of a dryer is to evaporate a given rate of water but to this must be added the heat losses due to the nature of the process and imperfections of the equipment. ‘The final design is illustrated in Fig. 25. Although it has been determined by an indirect method, its final ar- rangement is presented at this point so the overall design concept is easily understood. 3.3.4 Mass balance \ Dry solids in feed — 30,000(1 - 0.14) Wm 25,800 kg/hr (46,470 lb/hr) = Water rate in feed — 30,000 x 0.14 Wy 7 4,200 kg/hr (9,250 lb/hr) Let W in kg/hr be the water rate in the product, then 0.03 - ——_# w+ 25,800 thus W = 0.03 x 25,800/0.97 W =-800 kg/hr (1,760 1b/nr)w= 54 The amount of the water evaporated is then W. ~ 4,200 - 800 = 3,400 kg/hr (7,500 lb/hr) 3.3.4 Heat balance “For a parallel-flow rotary dryer Ty, ~ 1,090 °c i °, 7, - 149 % Gases go Product E To 7 200% °, t,; ~ 16 °c Heat requirements (A) - Heat to raise the temperature of the feedstock Dg 7 Hy X On(Tay ~ Tag? a, ~ 751800 x 0.84 (100 - 16) 3,600" Q, ~ 506 kW (1,726,550 Btu/hr) (B) '~ Heat to residual moisture From the thermodynamic tables of water and steam, the enthalpy of water at 16 °C (60 °F) is hy ~ 65.3 kd/kg (28.07 Btu/lb,) and the enthalpy of water at 100 °c (212 °F) is= 55 - ~ 419 ka/kg (180.16 Btu/1b,) then : a, - WG) aL) : ee an (419 - 65.3) 78.6 kW (268,190KStu/nry (C) = Heat to elevate excess water’ to boiling point The enthalpy of water at 100 °c (212 °F) is 419°kd/kg then -W, UH, - h,) 3,400 — 2:400 (419 = 65.3)=.334.05 kW (1,139,800 Btu/hr) 3,600 : . (D)_- Heat to evaporate water at 100°°c (212 °F) The latent heat of evaporation at 100 °C is’ 2,256.68 kJ/kg (970.2 Btu/1b,) 0g = We x 2,256.68 3400, 2,256.68— 2,131.2 kW (7,271,900 Btu/hr) 3,600 % - (E) ~ Heat loss in superheating water at 149 °c (300 °F) From the tables of the thermodynamic properties of water and steam at atmospheric pressure the enthalpies are: 1g 7 2,675.83 kJ/kg (1,150.4 Btu/1b,) - ~ 2,774.68 kd/kg (1,192.9 Btu/1b,) then (Hy - hy) 'a s6 : Q, — 3499 (2,774.68 - 2,679.83) 3,600 Q, — 93.4 kW (318,690 Btu/hr) (B) - Heat loss from dryer ee The heat loss from the dryer can be estimated from Chart 1 (16) by entering the value of the variables as being presented in this Chart. Assume a temperature dif- ference between ambient air and dryer shell surface of 66 °c (150 °F), and wind velocity of 3.05 m/s (10 ft/s), then the heat loss per square meter of dryer surface is 2,208 W/m? (700 Btu/nr-£t?). Op UgxteDxL - Q_ — 2,208 x x 1.83 x 18.3 Q, ~ 232.3 kW (792,630 Btu/hr) (G) - Heat loss from combustion chamber The heat loss per square meter of combustion chamber surface is estimated as above, with Uj --6,940 W/m? (2,200 Btu/hr-ft2) at at = 177 Sc (350 °F) and wind velocity of + 3,05 m/s (10 ft/s). Qg — 6/940'x 4 x 2.6 x 3.05 Q, = 173 kW (590,290 Btu/hr) 5 ‘The overall heat as.calculated in this section is Q, =O, +O +O + Og + O.* Oe +O, . . oes-Q) = 3,548 kW (12,106,130 Btu/hr) Air required to transfer heat and heay los: . a Ay 7 Q/eg(Ty, - T) la 7 3/348,000/1.005x103 (1,090 - 16), "thy = 3.29 kg/s = 11,838 kg/hr (26,044 1b, /h) ip) - #éat Joss in exhaust gases QM 7 Hcg (Tyo ~ Ta) , by 7 3-24 x 1,005 (149 - 16) Q, — 440 kW (1,501,324 Btu/nr) (c) - Heat loss in moisture in ‘exhaust gases : Assume 70% relative humidity and 16 °c (60 °F) ambient temperature from the Psychrometric Chart . ey oa, . 1b, of moisture + ©. Moisture ‘cntent = 0.0075 x ih, ie 1b, of dry air ™ . . ~ 2, "= 0.0075 x 11,838 — 88.78 kg/hr a - -(195 1b, far) ” : then: . f — 2:78 (2,774.68 - 65.3) | i ZL 7 3,600 / fF oe : . Qa = 66.8 kW (227,928 Btu/hr) ~ - 4 ‘ . . . . The, over@11 ‘h @lculated in this’ section is * . ° Sg =a Q, — $06.8 kW (1,729,000 Btu/hr) \ oeHeat loss in burning ‘fuel 4 ' From the fuel data Table 1 (16), the gross heating : value (GHV) al gas are: The gross hi % Q, » and the net heating value (NHV) of the-natur- GUY ~ 45,857 kJ/kg (20,145 Btu/1b,) 0 NHV = 42,272 kJ/kg (18,174 Btu/1b,) * Availability of fuel ~ 42,272/46,857’= 90.215% eat requirerients are . : 4 : = (Q) + Q2)/0.90215 or = 4,055.35/0.90215 = 4,495.2 kW (15,338,000 Btu/hr), ; The heat, loss im burning fuel is (4,495.2 - 4,055.35) = 439.85 kW (1,500,083 Beughe) The water is Z Volume of gases leaving dryer ‘The a: into account Tot n burning fuel is ~ 439.05/(2,774.68 - 65.3) py - = 0.162 kg/s =,584.4 kg/hr (1,285 1b,/hr) . ir quantity calculated previously does not take t the gas quantity required in heat losses. al air = os) = 4,495.2/1.005(1,090 - 16) = 4.16 kg/s 5 . LO 5 “= 14,993 kg/hr (32,984 lb, /ir) - fot .= 59 - Water evaporated (i) moisture in material =~ 3,400 (ii) moisture in air 98.29 (4ii) moisture in burning fuel 584.4 Total 45 072.7 kg/hr (8,960 1b, /nr) Gas quantities 14,993 9 96243 x 352 x (273+ 149) 60 29 (273 + 0) Air = The conversion factor of one £t?/1b, is equal tb 0.06243 m3/kg Air — 298.52 m3/min. (10,542 CFM) water - 4972-7 ¢ 9.96283 x 25% ¢ (273+ 149) 7 f 60 18 (273 + 0) Water = 130.6 m?/min. (4,612 °CFM) : . Total - 429 m?/min. (15,154 CPM), Density of.gases leaving dryer. . 4 7 (14,993 + 4,072.7) /429 x 60 ‘ “Bo.ra kg /R? (0.046 Ib, /Fe3) Humidity ~ 4,072.7/14,993 = 0.272 Sawater: : ee kg dry air 3.3.5, Velocity of gases . ‘i : -. fe Since the dust load leaving a dryer is proportional to the cost of the dust collecting equipment, it.was found to, be more reasonable to determine the gas velocity if terms a f-b0- 4 of the amount of the particles leaving the dryer. . Some useful data Mest Sze | MICRON 10 1650 q 7 20 830 ‘ 35 420 48 300 65 220 100 iso iso 110 200 74 7 ~ 325 aa | One micron = 0.001 = 0.0001 cm = 0.00004 in. 0.454 kg of dust (1 1b) = 7,000 grains Dugt loads are usually expressed in grains/m? (grains/ft?) From Table 2 (16) s = 1.44 (Dry sand) From the screen analysis of the material, it is assumed Dp = 200 nash. then, ) D, 7 74 micron ~ 0.0074 cm (0.00292 in.) The conveyed velocity is a = 6,000 x 1.44 x 0:305 x 0.002929-4/(1.44 + 1) = 104.6 m/min. (343 ft/min.) ¥ . 2h Correcting/v,, at the design temperature in terms of density ratio. ‘0.075 Vo 7 104.6 x 0.046 170.5 m/min. (560 ft/min.) Dust_load The particle analysis is given on a volune basis of orle cubic meter of material. Pm 7 1,440 kg/m? (90 1b, /et3) Volume of material = (25,800 + 800)/1,440 Za = 18.5.m3hr (652 £t?/nr) | : ‘ “ot : . Volume of conveyed material ~ 18.5 x 0.122 7 _ — 2.26 m3/hr (79.54 £t3/nr) Weight of conveyed material = 2.26 x 1,440 — 3,254" kg/hr. ‘ = (7,159 1b, /hr) 3,254 x 7,000, 2 0.454 x 60 429 ; = (55.2 grains/ft3) 6 Dust load = =1,950 grains/n? 3.3.6 Dryer diameter ‘The diameter of a dryer is related d¢ the volume of the outgoing gases by a : - nt 7 072 F, ; D = 2(429/170.5 x x)# = 1.83 m (6 fem 3.3.7 Design of lifters ° . Assume the percentage of the. loaded aréa ofthe dryer * ' \ is 128, then from Fig. 17 (16). tsin 6 — 0.76 “8 = 50° H-=R( 1- cos 6) 17 0,92(1 - cos 50) + 0.32 m (1 £t) Therfore; a lifter depth of 25 om (10 in.) will be ade- quate. The angle of repose of material is ¢/— 32°, from Table 3 (16). The cross sectional area of the material retained by each lifter is determined as followsA, 70.5 x 252 x tan32 = 195 cm? (0.21 £t?) . Number of lifters 25 x tan32 R tana = = 25 x 0.625/92 = 0.17 . a= 10° Ny 7 360/19 — 36 For fabrication purposes 24 lifters haye been used. the falling time of a particle is te ¥ (2D sin ea)? = (2 x 1,83 x 0.53/9.81) - 0.445 5 The speed of rotation times the dryer diameter in meters lies between 9 and 12. °” | - 64 - bd | Doane e . as vznfea = 6.5. rpm The Lifting time | = 120 & ¢/ne with t ¢ = (32/180) x 1 = 0.56 radians +36/6.5 %1- 3.298 = 120 x!\ The showering cycle time - 3.735 5 i a Number of lifters ysed per showering cycle , ° Ne 7 KeMy . with . K, 7 t/t, = 60/n = 60/6.5 ~ 9.23 5 and . K, ~ 3.375/9.23 = 0.405 Ny 7 0.405 x 24 = 9.72 The showering load per unit length of ‘dryer Wy 7 No % Ag X Pq Pq 7 (1/760 + 1,440) /2 = 1,600 kg/m? W, — 9.72 x 0.0195 x 1,600 = 303 kg/m (204 1b/ft)6s Dryer length L = /U,A(0T) ~ . with Ac =x D2? = 2 x 3.35 = 2.63 m2 (28.3 £t?) 4 4 (qmy,, ~ {1-990 = 16) = (149 = 100) ~ 53 2 (626 °F) jin (2,090 - 16) (149 - 100) s ng a8 (2 + 0.6 Rl/? Bl) ¢ uve r i Dyvy Pg/tg . coz uz)? . . A and (0g/2)4 eg (1.03 x 9.81/24 = 3 m/s (9.84 £t/8) « uny, y 170.5/60 = 2.84 m/s (9.32 ft/s) (32 + 2,842)4 = 4.13 m/s (13.55 ft/s)- 66 - analysis as follows Dy = 0.118 x 0:042 + 0.452 x 0.0118 - 0.298 x 0.0103 + 0.087 x 0.00742 + 0.035 x 0.00612 = = 0.0142 cm = 1.42 x 107 m (4.7 x 10” ft) At 9, - 0.74 kg/m? the gases have 1.0258 kg/kg-°C 0.0389 w/m-°C x ' 5 ug 7 2.566 x 10” kg/m-s =0 fe -4 “5 R, 71.42 x 107° x 4.11 x 0.74/2.566 x 107 = 17 hn. = 920389 1.42 x 104 (2+ 0.6.x 17? x o.e1!/3) = 1,144 W/m?-°c (201 Btushr-£t?-°P) The term "D3 (P,,,) may be assumed to be equal to the show ering area of the material retained by the lifters, and AL is the volume of unit leiigth of the dryer. AL = 2.63 m? (28.3 ft?)67) 022895 295 H/m3-Pc U, - 214d x 3.3 x 2.63 = (15 Btu/hr-£t?-°F) L = 4,495,200/275 x 2.63 x 332 L = 18.3 m (60 £t) 3.3.8 Bed load calculations (A) - Showering load S W,, 7 303 x 18.3 = 5,545 kg (12,220 1b) (B) + Effective slope As a first trial assume the slope of the dryer to be 4.17 cm/m (0.5 in/ft). The effect of gas velocity on the effective slope was determined experimentally (16) to be covered by the following expression 8,7 5.2 AU/W 0 with WoW, x t/t, 5,545 x 0.445/3.735 = 660 kg (1,455 1b) and . we ° yp -vata Divisor with Divisor = 5,000 log 4+959 — 4,935 : v,750 U = 560 x 0.046 x 60/4,935 = 0.313- 68 - _ 8g 7 5-2 x 28.3 x 0313/1, 455 = 0.032 m/m For’ parallel-flow 8, 7 S/100.+ S, = 4.17/100 + 0.032 = 0.0737 m/m (C) - Showering output per minute is equal to the showering load per meter of dryer length times the advance rate of the showering material. Advance rate - 2Sint x 5. x 60 te : rs = 1:83 x 0:53 y 9.0737 x 60 , 3.735 = 1.15 m/min, (3.77 ft/min.) 5 Showering output ~ 303 x 1.15 = 348 kg/min. (767 1b/min.). (D) - Kiln action load 1. Retention time Go 3.094(32)4 x 18.3 4.17 x 6.5 x 1.83 — 6.5 min. 2. Kiln action output Mean input load — (30,000 + 26,600)/2 — 28,300 kg/hr = (62,390 lb/hr) Kiln action output = mean input load - showering output = 28,300 - 20,880 = 7,420 kg/hr = (16,360 1b/hr)Spo 3. Kiln action load Kilh action load = — x Kiln action output 60 = 0.1083 x 7420 = 804 kg (1,772 1b) 4. Mean retention time is taken as the ratio of the bed load. to the mean throughput ‘ Total bed load - 5,545 + 804 = 6,349 kg (13,992 1b) 61349 60 = 13.46 min. 28,300 m. 5. Percentage of shell loaded x x 100 bed load , 1 x - bed load AL 8 4. ~ —6349 _ ¢ —1_ x 100 = 11. 858 1.83 x 18.3 1,600 : Both retention time and the percentage loaded of the shell are in good agreement with previously experimental data. 3.3.9 Horsepower calculations 1. Showering horsepower sup - Showering load x B 33,000 x E p = Dosing _ 1.83 x 0-53 6 = 15.58 m/min. ‘i te 3.735 = (51.11 ft/min.)2. B= 0.9 sup — 22.220 x-51.11' «; 33,000 x 0.9 y Kiln action horsepower kup ~ Kiln action load x F x singg 33,000 x 0.9 . with + = A > 3. with ae : 4,7 18° (angle of conveying from Table 3) 7 F = 2nnR = 2" x 6.5 x 3 = 123 ft/min. yup — 22272 x 123 x 0.32 33,000 x 0.9 * - 2.3 hp Friction horsepower FHP ~ 0.000092 * W, x D. x nx Fe 24,500 kq, (54,000 1b), (total rotating weight) p= 2,134 mm (84 in) (diameter of riding ring) F, = 0.018,for oil lubricated bearings = 0,06 for grease lubricated bearings FHP = 54,000, x 84 x 6. x 0.018 x 0.0000092 = 5 hp Total ~ 28.3 hp_ , -n- : Noe bg , 3.4° Auxiliary equipment 7 ooo 5 7 a . Conventional types of andes biege Reparatérs fre-used f° to reclaim the fines. 8 : 7 7 — ; ‘ The three Charts €,°9, and 10, (16) oie] are included} i offer a simplified method for selecting the Aight size cy- what ‘clone for a parpicular application, taking into account, the. | . Cc air flow rate and temperature; the particle Size “ane densi- ty of the dust to be coltectea, the aititude at the custo- | - j men's,plant site, and the desired collection efficiency ie ? and Parqissitble pressure drop. ' Le ' . ae 5 : i Design’ conditions of “ “ Tae et "1a! 429 m/min. (15,150 CFM) at 149 Cc (300 °F) and. ae zero elevation. -_ - ‘Dust analysis” 1.5 ‘specific gravity with 158 less n ' . 2 : ‘ Wen 10 Microns. of ms, : i P ie 190% cqllection esficiency. required. . oa . Find : o My tore ty me 1. Cyqlone size * ea 4 2. cyclong pressure drop at 21 °c: (70 °F) > a Cyclone pressure, drop’ at 149°C (300 °F) Y Dust load leaving ‘cyclone ae Pa 7 a , Step 1 - Pind slize, velocity and eqyjvalent,"prassure 7 . if ‘Grop at standard conditions’ using Charts 8 ‘and-2- 9. Using Chart 10, find céllection efficiency. If below 85% - 90% collection efficiency, a - ith branch of smaller cyclones will be required. . art a / ", Step2- On Chart 8, it,is seen that a size 169 single oy cyclone will handle 429 m3/min. (15,150 CFM) | a at an inlet velocity of 884 m/min. (2,900 ft/min.) + Step 3 - Using Chart 9, gt an inlet velocity of d84 m/min, 25 : {2,900 ft/min.) rise vertichlly to intersect ~ with 149 °c (300 °F) curve/’ move horizontally left to a elevation line and read 8 cm W.C. ** (3.19 in W.C.). This is thé static pressure + a drop a cgrrating conditions (S.P.D.). Again at"@a4 m/min. (2,900 ft/min.) line, mo- ve vertically to“intersect 21 °c (70 Pr) cur- ve and nove horizontally to th x and, read —r————T—C—_= ling. This is the’ static pressure drop at ¢? st standard ¢ond¥tions.’ ‘ "Step 4- On Chart 10 rise from the temperature scale at 7 149 °c (300 °F) to intersdct the 1.5 sf&cific gravity curve, move horizontally to line "A". Connect point on line “A" with size 169 on 1i- RP ne "B". Where line "A.- B" intersects line "Cc", connect with 15% point line "D" and ‘sead Correct- ed & - 10 micron line "R". We read 55% which is transfered to scale “F" to intersect 11 cm a : 2 ©« : 73 - : . (4.33 in) and drop to read collection efficien- ‘I - cy of 858 Cyclone: single 7 ; sizé 169 : , 3 » + Capacity! 429ym3/min. (15150 CFM) at 149 °c aff : Pan °F) . . velocity: 884 m/min. (2,900 ft/min.) . : i S.P.D.: 8 cm (3.15 in) W.c. at 149 °C ° (300 °F) we. 54 on S.P.De: 11 cm (4.33 inl W.c. at 21 °C (70 °F) : > . efficiency: 854 © austMoad leaving+cyclone: N\ . 1,950(1 - 0.85) = 293 grains/m? oa . . = (8.33 grains/ft?) ‘ ’ 2. ‘Wet_scrubber If additiondl efficiency of collection is required, L - other secondary devices must’ be provided, such.as wet scrub- : bers. a The use ‘of wet scrubbers, represents an inexpensive way to achieve high efficiency gas cleanimg required by’ s air pollution control. An effective scrubber cleans industrial” exhaust gases to a 1.8 grains/m? (0.05 grains/ £t3) or less.- m4 . A. Design conditions 1: 429 m3/min. (15,150 CFM) at 149 °c (300 °F) 2. Humidity 0.272 kg water/kg dry air = : 3. Dust load 293 grains/m? (8.33 grains/ft3) 4. 99% collection efficiency required 4 1. Scrubber pressure drop at operating temperature Outlet m3/min. (CFM) and gas temperature 3. Scrubber size ’ 4. Pressure drop.at 21 °c (70 °F) 5. Water rate 7 6. Scrubber pressure drop ‘7, + Bvaporation rate: of water C.- Procedure Step 1 - the dust load involved coincides to that design- ed as "B" in Table 6 (16). From Chart 11°(16) + (+ an efficiency of 99% for curve B requires a pressure drop of at least 23 cmW.C. (9 in W.C.). Step 2 - From Chart 12 (16),, Fp — 0.875. outlet gas ‘ - flow rate = 429 x 0.875 7M m/min. (13,256 CFM). Outlet gas temperature.73 °c (163 °F). poe 3 - From Table,7 (16) the smallér scrubber size * capable of nol@ing 375 m3/min. (13,256 CFM) ig a D-70. : e . Uf- 75 - from Table @ (16) is 1.43 t at zero elevation. The pressure drop is there- Step 4 - For a dry fan, F, fore ;(23)x(1.43) = 32.89 cmW.C. (12.87 in W.c.). For a wet fan the outlet gas density at 73 °c (163 °F) is 0.847 kg/m? (0.953 1b, /et?). The pressure drop is therefore, (23)x(1.2)/0.847 = 32.58 cm W.C. (12.83 in W.C.). . , * Step 5 - We have three possible water requirements, depending on the piping system’we use in Fig. { ; ; : 26 (16). cpm - © X CFM(iniet) . * F, o For piping system l: Water requirements = (8)(25s150) - y2) Gey ( 1,000 For piping system 2: Water requirements ~ (3)(15-150)"~ 14.6 cpm . 3,070 : > Por piping system 3: (3) (25,150) 58,500, . @ water Mauirenents - 0.8 GPM Step 6 - From Chart 14 (16) water lost by evapgration is 0.289 gals/1,000CFM. (inlet) - Evaporation = 9:289 x 15,150 _ 4.4 Got : ve . 1,000 5 ‘- a D._Summar: Pinar’ selection is, therefore a D-70 Allis Chalmers scrubber. with « pressurd\drop at operating conditions of 23 cm (9 in) W. C.. Pressuze drop at 73 °c (163 °F) is 32 cm (12,7 in) W.C.. Collection efficiency 998. Outlet gas flow raté 375 m?/min. (13,256 CFM). Outlet gas temperature 73 °C (163 °F).:0utlet gas density 0.847 kg/m? (0.053 1b,/ft?). Dust load leaving scrubber = 293(1 - 0.99) = 2.93 grains/m? (0.0833 grains/ft3). Water requirements. are as follows, plus 4.4 GPM lost by evaporation. ping systen GPM 0 : 1. Once through qa. : 2. Recycle to 58 slurry : 14.8 7 Recycle and thicken to 50% sludge oa . ‘r.pi Fan sefection “e on the basis df the established volume of gases leav- ing the drying equipment (CFM), prébsure drop at operating conditions, and pressure drop at ambient air temperature the fan may be selected from the fan manufacture's Charts in accordance with his instructions or usual practice., The ‘fan was’ setectea Ys shown in Fig. 25, in the wet side of the scrubber having in mind that the wheel of the fan must be resistant to corrosion, abrasive wear is mini- mized and the fan operation is more efficient because it is handling a smaller quantity of denser air.Oe The sizing.of the fan will be made according to the following specifications: - Rating = 1.2 x 375 = 450 m3/min. (16,000 CFM) 429 . 3 pensity of gases ~ 422 x 0.74 = 0.947 kg/m 375 a 3 (0.053 1b,/£t3) Operating temperature =73 °c (163 °F) 2. Static pressure drop (i) ‘across combustion chamber - 0.64 cm W.C. : 3 (ii) across dryer - 127, (iii) across vapour piping | = 8.89 } ‘ (iv) across syclone - Bd = (v) across scrubber al 32.26 ° Total = 51.06 om Wc. = (20.1 in W.c.) The static pressure drop through the dryer can be estimated as has been shown in section 1.10, while in the vapour piping was ca¥culated with the help of a computer Program. ( . =- 78+ . ss : ts T6ER"9T T6ER "ST verb zetete £996T © sueqng TeToxreumoD 6¥9°9T 6rorst bere 699Tz OS66T — euedoza TeTOTeUMID a . . . ° (gj zeyuNa) Tos*bT €0S°ET ene SpesT OLELT T¥O Tend 9# Tet" st Tet" FT ets"L ESE6T TeTeTt THO Tong pF eer'st cep eT 6B0°L BE96T 68E8T THO, toma 7 oe . *34°ND/N3q OOTT 6PS°LT GyS"OT BLb0°O OL6zz oscoz . sep TeInjeEN 3a"n9/N9 06 80S "ST Sreseeteaeeineenee: . T8rO"O sptoe vetst ~ seg TernzeN Tend “qi zed Teng “qi zed worreoPsqr zo 8 6Gi/Ma “Gia Tong 30 Oak geQ "WOD "SqT | ZW ‘sql *3a "NO/*sqT ~ AHS. AHN . : qUBTeM : oe a «Wavd Tana - e T TIGL - . *-79- Brick, Common Brick, Fire Brick, Hard Brick, Pre Brick, Soft Brickwork in Com, Brickwork in Mert. Cardboard Cement, Portland Genent, Slag Goal, Situm., Broken Coal, Anthr., Broken Coke, Loos :=Te0 Material” [Heetber Bry Hissetone-soiie ee in (Carbonated) Magnesite Marble Mansonry, Dress Mansonry, Dry, Rubble Mica Mortar Maid, Average Oak Paper Paraffin Peat Pitch ‘laster-of-Paris reased Wood Pulp fumice Stone 1.00 1.90 1.83 2.79 0.97 0.3-0.90TABLE 3 ‘ WEIGHTS, AND ANGLES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS Material a B c Alumina, Sized or Briquette 65 20? ‘Aluminum Hydrate, Ground 12.5 34° 2e Aluminun Sulfate, Granular 54 og se Ash Black, Ground 105, 2 O1sG Ash Fly, Powiered 45 4g 308 washes, Wet . 47 509380 ‘shes, Dry. 3. 27° Bauxite, Ground Dried 68 38230 Beauxite, Mine Run 5 85 31 1 Beans, Soy = Cake 5 320 1g? Beans, Soy ~ Meal a ae 12 Beans," Soy - Crushed I 34 359 228 Beans, Soy ~ Whole 47 2 ze Beans, Soy - Split , 44 28 0S Buckwheat MS 29 139 Barley . 39 43 35. Carbon, Coke, Crushed, Sized 30 ae se Cement, Clinker 88 33 20; Cement, Portland 95 aoe Charcoal, Wood, Pulp, Granular 26.5 350. 250 chips, wod 2 6a ae Ghromide Acid, Flake B 25 3 Cinders, Blast Furnace . 357 ass 23° Clay, Dry in lump Loose ie 350 2 Granular - 35200 Broken, Loose 54 22889 Chestnut. F 46 28 ae Bitumims, Minus 3", Dry 42 28 so Bitunims, Minus }", Wet 50 409 250 Bituminus Sized, Wet or Dry 45 wm ue Copra, Medium Size Pieces 3 209 e Copra, Meal, Ground ‘ 40 99250 Copra, Expeller Cake Ground 32 30869 Copra, Expeller Cake Choped 29 208 8 Copper Sulfate, Ground 5 ag 1g Clover Seed (60 Ibs per Bu.) 48 28 150 Cocoanit, Shredded 25 mS Coffee Beans, Green 42 2° 10 A = Weight, Ib, / ft? B= angle of Repose = Maximm Belt Conveying Angleeo Material a B c - Coffee Steel Cut 28 zee Com Shelled (56 Lbs per Bu.) 45 aie ze Cormmeal (50 Ibs per Bu.) 40 3 Cotton Seed Bb ae Cotton Seed Meal 3 35) 22 Earth, Pullers, Raw 42 30S Earth, Common Loam Dry Loose 6 359200 Feldspar, Crushed 100 3, Glue (Pellet) 45 os le Gravel, Sharp - 409278 Gravel, Round : = 309 1se Green Stone, Trap, Loose Piles 1! 107 35520 Gypsum 142 459330 Gypsum in Begular Lamps 82 308. 158 Gypsum Ground [se 409 28 Tron Gxide Pignent 25 409278 Iron Ore Limonite 237° 409288 Kaolin, Green Crushed 64 35g 188 Kaplin, Pulverized 2 45 32 Lead, '#70 Red ‘ 230 4g 3D Lead, Silicate Granulated 230 305 1 ead, Sulphate, Basic Pulverized 184 459 328 Line, Briquette 60 20 se Lime, Burned Pulverized 27 ao 20 Line, Fine 45 405 (26 Lime, Mason uv 40 27 Limestone, Pulverized 85 are ate Limestone, Mixed Sized 105, 30S Limestone, Coarse Sized 98 2 OS Mica, Ground 235 363 28g Molybdenumite Ore, Powdered 7 107 49 5D Manganese 460 398 ae Nitrate of Soda 68 245 10: Oats, (32 Ibs per Bu.) 26 ae, 8° Phosphate, Dicalcium, Granular 60 309 rR Phosphate, 51 455309 Phosphate, 60 2 18 Phosphate, 50 40: 230 ‘Phosphate, 93 2 ug, Phithalic Anhydride, Flakey 2 22 108 Rice 50 208 e Rock, Phosthate, Pulverized 60 405 (280 Rubber, Scrap 23 33 28 Salt, Cake - 76 3692 Salt, Granulated al 318168 Salt Rock, Crushed B 250 Sand, Mine Rin 95 33 ae Sand, Coarse Sized 95 309 16g Sand, Fine 95 32 18- 83 - ° Material A B c Sand, Core i 65° 399. 278 Slag, Furnace Granulated 122. | 250° 130 : Slag, Birmingham : 82 25 3 5 Slate, Fine Ground 82 385. 226 _Slate, Granules Flakey Bae eater 152 Soap Chips 10 309188 Soda Ash Light 30 379° 250 : Soda Ash Dence 66 32 19 Soda Ash Briquette 50 228 108 Soda, Bicarbonate 7 43 42 27 Sodium Nitrate Granular 1.168 248 118 Sodium Sulfate 88 . 31 185 |? Starch Tablet Granular Crystals’ 40 24928 Sulpha, Pulverized 50 459 308 Sulpha, Coarse 76, 328200 : Sawdust, Drip 20 369 228. Sawdust, Ground 20 450-318 Shale . 85 399. 260 Wheat (60 Lbs per Bu.) 48 239.100 . Zinc Ore Roasted Granular 110 38° 27°. _ eo= BaDINENSTONS so [so | oo, | 70 [20 [90 | 00 | s10 | 120 * 19% [238 [27 [32 [os | %3 | *6t | Sok [3 [ae [22a fer_[om [36 [oor [es [aon | se [© [2st [32 [37 [83 [sea [sea | Gor [66 72 [ dp [40 | sor [60 | 70 | 80 | 90 100 | 110 | 120 E [29 | 38 [sob | ser [53 [508 | Gee | 708 | +77 ¥ [9 [ar [aek [ase [ace [16 [ask | zie [238° G | Ott [798 | 94% [ 110 | 125e] 192 | as6h] 172 | 187% Ez z= 86- TABLE 6% PARTICULATE CUASSIFICATIONS ro oo CURVE Coarse dust - mechanically generated: 4 Approximate particle size distribution 20% less than 10 microns. gypical sour- ces: Conveyor points, crughers, screens, baggers. Fine dust - mechanically generated: | Particle size distribution: 908 plus less than 10 microns. Typical sources: Fines passed by high efficiency cyclones, recovering. effluent from dryers, coolers, airswet mills, coal dryers, etc. ( Ultrafine dusty- mechanically generate Particle size distribution: all less than 5 microns, This material is the result of particle size degeneration due to repeated mechanical reworking. Typical source: re~ generated lime kilns, and catalyst kilns. Fume. Particle size distribution: all sub- micron. This material is formed by the condensation and solidification of gaseous components. Typical sources: TVA ammoniat- ors (ammonium chloride), carbon black fur- naces, cupolas and secondary melting fur~ haces. .- e . gd . TABLE 7 . CEM CAPACITIES 7 < : HAXINOM MAXIMOH onan OUTLET CFM oes OUTLET CFM. 40 4,400 110 33,000 50 7,000 120 40,000 60 10,009 130 46,000 70 \ 13,000 140 54,000 80 17,500 150 62,000 90 22,000 160 70,000 + 100 27,000" fro 80,000 tf2 ” TABLE 8 DENSITY FACTORS [200° | 3000 [8600 ‘ELEVATION IN FEET ‘5000 +843200 2800 2400 2000 |— 1600 1200 Ke A 400- 90 --o1- 600 500 30 20 15 10792 - 006 ood 00S oot oot do IN or on-'94 - bo oor ont ozt oct jot osse)8 ii aN moe te a se Se | eae i HOR VORTAC ANIM LER ‘a00 3000 3200 1400 7200 2400\ 7000 +6000 5000 000 3000 2000 - 1000 0 2000 2500 3500 . ‘000(4) xawaioi4s3 wous3TI09 1 ga o same, ~. ta) pL MOD Lee onsiMeD Eels as NOTLSEGTAS NOIDA * ‘UT. TaWHD 5GOLLECTION EFFICIENCY (%) 99.99 99.95 99.90 99.80 99.70 99.50 99.00 98.00 “95.00 90.00 85.00 80.00 75.00 -,100 - 3% 5 678 1012 15 2 30 40 50- 101 - 200°F 300°F 400°R 500°R 600°P 700°R a00°F 900°F 1000°R 100° 1200°F | 1300°F 1800°P 359 1500°P12,000, 10,000} - 102 - CHART 13 8,000} 6, 000} 4,000] 2,000} 1 5 10 15 SLURRY CONCENTRATION - ¢ BY WEIGHT 71.0 -103- ~ 0.9 5 008 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.8 TTT 0.3 0.2 300°- 104 = Toscnuaser ane) To swuemy o1sPosat ‘SURGE TANK Piping Syaten No. 2 ‘SERTLING TANK Piping System No. 3 ‘SEAL Pot Piping Sygten No. 2 | oy To mueay ouPosaL F rosenuauen i om Boeaeeen 5 Fig. 26, Motel D scrubber xCONCLUSION Drying has gone many innovations in recent years, although they have not brought major equipment changes, they have. succeeded in presenting a better understanding of the drying mechanisms. Unfortunately, which mechanism or cémbination of several mechanisms control the drying phenomena and their range of applicability to certain ty- pes of solids are not yet fully understood. ‘The comparison between different scientific discus- sions reveals that the capillary-flow mechanism predomi- nates in the early stages of drying and thé diffusional- flow mechanism together with the possibility of interior evaporation of liquid moisture may be importdnt at the later stages. The drying rate in a conventional type dryer depends on the following principal factors. (4) The amount of the exposed surface of the wet - material in contact with the flow of the dry- ing gases. (14) The difference between the temperature of the ‘ heating medium and the temperature of the mate- \ rial being dried. \(4ii) The degree of agitation of the material with the \ ingoing gases which promotes higher drying rates. (iv) The size of the particles being processed. Dry- \ \ ing is accomplished by evaporating moisture from4 - 106 - the surface of a particle. The transfer of mois~ ture is taking place more rapidly in a well gra~ nulated product. (v) The physical. characteristics of the feedstock control the rate of the moisture moyenent inside a solid. Since the moisture must reach the sur- face of a particle in order to be evaporated, materials having capillaries are dried relative- ly easier than those having»no voids, Today drying still remains an art, in which the impor- tant design variables differ.markedly from one piece of equipment to the other. The ability of integrating this principal into a process proves the necessity of consider- ing these variables which influence thé rate of drying and the design’ of the drying equipment.1. REFERENCES Keey, R.B. “Drying Principles and Practice", Oxford, Pergamon, 1972. Luikov, A.V. “Heat and Mass Transfer in Capillary- Porous Bodies", Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1966. Kisakurek, B. and Gebizlioglu, 0. "Capillary Mechanism in Drying", First Int. Symp. on Drying, Science Press, Princetown, N.¥., 1978. Barber-Greene Company. “Dryer Testing", Aurora, Illinois, U.S.A., Copyright 1960. J. van Brakel and Heartjes, "The Period of Constant Drying Rate", First Int. Symp. on Drying, Science Press, Princetown, 1978. Miskell, F. and Marshall, W.R. "A Study of Retention Time ina Rotary Dryer", Chen. Eng. Progress, Vol. 52, January, 1956. Ranz, W.E, and Marshall, W.R. Chem, Eng. Progress, Vol. 174, 1952. Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H. "Chemical Engineers Hand- book", Sth Edition, Mc-Graw Hill, 1973. . Fan Engineering, Buffalo Forge Company, 1970. Hirosue, H. and Shinohara, H. "Volumetric Heat Trans- fer Coefficient and Pressure Drop in Rotary Dryers and Coolers", First Int. symp. on Drying, Science Press, Princetown, N.Y., 1978. Huang, T.C. “Engineering Mechanics", Addison-Wesley, 1968.12. 13. 14. 1s. 16. 1. 1a. ag. 20. - 108 - Sloan, 'C.E., Wheelock, T.D. and Tsoa, G.T. "Drying", Chemical Engineering, June 19, 1967. Keey, R.B. "Introduction ‘to Industrial Drying Opera- tions", Ferganon Press, Oxford, 1978. Nonhebel, G. and Moss, A. "Drying of Solids in the Chemical Industry", London, 1971. Hirosue, H. and Shinohara, H., Kagaku Kogaku, 37, 57, 1973. Canadian Allis-Chalera Ltd. "Heat Balance and Design Data for Rotary Dryers", 1960. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Technical Paper No. 384, 1927. Thomas, G.B. "Calculus and Analytic Geometry”, Addison- Wesley, 1972. Belcher, D.W., Cook, E.M., Dittman, E.W., Smith, D.A., spots, M.R. and Waltrich, P.P. "Drying Equipment", Chemical Engineering, January 17, 1977. Hawkins, J.C. "Advance Control Concepts for Mineral Dryers", The Foxboro Company.