The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

Arjun Ghosh
(published in Swati Pal ed. Modern European Drama: Ibsen to Beckett. New Delhi,
Pencraft.)

The two performances of Bertolt Brecht's The Caucasian Chalk Circle (1948), one at Berlin in
October 1954 and the one at the Frankfort-on-the-Main in Frankfurt in April 1955, differed on a
single count. The performance at Frankfurt did not include the 'Prologue' to the play.1 It is true that
on many occasions directors choose to edit the playscript for time but that was certainly not the case
here. The reason behind the decision of the director Harry Buckwitz becomes apparent from the
reviews of the performance in the Frankfurt papers. At the mildest the 'Prologue' was termed
avoidable. Others described it as a product of the red pencil and a tribute of Brecht's to the red
bosses to a social order.
Frankfurt and Berlin belonged to two different countries West and East Germany respectively
two belonging to two different ideological camps. Divided after the victory of the Allied forces over
Nazi Germany, West Germany followed the capitalist path of development and was part of the
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), while East Germany followed the Soviet model of
planned economy with greater control of the government. It is clear that the approval granted by
West German press to the deletion of the 'Prologue' to The Caucasian Chalk Circle was an
ideological response. Precisely so as Brecht's inclusion of the 'Prologue' was an ideological choice.
In fact, The Caucasian Chalk Circle is an example of Brecht's commitment to the socialist
worldview in his theatrical practice.
The Caucasian Chalk Circle is a story about a servant girl Grusha who suffers tremendous
hardships in order to protect the life of baby Michael, the heir to the Governor who is overthrown
by his brother the Fat Prince. Michael was earlier abandoned by his mother Natella, who was too
busy protecting her clothes. Grusha's hardships include having to part with her savings to buy milk
for Michael, running away from the province when Simon, a soldier in the Governor's forces had
already offered to marry her, facing the taunts of his sister-in-law when she seeks shelter for
Michael in their house, marrying an old man against her desires to provide a safe identity for
Michael apart from exposing herself to the tedious weather and climes of the Caucasus. Despite
her efforts she is captured by the Iron Shirts who serve the Fat Prince. Meanwhile the Grand Duke,
the ruler, returns and the Fat Prince is overthrown from the province.
A dispute ensues between Grusha and Natella over the motherhood of the child. Natella needs
Michael to support her claim to the Governor's estates. The judge Azdak places the child at the
centre of a chalk circle and asks to two women to pull the child. He suggests that the child will be
handed over to the woman who succeeds in pulling him out of the circle. In both attempts it is
Natella who is successful. Grusha, who has developed maternal instinct towards Michael refuses to
pull. Azdak hands over Michael to Grusha.
The story of the play is based on the legend of the 'Chinese Chalk Circle' but Brecht's treatment has
one crucial difference. In the 'Chinese Chalk Circle' it is the biological mother who does not pull the
1 Kerz (1968). 51.

1 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

child and is awarded custody. Brecht, however, alters the detail to hand over the child to Grusha as
she has proved herself to be the one who has shown motherly care towards Michael.
The 'Prologue' of the play concerns a dispute between the peasants of two Kolchos or collective
farms over a valley. The setting of the 'Prologue' is in the Caucasian region of the Soviet Union.
Before the World War the the original inhabitants of the valley the Calinsk goat-herders Kolchos
used the land for their goats to graze on. They fled the valley due to the German invasion. The other
group- the Rosa Luxemburg fruit-growing Kolchos moved into the unoccupied land and
developed scientific plans to increase the fertility of the land for increased yield of fruits. After the
war when the original inhabitants of the valley wish to return. A Delegate is sent by the State
Reconstruction Commission to mediate between the two parties who listens to the claims. In the
end even the goat-herders agree that the plan prepared by fruit-growers is extremely efficient. The
Delegate grants the valley to the latter. In celebration the fruit-growers invite the Singer Arkadi
Cheidze to recite a tale that has something bearing on our problem.2 As the Singer narrates the
tale of the Caucasian Chalk Circle it is enacted by the Rosa Luxemburg Kolchos.
It is clear from the utterance that there is some relation between the 'Prologue' and the tale of the
Chalk Circle. Referring to this connection some of the Frankfurt press critics suggested that Brecht
added the 'Prologue' on a later date to satisfy the red bosses. They criticized the 'Prologue' for
trying to lend credence to the Communist policy of planned economy and so the Frankfurt
performance had been correct in avoiding the bolshevik wrapping paper.3 The Frankfurt Press
was off the mark neither is The Caucasian Chalk Circle a statement endorsing a planned
economy, nor was the 'Prologue' a later addition. The 'Prologue' has always been an integral part of
the play and which has never been published without it. The Prologue serves two purposes. First, it
highlights the theme of the supremacy of acquired rights over natural rights. Michael is handed
over to Grusha as she has proved that she is able to be a better 'mother' for Michael than Natella.
Similarly, the peasants of the Rosa Luxemburg Kolchos have proved that their irrigation plan would
lead to greater productivity in the valley. Second, the theme once introduced is not held in suspense
throughout the performance it is easy to assume the choice between the Grusha and Natella once
the principle of acquired rights has been upheld in the 'Prologue'. Thus the audience is able to focus
on the various episodes through which Grusha attains motherhood of Michael without being
affected by the emotional game of suspense.
In The Caucasian Chalk Circle, Brecht contests a value system in which the rights of people are
decided by birth. Instead, he upholds a value system in which people are judged on the basis of their
acquired characteristics. Thus, Brecht advocates that resources and other entitlement should not be
shared among the people on the basis of their social status but according to their ability to
contribute to the progress and well being of the community. This alteration is intrinsic to a Socialist
value system, towards which Brecht was committed. Such a value system was essential for the
Socialist vision of reorganization of the resources of society. The Communist policy of planned
economic development was merely one aspect of the overall Socialist vision. Seen in isolation, as
done by the Frankfurt press, the 'Prologue' seems to be a poor endorsement of the Soviet planning
system a sort of forced propaganda. However, when viewed in its totality the play is an attempt to
transform value systems and thus aid the class war to which Brecht was committed.
Here I will discuss Brecht's dramatic theory and practice in the light of his Socialist leanings.
Brecht's plays were written with the performance conditions as well as his theories of the stage in
view. However, it is to be noted that Brecht did not device his theory of Epic theatre from a vacuum
2 Brecht (1996). 7.
3 Kerz. Op cit. 51.

2 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

but from the experiences of his theatrical practice as well as the political conditions of his times. In
the initial years of his career Brecht followed the existing conventions of the commercial stage and
started experimenting with elements of what he was to term Epic Theatre.

Early Career and Influences

Brecht began his theatrical practice in conditions of sharpened class contradictions in Germany.
Formed in 1918 the German Communist Party (KPD) was the second largest Communist Party
outside the Soviet Union. But by 1933 Hitler's Nazi Party had assumed control of the country. That
was when Brecht fled the country fearing Nazi persecution of Communists and their sympathisers.
The intervening period was one of intense mobilisation. Theatre and culture played a major role in
the politics of the period. Brecht engaged in this process and devised newer techniques for a theatre
which would play an effective role in the politics of his times. He not only experimented with his
art he also theorised his practice. The theoretical aspect of Brecht's writings is of great importance
to not only understanding his work but also to the development of a pedagogy and a method of
political theatre.
Brecht began his career at Augsburg. Later he moved to Munich and then to Berlin as an assistant
dramaturg to Max Reinhardt. At that point of time the German stage dealt mostly with classics but
the style of acting was one that preferred a star system, one which tried to capitalise on the
popularity and larger than life image of the leading actors. Brecht's writings on theatre during this
period bears evidence that he upheld the stage as an illusion and demanded that the actor should
be able to create the fourth wall so that the audience could imagine the action on stage as if it
were reality ideas which he later refuted when he propounded the theory of Epic Theatre.
The change in Brecht, towards a search for a theatre which would be part of the political movement
of his age was a response to the prevailing economic situation. In the period following the World
War I Germany saw a phase of high inflation and rates of unemployment. Thousands of workers
joined the ranks of the KPD to fight what was perceived to be the ills of capitalism.1 The
mobilisation of workers, through trade unions and other bodies was responded to by the Weimar
government with excessive repression. Brecht was introduced to the ideas of Bolshevism and
Marxism through the influence of Karl Korsch. In the later 1920s he attended a School for
Labourers in Berlin where he discussed his plays with the participants.2 He also undertook a study
of key Marxist texts and also gathered knowledge of the issues before the Socialist movement
through his close association with the various workers' organizations. Though he was never a
member of any Communist Party he continued to believe in the need for Communist organization.
During the period of exile in the United States and later on his Communist sympathies caused him
to be under suspicion of the US authorities. In fact, he had to face questioning by the Un-American
Acitvities Committee and was blacklisted by major film studios.3
Brecht identified the existing theatre in Germany as one functioning as amusement centres, which
pretended to be mirror of the society but accepted society as it was.4 He felt that the scientific spirit
of doubt and questioning the given should be extended to the artistic field so that representation of
reality could equip the audience to adopt a critical attitude towards the world around them. Also, the
years of fascist take over of culture in Germany convinced Brecht that culture, literature and theatre
1 Hecht. (1961). 59.
2 Ibid. 87.
3 'From the Testimony of Bertolt Brecht Hearings of the House Committee on Un-American Activities' in Demetz
(1962). 30-42.
4 Brecht (1979). 189.

3 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

should become part of an ideological equipment with which the working class could undertake a
reorganization of human relationships to overturn relations of oppression. Art which evaded politics
was, for him, art which sided with the rulers and oppressors. Such art concerned itself with
portraying the world as it exists as predetermined, the human relationships as unchangeable, and
focuses on exploring various aspects of the unchangeable human nature. Brecht wanted theatre to
expose the dialectical nature of the world, where there exists contradictions, conflicts and opposites
constantly at war with each other the conflict resulting in a newer reality with newer relationships.
The theatre should present a dynamic constantly changing reality, so as to enable the spectators to
judge the mechanism whereby they could intervene in changing the world to their advantage.5 For
this to happen Brecht believed that the theatrical form had to be altered radically.
It may be helpful here to recall that the various dramatic movements in the twentieth century
experimented with newer techniques to create new meanings in the theatrical action. While the Epic
Theatre form did mark a difference from the other movements there are continuities in the desire of
dramatists to explore newer possibilities in the theatre. Realism in the theatre altered the
conventions of the Romantic theatre and sought to present the action on stage within a setting which
was as close to real life as possible. While abandoning the dictum of theatre's need to adhere to the
three unities, Realists announced that the only laws which need to be followed were those of
'nature'. Realism is thus a slippery term which is often difficult to distinguish from 'Naturalism'.
While 'Realism' refers to the technical presentation of the stage the stage dcor, the properties and
the costumes, 'Naturalism' is a term which describes the thematic aspects of the theatre the desire
to narrate a view of life as it is lived. The Naturalistic theatre would include characters from
ordinary life and by presenting them in their natural setting the drama sought to help the audience
identify and analyse their social circumstances. Characters in Henrik Ibsen's plays, like Nora in A
Doll's House (1879) presented the playwright's version of a uncomfortable reality which provoked
outrage among some audiences and authorities. Ibsen wrote in a letter in August 1883 that the
effect of the play depends a great deal on making the spectator feel as if he were actually sitting,
listening and looking at events happening in real life.6 In France Andr Antonine advocated the use
of naturalised gestures and even promoted acting with the actor's back facing the audience which
is why his theatre was often referred to as the theatre of Antoine's back. The accent on content in
Naturalism paved the way for George Bernard Shaw's 'problem plays' which highlighted social evils
and other contemporary talking points. As he wrote in The Quintessence of Ibsenism - Never
mislead an audience.
Though Naturalism did manage to bring in the possibility of discussing pertinent social issues on
the stage, Brecht felt it was limited by its inability in involving the spectators in that discussion. The
stress on presenting the world as it is in Naturalism lead to the adoption of the fourth wall, or
treating the stage as a room in which the characters went about living their lives as if unaware of the
audience beyond the missing fourth wall. This according the Brecht would strengthen the illusion
in the minds of the spectators that they were really witnessing a slice of life and not a performance,
and this in turn would prevent them from forming an objective opinion on the action. Thus, though
Ibsen opined that a Naturalistic theatre allows to bring the spectator closer to reality, in Brecht's
view the critique of that reality offered by the play is that of the playwright. In fact, the Naturalistic
theatre was very much a 'playwrights' theatre'. Such techniques were inadequate for Brecht's desire
to democratise the theatre. He wanted the theatre to perform a legislative function to be an arena
which would initiate a thought process among the spectators and allow them to reflect on the action
5 Ibid. 79.
6 Styan (1989a). 28.

4 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

on the stage. The performance of a play, for Brecht was not the closure of an exposition, but was the
initiation of a discussion and action.
However, Brecht's experimentations with theatre and the development of the tenets of Epic Theatre,
though a break with tradition, also consisted of a series of borrowings from tradition and influences.
Brecht being an assistant of Max Reinhardt was already influenced by German expressionism in the
theatre7 and a drama of protest against rigid pre-war society, calling for greater autonomy for the
individual and the creative personality. Renhardt explored various ages of theatrical history to seek
techniques from the Greek to the Noh theatre of Japan. Reinhardt also experimented with the
structures of the various theatres he designed. The Kammerspiele (Chamber theatre), built in 1911
had a seating capacity as less as 300, had a stage merely 26 feet wide and was only three steps away
from the audience. Built in 1919 the Grosses Schauspielhaus (Theatre of the Five Thousand) could
seat over 3000 spectators. The stage was equipped with hydraulic machinery to raise and lower the
level. The stage could be revolved and there were provisions of altering the auditorium with ramps
and gangways to bring the audience closer to the action. Reinhardt's desire to accommodate a
greater audience from the working class was possibly the reason for the large capacity the rich
could subsidise the poor. While staging The Miracle (1911) at the Olympia exhibition hall in
London, Reinhardt had used ten miles of cables to experiment with lights, and orchestra of 200, a
choir of 500 and a cast of 2000.8
Germany also had a long tradition of working class theatre. As early as 1869 a 'Dramatic Dialogue
on the Growth of the Female Labour Market' was printed in the organ of the League of
Communists, a testimony to the agitprop plays and which were produced around that time. The
tradition continued till the World War I with groups like the Gesellschaft Vorwarts (Progress
Society). The KPD formed the Red Troupe to perform sketches and oral pamphlets during
campaigning. The KPD also experimented with Soviet style mass spectacles like Spartacus which
depicted the brutal repression of the Roman slave uprising. It was performed in 1920 at a festival of
trade unions in Leipzig by a cast of 900 workers for an audience of 50000.9
Though much criticism and some of Brecht's own commentary has suggested an opposition
between him and Konstantin Stanislavsky10, they shared in common an aversion of the star system
where the actor was larger than the character which placed a reliance on the inspiration to act out
a particular mood or emotion. Though Stanislavsky was never a confirmed Marxist, he devised the
'System' of acting which helped break the shackles of the commercial stage. After studying the
system the actor could prepare the sources of the 'inspiration' thus making 'inspiration' a matter of
conscious process, rather than individual passion.11 Commenting on Brecht's criticism of
Stanislavsky, Utpal Dutt wrote that the basis of Brecht's reservations were political. Brecht felt that
the 'system' once put in place could be utilised by theatre persons of any ideology and therefore, not
political itself.12 Yet it is undeniable that Stanislavsky's techniques of acting helped overcome the
hurdles of the commercial stage and created a space for a more democratic theatre structure.
7 The term 'Expressionism' was first used to define a movement in the early 20th century in which German painters
sought to portray personal views of reality while avoiding exact representations of external reality. In the theatre
expressionism entered as a reaction to the realist theatre and aimed to show inner psychological realities through the
action.
8 Styan (1989b). 62-72.
9 Stourac (1986). 10.
10 Eric Bentley. 'Are Stanislavsky and Brecht Commensurable?' in Martin (2000). 37-42.
11 Stanislavsky (1986). 35.
12 Dutt (1998). 264-65.

5 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

Collaboration between Brecht and Piscator

The collaboration between Brecht and director Erwin Piscator in the late 1920s was also crucial to
the development of the ideas of Epic Theatre. In The Messingkauf Dialogues Brecht stated the exact
nature of his collaborative relation with Piscator. Piscator was involved in political theatre more
directly and earlier than Brecht. Piscator, embittered by his experiences in the battle lines in the
World War I soon turned to the Socialist worldview. He formed the Proletrisches Volksbuhne
(Working class people's theatre), as a rival to the established Volksbuhne which was under the
control of the elite, and toured Berlin's working-class beer halls and meeting rooms with Living
Newspapers and other forms of agitprop plays.1 Within the auditorium, Piscator experimented
immensely with the structure of the stage and galleries. He made use of modern technology to
convert the stage into a 'play-machine'. He wanted the theatre to be systematized as a 'typewriter'
following Walter Gropius's concept of the 'Total Theatre'. Gropius an architect by profession, had
designed a theatre which would have the flexibility of various kinds of stage the arena theatre
which had the audience all around the performance area; the thrust stage or platform stage with
audience on three sides; and the proscenium stage with the audience only on one side. The acting
area would be revolving and blocks of seats could also be moved around. Projections screens would
be placed on all sides of the audience, including the rear and the ceiling for films and slides so as to
place the spectators in the middle of the action.2 Though Gropius' design was never built, Piscator
put many of his ideas to practice. He also created the Lichtbuhne (Light stage) where the floor was
made of glass so as to allow lighting from beneath. He and Brecht also used for their productions
half-curtains to divide the stage, projected titles, placards, loudspeaker commentaries and
fragmentary scenes for their productions.3
Piscator's aim was to make use of all necessary and available theatrical techniques, including both
naturalism and expressionism, to bring to the theatre a social and moral purpose. He wanted the
stage to become a public-meeting, the theatre to be a Parliament. The spectators in the theatre were
not expected to maintain decorum and instead make loud comments either of approval or
disapproval. The audience was also expected to discuss the scenes during the performance and
workers' organisations often engaged the spectators in post-performance discussions and enrolled
members after the performance of plays.

Formulation of Epic Theatre

It was because of his collaboration with and the enthusiasm of Piscator that Brecht was able to
conduct his experiments of Epic Theatre. He used the term Epic Theatre in July 1926. Like
Reinhardt's Regiebuch, Brecht maintained detailed notebook the Modelbuch with commentaries
on the performance of each scene of his plays along with explanations of the principles behind the
choices made.1 Brecht also theorized extensively on his practice including A Short Organum for
the Theatre, written near Zurich in 1948. Epic theatre was also termed dialetical theatre as it
attempted to shape a process by which a critical attitude could be induced in the spectator. The
1
2
3
1

Oppenheim (1980). 19.

Styan. Op cit. 133-36.
Martin (200). 34.
Styan. Op cit. 154.

6 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

spectator is not to be so involved in the action that she loses the ability to make judgments and form
an opinion about the world around her. Epic Theatre was also opposed to the Dramatic Theatre or
the dramatic principles as laid down by Aristotle in Poetics. Other than the many differences
between the two concepts viz. following a narrative format instead of a well defined plot and the
breakdown of unities Epic Theatre repudiates catharsis or the purging of what Aristotole terms to
be 'harmful' emotions of pity or fear.2 Brecht terms Dramatic Theatre to be status-quoist, that is it
does not encourage the spectators to evolve a dissatisfaction with the world around them. It
encourages the spectator to identify and empathise with the protagonist. One of the prime examples
that Aristotle uses in Poetics is that of Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. In Oedipus Rex the spectator is
invited to empathise with Oedipus' predicament in his encounter with his Fate. The play presents
Oedipus' suffering as pre-ordained, something that he, despite his being predominantly virtuous and
just, is unable to counter. Oedipus suffers, ostensibly, because of his hubris. The action seeks to
create a response in the spectators that if such a man of high-birth and great virtue could suffer thus
what may happen to them. The spectator is thus purged of the emotions of pity towards her own
plight and fear of further hardships. Aristotle terms these emotions to be 'harmful'. Harmful for
whom? Catharsis, represses the rebellious spirit in the spectator. It induces the spectator to search
for the causes of her suffering within herself and not in the world around her. It lets her accept the
unequal, hierarchical social relationships. It encourages a sense of justice which is associated with
'proportionality' and not 'equality' some men are more equal than others. This acceptance of social
relations, thus presents reality as unalterable, primordial and universal.
Such a dramatic principle is unworthy of a theatre that seeks to engage in precisely the opposite to
induce spectators to join in the process of altering the the relationships of oppression. Epic Theatre,
being a form of political theatre, is designed to present reality as alterable. It does so by exposing
reality as dynamic, as being in a constant state of transformation. And the agents of this
transformation are human beings and not supernatural entities such as fates or gods. In The Good
Person of Szechuan, Brecht shows the gods as a floating superstructure, who do not directly
intervene in the action for 'we can't get involved with economics'.3 If humans are the participants in
an essentially changeable world, then the spectators, in this case those who are at the receiving end
of an oppressive social order, can begin to think of participating in the process of eliminating
oppression. Instead of eliminating emotions, Epic Theatre consolidates emotions of rebelliousness.
Unlike the hierarchical society which treats the oppressed with contempt and trains them to treat
themselves as inferior to the socially powerful, Epic Theatre attempts to return dignity to them.
Unlike Dramatic Theatre which produces empathy and appeals to the feelings, the Epic Theatre
inculcates a critical attitude in the spectator and appeals to reason. Brecht observed that the
contemporary theatre which relied heavily on sex and sensationalism, doling out heavy doses of
emotion was targeted at an audience which 'hangs its brains up in the cloakroom'.4 Epic Theatre
pays a tribute to the audience by treating it as thoroughly intelligent and appealing to the intellect of
the audience. Brecht differentiated between the spectator of the two kinds of theatre:
The dramatic theatre's spectator says: Yes, I have felt like that too Just like me It's only
natural; - It'll never change The sufferings of this man appal me, because they are inseparable
That's great art; it all seems the most obvious thing in the world I weep when they weep, I
laugh when they laugh.
The epic theatre's spectator says: I'd never have thought it That's not the way That's
extraordinary, hardly believable It's got to stop The sufferings of this man appal me, because
2 Brecht. Op cit. 37.
3 Jameson (1998). 40.
4 Brecht. Op cit. 27.

7 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

they are unnecessary That's great art: nothing obvious in it I laugh when they weep, I weep
when they laugh.5
Epic Theatre was also ascribed a pedagogic function. It wanted to educate the working class
spectators to the possibilities of class struggle. Brecht wanted the theatre to be used not as a
diversion for the working class from the experiences of everyday oppression, but as an occasion for
it to recognize the mechanisms of their oppression. He refuted the arguments that such pedagogic
motives would render theatre to be unentertaining: 'the object is to discredit learning by presenting
it as not enjoyable. But in fact it is enjoyment that is being discredited by this deliberate suggestion
that one learns nothing from it.'6 On the contrary he claimed that the very understanding of the
operations of the social order and the realisation that one could change it would generate pleasure.
Brecht, however, did not propose that the theatre moralise or pass onto the working class audience
revolutionary ideas in a capsulated form. He wanted the theatre to create conditions by which the
spectators could apply their own intelligence to make inferences.
Though Epic Theatre being political theatre presents a thesis, the sense of the play is not immanent
but has to be worked out by the spectators. The play therefore, is structured in manner which
enables the spectator to follow the scenes, assemble his inferences, experiment with concepts and
abstract conclusions. Through the use of slides, film projections, placards, banners, and various
forms of narrative intervention the Epic Theatre apparatus was to enable the spectator to make
comparisons and replicate the practice of book reading where one could turn back pages to check a
point or refer to the footnotes. The two principal techniques followed by Epic Theatre to induce
such conditions of learning and critical mood during a performance were those of the Alienation
Effect (A-Effect) and the Gestus.

The A-effect
The term A-effect (or 'Verfremdungseffekt' in German, 'V-effect' in short) was first used by Brecht
in 1935 after he witnessed the performance of Mei Lan-fang's Chinese theatre troupe in Moscow.
The term also seems to be a rough translation of the concept of 'Priem Ostrannenija' or 'device for
making strange' used by the Russian critic Viktor Shklovskij. Brecht must have come in
acquaintance of the term during his Moscow visit.1 Even earlier, Brecht was familiar with similar
literary techniques devised by the Russian Formalists due to the visits to Berlin of Soviet
modernists like Sergei Eisenstein or Sergei Tretyakov. As is clear from Brecht's writings since the
late 1920s, he had been experimenting with techniques of preventing empathy. The term A-effect
proved to him to be an overarching term for the various mechanisms to defamiliarize the action on
stage in the perspective of the audience.2
The elements that go into the making of the A-effect can be categorized into three 1) elements
related to set-design and structuring of the auditorium; 2) elements related to the scripting of the
play; and 3) the performance elements. The Epic Theatre experiments related to set design and the
auditorium benefited greatly from the Brecht-Piscator collaboration. They made use of all available
5
6
1
2

Ibid. 71.
Ibid. 60.
Ibid. 99.
'Alienation effect' is not a literal translation of the German term 'Verfremdungseffekt' but a close approximate. It
would be better to understand the technique in terms of the dramatic processes involved rather than derive its sense
from the term itself. As, Fredric Jameson has elucidated, the Epic Theatre term 'alienation' should not be confused
with the Marxian concept of 'alienation' which is 'Entfremdung' in German. (Jameson. Op cit. 85-86 fn.)

8 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

technolgy mechanical, audio and visual to break the action and incorporate elements of surprise
within the performance. However, the technological innovations were not woven into the
performance seamlessly. Brecht wanted the elaborate stage machinery to be visible in its entirety.
The philosophy which was operational was to prevent the spectators from forgetting that they are
witnessing a rehearsed performance - It's more important nowadays for the set to tell the spectator
he's in a theatre than to tell him he's in, say Aulis. The theatre must acquire qua theatre the same
fascinating reality as a sporting arena during a boxing match. The best thing is to show the
machinery, the ropes and the flies.3 Brecht also advocated that music be played live in the
auditorium and the musicians be placed in full view of the audience and not be hidden in the pit.
To achieve the A-effect, Epic Theatre foregrounds the narrative over the plot. The tale may be in
certain cases, as in The Caucasian Chalk Circle, narrated by a groups of actors in almost a playwithin a play situation or the actors would step out of the action to comment on the characters'
predicament or on the situation in the play. It is the narrative that lends to this form of theatre the
term 'Epic', the 'epic' characteristic being that it must be reported. As in an the 'epic' form where
very often the story and the episodes are already known to the audience, Epic Theatre narrates a
known story which enables the spectators to focus on the presentation of the episodes rather than
the development of the plot-line 'we cannot invite the audience to fling itself into the story as if it
were a river and let itself be carried vaguely hither and thither, the individual episodes have to be
knotted together in such a way that the knots are easily noticed'.4. The various episodes are set off
against each other so that one incident can help illustrate a certain element in another. For instance,
in The Caucasian Chalk Circle , the plot concerning Azdak helps explain the thematic concern in
the Grusha plot. In the play Azdak is an ordinary village recorder who saves the life of the Grand
Duke during the insurrection. Later having realised that this act can land him in trouble, he rushes to
the town and confesses his crime. But the soldiers do not believe him and fool around with him.
Meanwhile the Fat Prince, the insurrectionist, arrives on the scene with the intention of appointing
his nephew as the judge. But in order to seem benevolent he allows the soldiers to choose the judge.
To his surprise the soldiers choose Azdak as the judge. He proceeds to deliver judgments which
seem arbitrary for he is seen to always favour the poor. When the Grand Duke returns Azdak fears
for his life. But the Grand Duke, recognising his saviour, appoints Azdak as the judge. Azdak then
goes on to judge in favour of Grusha in the dipute concerning Michael. The Azdak story helps the
bringing together of two epochs in which the action of The Caucasian Chalk Circle is divided the
modern day Socialist Soviet Union in which the story of the 'Prologue' is set and the Grusha story
which is set in barbaric times. The episode concerning Azdak suggests that justice in Grusha's
dispute with Natella in which the litigants belonged to two opposite strata in the social hierarchy
could only be possible by a matter of chance or the goodwill of a single individual.5 Within a
socialist set up, however, such justice which is blind to the relative wealth of the litigants, is
systematised.
The A-effect avoids Aristotelian responses such as the 'complication', 'climax' and 'resolution'.
Instead the conditions which gives rise to a certain situation is brought to light. In The Caucasian
Chalk Circle the 'Prologue' makes apparent the resolution of the Grusha plot. The spectator is
instead invited to focus, from the very beginning on the difficulties that Grusha overcomes to care
for Michael. The spectator can be further 'estranged' from the action by the use of titles which
demonstrate to the spectator an indication of the ensuing action, much in the form of similar titleboards which were presented on the Elizabethan stage to introduce the setting or chapter titles of
3 Brecht. Op cit. 233.
4 Ibid. 201.
5 Bunge (1959). 50-51.

9 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

serialised novels in the 18th century which would advertise their contents to the readers.
The action is punctuated by songs. The songs are not merely interludes and 'the actors ought not to
'drop into' song, but should clearly mark it off from the rest of the text . Music does not
'accompany' except in the form of comment'.6 The singing calls on the spectators to reflect on the
action and even sets the parameters within which such analysis should be conducted. In The
Caucasian Chalk Circle the Singer uses a detached manner of singing while Grusha rescues
Michael to let the audience ponder over the choice that she makes. Songs may also function as
narrative pauses in which the audience is asked questions which may refer to the choices made by
the characters. Thus, any semblance of the 'Fourth Wall' is broken down.
Brecht's emphasis on the appeal to the audience's intellect have led to misleading conclusions
labeling Epic theatre as one devoid of emotions. Brecht was aware of the confusion resulting from
the English translation of the term:
This man Eric Bentley, has used the phrase 'alienation' to describe my dramatic concept of
'Verfremdung'. It is an incorrect translation of my concept. The audience must be hypnotised by
action, word, colour, emotion, and then after their emotional involvement reflect and see the
historical process through reason.7
Here it may be underlined that Epic theatre is designed not to purge emotions from the stage, but to
alter the emotional pitch of the theatre instead of Dramatic theatre which aims to purge pity and
fear, Epic theatre seeks to consolidate emotions that seek change.
Epic Theatre also sets specific demands from the actors. In the essay titled 'The Street Scene: A
Basic Model for an Epic Theatre',8 written in 1938, Brecht explains that the task of the actor on the
Epic stage is to be a demonstrator. To illustrate the idea he suggests the situation where a bystander
who was witness to a road accident, enacts the entire scene from just the moments before the
accident. It is clear that the motive of the bystander is not to entertain those watching him but allow
them to reach a conclusion about the causes behind the accident as well as to fix blame. The
bystander there, therefore, is not interested in creating 'pure emotions', nor in sketching a faithful
and complete picture of the people involved in the accident. He is merely interested in
demonstrating those aspects of the characters and the incidents which are relevant to the task of
figuring out the reasons behind the accident. His demonstration 'has a practical purpose' and he
'intervenes socially'. While it is clear that the bystander's version of the events is only a version his
demonstration must reflect this fact. He also should not act in such a fashion that his demonstration
itself becomes the matter of discussion diverting attention from the accident 'he never forgets, nor
does he allow it to be forgotten, that he is not the subject but the demonstrator'.
The performance of Epic Theatre, therefore, is unlike the proscenium where the attempt is to
present the action across the 'Fourth Wall'.9 The Epic performance bears on it clear markers of of it
being rehearsed, a narrative action and not real action. The character in the Epic play are characters
who are representative of certain aspects of human beings who are created out of the given social
circumstances, not real life people with whom the audience could identify or express a liking or
dislike; the situations are not real life situations but symptomatic of certain aspects of real life
6
7
8
9

Ibid. 203.
Allana (1993). 26
Ibid. 121-29.
The proscenium stage is defined as a stage which is walled on three sides and the audience seated on the fourth side.
The performance style assumes that a 'Fourth Wall' separates the stage and the audience, and that the audience is
privy to the action on stage through the 'Fourth Wall'. So the proscenium space presents the action as if it is real life
and not a performance.

10 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

situations which have been laid bare on the stage for analysis. Such presentation demands a special
kind of acting. As I have already explained, the actor is not to become the character she is playing,
not feel the part, but merely a demonstrator of 'gestus' or a certain attitude of the character. It is
here where Brechtian acting differs from the Stanislavsky 'Method'. Unlike the Method, where the
actor's study of the recreation of a mood is an internalisation of the character, Brecht requires the
actor to study the character in its different aspects and this critical attention could also be
collective. He calls upon the actor to include in his study the contradictions that exist between the
different characters. He even suggests that in the course of rehearsals the actors should swap roles
so that there can be exchange among the actors of the various attitudes that can be adopted in
playing the part. The actor can also bring into the process of acting a critical distance from the
character. The Epic Theatre, thus, demands a dialectical attitude be adopted towards acting that
there should be a continuous process of interchange between the action on stage and the attitude of
showing the action on stage.10

Gestus
The term 'gestus' like 'verfremdung' is difficult to be translated into English. It can be roughly
translated as 'social attitudes' or 'social gestures' that is, the response of a social being in a given
situation. 'Gesture' is not the particular movement of hands or the head as a response to stimulus or
to draw someone's attention. It seeks to reveal the attitudes that human beings adopt towards other
human beings on the basis of their relative social status. As Brecht explained:
Not all gests are social gests. The attitude of chasing away a fly is not yet a social gest, though
the attitude of chasing away a dog may be one, for instance if it comes to represent a badly
dressed man's continual battle against watchdogs. One's efforts to keep one's balance on a
slippery surface result in a social gest as soon as falling down would mean 'losing face'; in other
words, losing one's market value . the social gest is the gest relavant to society, the gest that
allows conclusions to be drawn about the social circumstances.1
The focus in Epic Theatre on the 'social gest' assumes importance because of its disdain towards the
sketching of a complete character of an individual on the stage. It is true that even in naturalistic
theatre it is only the main protagonist who is sketched to any degree of fullness, while only certain
aspects of the other characters come to light. Naturalistic theatre places the individual at the centre
of the action. It finds its causality in individual motives and characteristics. Epic Theatre, however,
views the individual as a product of social conditions and finds the individual's response to
incidents around him as responses to human inter-relationships. Thus The Caucasian Chalk Circle
presents a contrast between two acts of the payment - Grusha paying two piasters to buy milk for
Michael and the Grand Duke's offer of 100,000 piasters to Azdak for a night's lodging. For Grusha
two piasters is equivalent of two weeks wages for her, whereas for the Grand Duke the offer amount
was only a small fraction of his treasury. The same act of paying for a service emerges out of two
contrasting situations: the actor playing Grusha would be called on to demonstrate the initial
hesitation in her when the price for the milk is quoted for she would in normal circumstances not be
in a position for such luxury. She cannot be seen as parting with the money too readily. But her
decision to pay for the milk would ultimately highlight the relationship of affection and care which
she has developed towards Michael. On the other hand, the actor playing the character of the Grand
Duke would be required to show the readiness with which he is willing to pay such a huge amount
10 Benjamin (1988). Op cit. 11.
1 Brecht. Op cit. 104-05.

11 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

for a single night's accommodation. This 'gest' of the Grand Duke would bring forth the enormous
difference in the value of money for the two characters placed in two extremes of the social
hierarchy as well as the Grand Duke's perception of the immediate danger when he is pursued by
the Iron Shirts.
According to Walter Benjamin, the 'gest' is the raw material for Epic Theatre for the 'gest' is not
falsifiable for it 'has two advantages over the highly deceptive statements and assertions normally
made by people and their many-layered and opaque actions'.2 Characters may be multifaceted and
may behave in contrasting ways in two different situations. Epic Theatre seeks to capture a fleeting
moment within a frame by interrupting the action. It is similar to the modern technique of the use of
stills in a movie or the use of slow motion in a sports coverage, to call for closer audience attention
on the precise action under scrutiny. The concept of 'gestus' enables the stage to study reality as
dynamic, by splitting up the 'state of living flux' so as to expose the assumptions and the forces in
action in shaping the unfolding reality. The hegemonic powers who are in control of the capitalist
society, present the world as it is as stable, unchanging and monolithic. The Epic stage's splitting up
of certain crucial moments where the assumptions behind such 'stability' can be revealed, help to
break the 'monolith'. Such analysis would then enable the spectators to contemplate ways in which
they could shape reality in an alternative direction.
The objective of the theatre here is 'social'. In this sense Epic Theatre is in opposition to the 'Arts for
Arts Sake' school. In both the Commercial theatre and in Epic Theatre the stage is the servant - in
the former it serves to keep the business going, in the latter to change it.3 The understanding which
follows is that the working of the society is not based on individual will or might but on certain
social norms and assumptions even the oppressed give their consent to the system of oppression.
Epic Theatre like all political theatre desires to break that consent. It induces the spectators to work
collectively in altering the structures of oppression. Undoubtedly, as we have noted before the art
and the theatre which does not adopt a critical attitude towards the existing structure of society
becomes a part of the structure of oppression. One of the tasks of Epic Theatre and a method of
political theatre is to politicise the structure of its own production. Other than railing against the
'star system' of the commercial theatre, the Epic Theatre also advocates a collectivisation of
theatrical production. We have already seen that the process of rehearsals were sought to be
collectivised by actors swapping roles among themselves to bring out varied perspectives in
portraying a character. Brecht chronicled the organisation of 'small collective of specialists in
various fields', consisting of historians, sociologists, playwrights, actors and other people of the
theatre to discuss plays in the making, to share ideas for their revision. Along with Piscator, Brecht
created conditions in the theatre for artist and technicians of various proficiencies to collaborate and
work together in a single creative exercise. Unlike the producer of the commercial stage who
chooses texts on the basis of their potential for profit, the producer of the Epic stage is expected to
provide the actors and the creative team with a 'theses for comment'.4
In my discussion on the development of Epic Theatre I have detailed the various conditions in
which Brecht developed this concept. Like Epic Theatre itself which historicizes and contextualizes
its action, we must historicize the concept itself. Epic Theatre was a particular response to a
particular time. The concept is the result of Marxian dialectics which recognises that the only thing
constant is change and calls for intervention based on the concrete analysis of material
circumstances. Therefore, modern day experimentations inspired by the Brechtian model of Epic
Theatre must be based on the praxis of modern day aesthetics and politics. Brecht himself was alive
2 Benjamin. Op cit. 3.
3 Ibid. 2.
4 Ibid. 2.

12 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

to the tyranny of dogmatism when he described Epic Theatre as a way, the one we have followed.
Obviously it is not the only way and Brecht suggested that the effort must be continued.5 Indeed
Brecht's theories have been the bullwark for the practice of political theatre across the world with
newer theories and methods of practice being developed in various countries. Most notable among
these being the theory of 'Theatre for the Oppressed' developed by the Brazillian Augusto Boal and
the practice of Street Theatre in India. Both these forms, performed mostly in the open with little or
no equipment, are excellent examples of how the ideas of Epic Theatre can be adopted to suit the
different conditions. The underlying principle being a commitment to both art and the politics for
social change.
Brechtian ideas have also had a major influence on the modern Indian theatre, particularly in the
1960s and 70s. Since the days of the Indian People's Theatre Association, Indian Theatre
practitioners have sought to leave behind the norms of the proscenium stage to seek newer idioms
of expression in traditional performance forms practiced in different parts of the country among the
non-urban people. The similarity of the break from conventions, that of Indian theatre away from
the five-act structure and the well-made play, and that of Brecht as a reaction to the commercial
stage of his times, found an immediate resonance. In fact, it is not incidental that one of the sources
which formed the basis for the development of the ideas of Epic theatre were the conventions of the
Chinese theatre. Habib Tanvir saw a connection between performance forms of the East and Epic
theatre:
I find him very contemporary, full of humour . poetry and meaning. So it was natural to take to
Brecht, especially because he's so open in his form, he's imbibed so much from the East, Eastern
techniques, that for any Eastern man to take to Brecht to try out his own Eastern techniques is a
natural thing.6
As Habib Tanvir has asserted in his theatrical practice as well as writings and interviews, to be
Brechtian in India was to be more Indian. That is, Indian in practice of forms and ideas, and not a
mere assertion of the Indian identity. Habib Tanvir himself, received his theatre training in the
Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts in London, after his return to India worked closely with
Chattisgarhi Nachha actors. He adapted plays from various countries but was steadfastly faithful to
the Nachha form and the desire to communicate with a larger audience outside the established
theatre spaces. In his theatre, like Brecht, Tanvir was committed to a democratic and secular
politics. Tanvir's is but one example of the way Brechtian ideas have been adopted by Indian theatre
practitioners, not as blind emulation, but as a creative recontextualisation.
Unfortunately, all use of Brecht's theories have not followed the dialectical principles. In the theory
of Epic Theatre there is a clear relationship between form and content. The violation of Epic
principles can occur in two ways. First, the performance of Brecht's plays in which the political
edge have been diluted. In such cases the scripts of Brecht's plays edited for brevity, and inevitable
it is the 'gests' which reveal the workings of the hierarchical order which are sacrificed. Brecht's
plays are thus devenomed to suit the polite conditions of the commercial stage which is wary of
social conflict. Second, is the use of Epic techniques like film projections, placards, songs in plays
written by other playwrights which do not attempt to present any critique of reality and which do
not show any dissatisfaction with the existing power structure.
The Frankfurt performance of The Caucasian Chalk Circle falls in the first category of such
violation. In this case the political basis of violation is clear anti-Communism. Without fully
understanding the play's emergence from a commitment to socialism, and the belief in theatre for
5 Brecht. Op cit. 135.
6 Quoted in Dalmia (2006). 255.

13 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

political change, it is very easy to see the 'Prologue' to the play as an incompatible fragment, the
songs as crude import from the genre of musicals, and the elaborate stage devices as outlandish
showmanship.

14 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

Bibliography
Allana, Nisar. ed. (1993). A Tribute to Bertolt Brecht 1993. Delhi, Theatre and Television
Associates.
Benjamin, Walter (1988). Understanding Brecht. Anna Bostock trans. London and New York,
Verso.
Brecht, Bertolt (1979). Brecht on Theatre. John Willet trans. New Delhi, Radha Krishna
Prakashan.
Brecht, Bertolt (1996). The Caucasian Chalk Circle. Heinemann.
Brecht, Bertolt (2002). The Messingkauf Dialogues. John Willet trans. London, Methuen.
Bunge, Hans-Joachim and Bayard Quincy Morgan (1959). 'The Dispute over the Valley: An
Essay on Bertolt Brecht's Play, "The Caucasian Chalk Circle"'. The Tulane Drama Review,
Vol. 4, No. 2 (Dec., 1959), pp. 50-66.
Carol Martin and Henry Bial eds. (2000). Brecht Sourcebook. London and New York, Routledge.
Demetz, Peter (1962). Brecht: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,Prentice
Hall.
Dalmia, Vasudha (2006). Poetics, Plays and Performances: The Politics of Modern Indian
Theatre. New Delhi, Oxford University Press.
Dutt, Utpal (1998). Gadya Sangraha [Prose Collection]. Kolkata, Deys Publishing.
Fredric Jameson (1998). Brecht and Method. London and New York, Verso.
Hecht, Werner (1961). 'The Development of Brecht's Theory of the Epic Theatre, 1918-1933'.
The Tulane Drama Review. Vol. 6, No. 1 (Sep., 1961), pp. 40-97.
Jones, Frank (1949). 'Embarrassing Questions'. The Kenyon Review. Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer,
1949), pp. 512-516.
Kerz, Leo (1968). 'Brecht and Piscator'. Educational Theatre Journal. Vol. 20, No. 3 (Oct.,
1968), pp. 363-369.
Oppenheim, Irene (1980).'The Art of Changing the World: Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht'.
The Threepenny Review. No. 3 (Autumn, 1980), pp. 19-20.
Peter Demetz ed. (1962). Brecht: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
Prentice Hall.
Stanislavsky, Constantin (1986). Building a Character. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood trans.
London, Methuen Drama.
Stourac, Richard and Kathleen McCreery (1986). Theatre as a Weapon: Workers Theatre in the
Soviet Union, Germany and Britain 1917-1934. New York, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Styan, J.L. (1989a). Modern Drama in Theory and Practice.Vol. 1: Realism and naturalism.
Cambridge, Cambridge UP.
Styan, J.L. (1989b). Modern Drama in Theory and Practice.Vol. 3: Expressionism and Epic
Theatre. Cambridge, Cambridge UP.
Thomson, Peter and Glendyr Sacks (2002). The Cambridge companion to Brecht. Cambridge
15 of 16

The Politics and Methods of Epic Theatre

University Press, 2002.
Tian, Min (1997). "Alienation-Effect" for Whom? Brecht's (Mis)interpretation of the Classical
Chinese Theatre. Asian Theatre Journal. Vol. 14, No. 2 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 200-222.

Arjun Ghosh teaches at the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi. He was formerly Fellow at the Institute of Advanced Study,
Shimla.

16 of 16