5 February 2015

discussed later in this paper. The rate equation for convection

Lab 1: Hotplate Multi-Mode Heat Transfer and

Nucleate Boiling
William Davenport, Kristin Petela, Matthew Swanson, Austin Toth
AbstractIn this lab, water in a beaker will be boiled in order
to evaluate the multi-mode heat transfer occurring within the
system. First, the supplied heat flux required to bring the water
to a boil will be found in order to perform an energy balance on
the system. Next, the heat transfer coefficient will be found
during nucleate boiling.

is Newtons law of cooling, shown below in equation 2, which

states that the convective heat flux (q ) is proportional to
the convection heat transfer coefficient ( h multiplied by
the difference between the surface and fluid temperatures
( T sT ) .

Index TermsHeat flux, Energy balance, Nucleate boiling

q =h ( T sT ) (2)
I.

INTRODUCTION

lab consists of two parts. The first part is to

observe the multi-mode heat transfer occurring
between a hotplate and a metal beaker filled with
water. The second part of the lab is to analyze the effects of
nucleate boiling that will occur in the water within the beaker.
The objective of this experiment is twofold. First we must
perform an energy balance by finding the supplied heat flux.
Second, we will calculate the heat transfer coefficient based on
the heat of vaporization and evaporation rate exhibited during
nucleate boiling [1].
There are three basic modes of heat transfer which include
conduction, convection, and radiation, all of which are present
in this lab. Conduction is the first mode of heat transfer and it
occurs when energy is transported within a stationary medium.
Conduction heat transfer occurs in this lab within the metal
beaker. As the hotplate heats the bottom of the beaker, heat is
transferred through the beaker via conduction. Once the water
temperature becomes higher than the beaker, heat is lost via
conduction through the beaker. The rate equation for
conduction is Fouriers Law, shown below in equation 1,
which states that the conductive heat flux ( q s ) is
proportional to the thermal conductivity ( k multiplied by
the temperature gradient ( dT / dx
The minus sign
accounts for the fact that heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
HIS

q s=k

dT
(1)
dx

The second mode of heat transfer is convection. Convection

occurs when energy is transferred between a solid surface and
a moving fluid. Convection occurs within this lab in two
instances. First, heat is transferred via convection into the
atmosphere from the external edges of the beaker as well as
the exposed areas of the hotplate. Second, free convection
occurs as the beaker transfers heat to the water, and will be

Convection heat transfer can be further specified based on

the flow of the fluid. Heat transfer that occurs when the fluid
flow is induced by buoyancy forces from density differences
due to temperature variations of the fluid is known as free
convection. As mentioned earlier, free convection occurs
during this lab as the beaker transfers heat to the water. This
free convection heat rate ( Q conv is calculated below

htop ,hp is the heat transfer

coefficient of the top of the hotplate, A top ,hp is the area of
the top of the hotplate, T top ,hp is the temperature of the
top of the hotplate, T is the atmospheric temperature,
using equation 3 where

and so on for the side of the hotplate, top of the water, and side
of the beaker.

Qconv =htop ,hp A top ,hp ( T top ,hp T ) + hside ,hp A side ,hp ( T side ,hpT ) + h
Radiation, the third mode of heat transfer, does not require a
medium and occurs simply by electromagnetic radiation
emitted by the molecules. For a blackbody, the radiative heat
flux ( Eb is proportional to the Stefan-Boltzmann (
constant multiplied by the forth power of the absolute
temperature ( T s , which is known as the StefanBoltzmann law, shown below in equation 4. Equation 5 below
shows that for a real surface, the radiative heat flux ( E
is proportional to the product of emissivity ( , StefanBoltzmann constant ( , and the forth power of the
absolute temperature ( T s . In this lab, radiation emits
from the outer edges of the beaker, top of the water, and the
exposed surfaces of the hotplate. This radiation heat transfer
rate ( Q rad is calculated using equation 6 below where

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,

emissivity of the top of the hotplate,

the top of the hotplate,

T top ,hp

top ,hp

is the

A top ,hp is the area of

is the temperature of the

top of the hotplate,

is the atmospheric temperature,
and so on for the side of the hotplate, the top of the water, and
the side of the beaker.

5 February 2015

Eb = T s (4)
E= T 4s (5)

To determine the heat rate going into the water ( Q W ,

equation 7 below was used where m is the initial mass,
c p is the specific heat, and dT /dt is the change in
temperature with respect to time.

QW =mc p

dT
(7)
dt

4
z4
4
energy
lost from vaporization
during heating ( 4
Qrad = top ,hp A top, hp ( T 4top ,hpT 4 ) + side , hp A side, hp ( T 4side,The
hp T ) + top, w A top, w ( T top ,w ( t ) T ) + side, bk A side ,bk ( T side, bk ( t )
Evap can be calculated using equation 8 below where
m
is the change in mass and h fg is enthalpy.

Free convection boiling exists in water when the excess

temperature is less than 5C. Once the excess temperature
becomes greater than 5C, the water enters the nucleate
boiling phase. This is shown below in figure 1 where point A
is the transition from free convection to nucleate boiling.
Nucleate boiling for water typically exists when the excess
temperature is greater than 5C and less than 30C. Within
nucleate boiling, there are two different flow patterns that can
be witnessed, which are either isolated bubbles or jets and
columns. In figure 1 below, the isolated bubble flow pattern is
found between points A and B. With this pattern, the majority
of the heat transfer is coming from direct transfer from the
surface to the liquid in motion at the surface. Once the excess
temperature increases beyond point B in figure 1 below
(approximately 10C), the flow pattern becomes jets and
columns. This flow pattern occurs from points B to C below in
figure 1. During this pattern, the heat flux is increasing
linearly during nucleate boiling until point P on figure 1
below, when the heat flux increases slower as the excess
temperature increases. These two flow patterns usually occur
on the heated surface at nucleation sites, which are either spots
on the heated surface with smaller wetting properties or small
crevices where the free gas-liquid surface is preserved.

hfg (8)
Evap =m
By converting equations 3, 6, and 7 from Watts to Joules
and summing them with equation 8, the total energy used by
the system is found, shown below in equation 9. This value
can be compared to the total energy put into the system.
Theoretically, the total energy put into the system should equal
the total energy used by the system.

Etotal=E conv + E rad + E W + E vap (9)

Finally, the heat transfer coefficient for nucleate boiling can
be calculated by dividing the heat flux by the excess
temperature, shown below in equation 10.

q
h= W (10)
T e
II. METHODS
Equipment
A. Hotplate & Stirring Rod
To generate heat and analyze the modes of heat transfer and
boiling, a Cimarec digital stirring hotplate is used. It has a
digital display and large control knob to enable precise
temperature control. The top of the plate is a white ceramic
material. This surface area measures 4.25 x 4.25 inches.
StirTrac technology allows smooth low-speed stirring and
consistent speed control of the magnetic stir bar [2].
B. Benchtop Indicator, MDSSi8 Series
To read the thermocouples, an Omega benchtop 10-channel
digital thermometer is used. It is accurate to 0.5%,
which is important to the calculations of uncertainties. The
benchtop indicator samples at 3 samples per second and has a
step response of 0.7 seconds [3].

Fig. 1. Typical boiling curve for water at standard atmospheric pressure,

displaying heat flux (qs) versus excess temperature (Te).

C. Watts Up Pro
Watts Up Pro is the plug load meter used to collect the total
power being used. It is accurate to 1.5%, which is
important to the calculations of uncertainties. The load meter

5 February 2015
has a USB interface that allows for the easy collection of data
with a computer [4].
D. Miscellaneous
Other equipment used during the experiment include: 600
mL stainless steel beaker with attached thermcouples to the
inner base and the outer surface, a thermometer, a ruler,
calipers, computer, and a digital infrared thermometer.

3
benchtop indicator is turned to channel to observe and record
the thermocouple reading. Everything is then unplugged and
the hotplate knobs are turned completely off. Once the beaker
has cooled off, the water is emptied.
III. RESULTS
En e rgy Lost/Absorbe d vs Tim e
0.35
0.3

Procedure
A Part 1: Multi-Mode Heat Transfer Analysis
First, all the supplies are gathered. Geometric parameters
such as the diameter of the beaker, the thickness of the beaker,
and the dimensions of the hotplate are measured with calipers.
The beaker is then filled with 500 mL of water. Using a ruler,
the height of the water is recorded. To interface with the Watts
Up load meter, the software is downloaded to the computer.
The beaker with the 500 mL is placed on the center of the hot
plate. This is important because only the center provides
enough heat for the experiment. Now, the thermocouples are
plugged into the benchtop indicator. To best collect the data,
the thermocouple on the side of the beaker is plugged into
channel three. The hand held thermometer is plugged into
channel four. And the thermocouple that is imbedded in the
bottom of the beaker is plugged into channel two. The
benchtop indicator, hotplate, and load meter are plugged into
the wall to provide power to the devices. Also, the load meter
is plugged into the computer via USB and the hotplate is
plugged into the load meter. This is crucial to the experiment
because it allows for the collection of power data being
delivered to the hotplate. The load meter display is then set to
Watts.
The stirring control knob is set to an acceptable revolution
per minute. Using the load meter, the power needed to operate
this function is recorded. The hotplate temperature knob is
turned to the maximum value. After the hotplate has been on
for five minutes, the temperature of the water is recorded for
the outside surface thermocouple and the thermometer probe
by switching between channel 3 and channel 4 on the
benchtop indicator. Each temperature measurement is
approximately 7 seconds apart. Also, the power being
delivered to the hotplate is recorded through the computer
software. This is done because the hotplate takes some time to
heat up to the maximum temperature. The temperatures are
recorded until the water begins to boil. The time as it begins to
boil is recorded as well. The temperature and power data is
exported to the computer. The water level height is recorded
again using the same ruler.

0.25

Energy Water
(KW )

0.2
0.15
0.1

Convection

0.05
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Time (sec)

Fig. 2. Graph of the calculated energy loss due to radiation, convection, and
energy absorbed by the water. The sum of the intergrals of the data displayed
above was used to compare the calculated total energy to the measured total
energy. The lines for radiation and convection overlap each other because they
are so similar in value.

Te m pe rature Rise Prior to Boili ng

105
Outside
Degrees (C)

Center

85

Polynomial (Center)

65
45

Polynomial 25
(Center)
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Time (s)

Fig. 3. Graph of the measured temperature rise prior to boiling. The data was
fit with a trend line of y = -3E-07x 3 + 6E-05x2 + 0.1529x + 38.129. This data
was used to find the energy absorbed by the water.

The trend in this data for temperature vs time was linear until
the end of the experiment where the water reached its
saturation temperature. This caused the data to flatten out as it
approached the biological asymptote imposed by the water.
Power from WattsUp
500
400
300
Energy (W ) 200
100
0

B Part 2: Nucleate Boiling Analysis

With the water at full boil, the temperature is noted to be at
a steady value. The water is allowed to boil for 15-20 minutes
to allow for a significant amount of water loss to occur. The
height of the water is then measured again with a ruler. The

Radiation

20

40

60

Time (sec)

80

100

5 February 2015

Fig. 4. A graph of a segment of the power input graph. The power supply was
alternating current which would periodically adjust the power input to
maintain the hotplate temperature. The data was integrated to find the total
power supplied to the system

Table 1
Heat
Transfer
Coefficient
Hot Plate
Side
(W/m2K)

Heat Transfer
Coefficient
Hot Plate Top
(W/m2K)

Heat Transfer
Coefficient
Beaker Side
(W/m2K)

Heat Transfer
Coefficient
Water Surface
(W/m2K)

14.787

14.791

111.846

9.658

Calculated heat transfer coefficients for convective flow. The various

horizontal and vertical surfaces exposed to the ambient temperature were used
to find the heat transfer coefficients.

We see in Table 1 that the two heat transfer coefficients for the
hot plate and that of the waters surface were much lower than
the heat transfer coefficient of the side of the beaker. This
makes sense because metals are very conductive materials and
that makes these beakers a good choice to transmit the heat
from the hot plate to the water.

Table 2
Radiation
Energy
(kJ)

Convection
Energy
(kJ)

Energy
Absorbed
by water
(kJ)

Energy of
vaporization
(kJ)

14.787

14.791

111.846

9.658

The calculated energies due to the various modes of heat transfer.

The energy absorbed by the water is significantly higher than

all the other modes of heat transfer. This is good because we
dont want to spend excess energy heating elements other than
water when our objective is to bring the water to a boil. It is
understandable that some energy will be lost to other avenues,
but it is good that these values are minimal compared to the
energy going into the water.

Table 3
Measured Energy
input
(kJ)

Calculated Total
Energy
(kJ)

Percent error

161.009

151.084

6.164

The summation of the calculated energy inputs compared to the measured

energy input.

Table 4
Excess Temperature (K)

Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer

Coefficient
(W/m2K)

6.219

5.061

The excess temperature and heat transfer coefficient calculated during

nucleate boiling.

IV. DISCUSSION
The results obtained in the experiment were all in an
attempt to complete both of the aforementioned objectives.
First, we performed an energy balance on the system and
found the supplied heat flux to boil the water. Then we

calculated the heat transfer coefficient during nucleate boiling.

The total energy coming into the system was calculated to be
161.0099 kJ. We arrived at this value by integrating our
WattsUp data over time [4]. To complete our energy balance
we added the energy from radiation, convection, evaporation,
and the calculated energy to make water boil. These energy
values can be found in Table 2.
The total energy obtained from these values is 151.084512
kJ. This gives us a total error of 6.1645 kJ. This is an
appropriate value to have for unaccounted energy and is only
3.83% of the energy measured by the integration of the
WattsUp data [5].
To determine the heat transfer coefficients we used the
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer textbook to find the
Rayleigh number using constant values found in Table A.6 and
equation 9.25. We then calculated Nusselt numbers using
equation 9.27 from the book [1] and solved for the heat
transfer coefficients from there. Table 1 shows the values we
obtained for each heat transfer coefficient.
The measurement of the height of the water can greatly
affect our results. Small changes in volume change the
outcome of the energy by a significant amount. To improve the
accuracy of our height (and therefore volume) measurements,
we recommend using a system where the mass of the water
can be measured throughout the whole experiment. Instead of
calculating volume from an average density value, which we
know changes significantly with temperature, we could get
accurate mass results over the course of the experiment. This
would improve the overall accuracy of our results and
eliminate user error from measuring height with a ruler.
The methods we used are very similar to a published
example performed at the University of Calgary [5]. Their
experiment compared the boiling characteristics and heat
transfer coefficients of stirred and non-stirred trials. The setup
made use of some more expensive equipment than used during
this experiment, but the overall results and conclusions were
the same. There are no existing standards for boiling water, as
it is an everyday occurrence, but safety should be taken
seriously as boiling water can cause serious damage to the
skin and eyes.
There were only a few uncontrolled variables in our
experiment. The room temperature, which differed between
trials by less than one degree Celsius, was one such
uncontrolled variable. This would have influenced our
outcome if we had to analyze data taken from both trials, but
since we used only the data from our most accurate trial, the
difference between room temperatures didnt affect our data.
The maximum temperature of our hotplate is another
uncontrolled variable. If we were to repeat our experiment
with another hotplate, there is a possibility that the maximum
temperature would be different, and would therefore skew our
temperature results up or down.
Our results were similar to those found in the article A
novel laboratory experiment for demonstrating boiling heat
transfer by Dr. Anil K. Mehrotra of the University of Calgary.
His article describes an experiment very similar to the one we
completed and his results portray relationships that are nearly

5 February 2015

identical to ours. Namely, that the energy in is approximately

equal to the sum of the energy spent heating the water, lost to
radiation, convection, and evaporation [5].
The presence of the stir bar in the bottom of the beaker is
important to the even distribution of heat to the water. It
allows for the water to be constantly mixing so that the bottom
of the water column closest to the hot plate does not vary
significantly from the top of the water column. This makes
sure that the temperature readings from the thermocouples are
as accurate as possible.
The cylindrical beaker wall is modeled as a vertical plate
because the equation from the Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer is readily available. Also, since the beaker is
significant in size, the assumption of a vertical plate has
minimal error as compared to modeling the beaker wall as a
cylindrical surface.

V. CONCLUSION

The objective of this experiment was to create and

evaluate multi-mode heat transfer by boiling water,
find the heat flux required to boil water, as well as the
heat transfer coefficient of nucleate boiling.
By applying equations for the various modes of heat
transfer seen in this experiment, the power input into
the system was accurately accounted for.

Our 6.164% error is appropriate because heat can be

lost in ways that our calculations didnt account for.
Our experiment could be improved by using more
accurate equipment, but for our purposes we were
able to effectively complete the objectives using the
provided methods and equipment.
REFERENCES

[1]

Bergman, Lavine, Incropera, and Dewitt. Fundamentals of Heat and

Mass Transfer. 7th ed.

[2] "Cimarec Digital Stirring Hotplates." Cimarec Digital Stirring

Hotplates. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Feb. 2015.
[3] Benchtop Digital Thermometers. iSeries monogram. Single- and 10Channel Models with Embedded Ethernet Connectivity Option.
[4] "Meters9 Products." Watts Up? Products: Meters. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Feb.
2015.
[5] Mehrotra, A.K., et al., A novel laboratory experiment for demonstrating
boiling heat transfer. Education for Chemical Engineers (2012),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2012.09.003
[6] Taylor, R.A., Phelan, P.E., Pool boiling of nanofluids: Comprehensive
review of existing data and limited new data, International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, Volume 52, Issues 2324, November 2009
[7] Stehle, Richard C., Hotplate Multi-Mode Heat Transfer Laboratory
(2015)
[8] "Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer Studied Under Reduced-Gravity
Conditions", Dr. David F. Chao and Dr. Mohammad M. Hasan, Office of Life
and Microgravity Sciences and Applications, NASA.