Thesis

The Influence of Conscientiousness
on the Dynamics of Institutional Departure
Alicia R. Damia
An Abstract of a Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
In
Psychology
Department of Psychology
Central Connecticut State University
New Britain, Connecticut
October 2003
Thesis Advisor
Dr. Marc Goldstein
Key Words: College Students, College Dropout, Personality Traits
Influence of Conscientiousness
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Over the years concerns have increased about retention and attrition in higher
education. In order to develop and improve retention services it is important to
understand the underlying dynamics associated with institutional departure.
As opposed to research on college performance, much less research exists
regarding the ability of personality characteristics to predict college retention. Such preentry characteristics have been surmised to indirectly affect departure by influencing a
persons intentions and commitments regarding future educational activities.
The purpose of this study was to explore the dynamics of institutional departure at
a medium-sized northeastern university among a convenience sample of first-time, firstsemester students. Specifically, the study investigated the possible impact of
conscientiousness on the dynamics of college student departure. It was suspected that
more conscientious students would have a higher commitment to educational goals,
become more academically integrated into the university, have a higher grade point
average, and be less likely to depart from the university.
Fifty-six participants completed the conscientiousness subscale of the NEO-FFI
and the goal commitment subscale of the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire,
along with a demographic questionnaire within the first two weeks of the semester.
Approximately nine weeks later, participants completed the goal commitment subscale
(for a second time), along with the academic integration subscale of the Student
Adaptation to College Questionnaire. At the beginning of the spring semester grade point
average and registration status were accessed via the universitys computerized student
records system.
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Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. Some, but not all, of
the original hypothesized paths within the model were supported. Overall, the results
indicated that conscientiousness does significantly impact departure via academic
integration. The results suggest the utility of incorporating personality traits into studies
of institutional departure. Widening the investigation will help generate a more complete
picture of students at risk for departure, and can thereby help shape future intervention
programs geared toward retention.

Alicia R. Damia
A Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts in Psychology
Central Connecticut State University

New Britain, Connecticut
October 2003
Thesis Advisor
Dr. Marc Goldstein
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Concerns about retention and attrition in higher education have increased over the
years both on a national and international level (Brawer, 1996; Kowalski, 1982; Yorke,
1998). According to Brawer (1996), approximately 50% of freshmen enrolled in colleges
and universities drop out before completing their degree. American College Testing (as
cited in Whitbourne, 2002) reported that one in four students leave college before
sophomore year. Retention has implications for both the university and to the future
labor market.
Importance of retention
Improving retention rates has fiscal implications for an institution (Glennen,
Farren, & Vowell, 1996; Yorke, 1998). Retention affects funding patterns, facilities
planning, student services available and academic programs offered (Heisserer & Parette,
2002). All of the above typically rely heavily on tuition revenue (Braunstein & McGrath,
1997). To taxpayers and legislators, improved retention and graduation rates demonstrate
the accountability of the institution and can help lead to increased funding in the case of
public institutions. The added fiscal resources generated by increased retention rates
enable institutions to improve and maintain programs and services (Glennen, Farren, &
Vowell, 1996).
Retention also affects the future labor market, because students who do not have
proper training for the workforce are generally unprepared to meet the expected roles and
responsibilities associated with certain professions (Heisserer & Parette, 2002).
Individual students who attain their academic goals improve their chance of success in
todays competitive society (Glennen, Farren, & Vowell, 1996).
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In order to develop and improve retention services it is important to understand

the underlying dynamics associated with institutional departure. This study explores the
role of personality, specifically the trait of conscientiousness, in college student departure.
As Tross, Harper, Osher, and Kneidinger (2000) state, research examining personality
and institutional departure provides additional insight into potential predictors of college
performance and retention and can assist institutions "in providing better services to
diverse constituents, including the student themselves, parents, taxpayers, and future
employers" (p. 332).
Tintos theory of attrition
To begin, it is pertinent to discuss the theoretical framework driving much of the
student attrition research. One of the most dominant models of college student departure
is that of Tinto (Okun & Finch, 1998). Tintos model (1987) revolves around four
primary components: pre-entry characteristics, goals and commitments, external
commitments, and academic and social experiences (see Figure 1). In this model
institutional departure arises out of a longitudinal process of complex interactions.
According to Tinto (1987), the goodness of fit between the individual and the
institution shapes two underlying commitments: commitment to educational goals and
commitment to the specific institution. Goal commitment refers the persons willingness
to work toward the attainment of educational and occupational goals. Institutional
commitment refers to how loyal a person feels toward a specific college/university.
Institutional commitment is strongly associated with social integration, whereas goal
commitment is more strongly associated with academic integration. Further, both goal
and institutional commitment are posited to be the most proximate causes of institutional
departure. In other words, the higher the goal of college completion and/or level of
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commitment to a specific institution the greater the probability of college persistence.

Individuals enter institutions of higher education from a wide range of: family and
community backgrounds, personal attributes, intellectual and social skills, and pre-college
educational experiences and achievements (Tinto, 1987). These pre-entry characteristics
have been shown to influence initial levels of goal and institutional commitment, which
in turn, interact with the institutions academic and social system and lead to varying
degrees of academic and social integration (Tinto, 1987). Experiences within the
institutions academic and social systems continually modify the individuals intentions
and commitments.
Additionally, institutions of higher education do not exist in a vacuum. An
institution, and the academic and social communities within it, is nested within a larger
external environment. This larger environment is also comprised of multiple
communities, such as family, peers, work, and culture, each with its own set of values,
expectations, and requirements. Tintos model (1987) recognizes that for many students
going to college is just one of many commitments they have to balance over the course of
a college career. External commitments alter the persons intentions as well as goal and
institutional commitments at entry and throughout the college career (Tinto, 1987).
Past Research
Several studies have investigated the correlates of college student
withdrawal/persistence. What appears most evident is the absence of a single causal
factor (Snell & Makies, 1993), and that persistence is the result of a complex set of
interactions over time (Cabrera, Nora & Casteneda, 1993).
In 1975, Kowalski (as cited in Kowalski, 1982) identified a variety of factors
differentiating persisting from non-persisting students. Persisting students were more
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mature, flexible, selective in choice of school, and certain about their educational goals.
They had a greater sense of self-awareness, more self-motivation, better study habits,
more self-discipline, greater parental support, more financial security, less parental
pressure, higher aspirations, greater endurance, more interest in school, and greater
intellectual and academic abilities. Conversely, Kowalski found non-persisting students
suffer from poor motivation, inadequate work habits, uncertain goals, general lack of
interest in school, and immaturity in their attitudes and perceptions. They had low
achievement drives, lacked initiative, had financial difficulties, were indecisive and
disorganized, and were lacking in intellectual independence. In addition, they were often
unlikely to identify with or become involved in college life and related campus activities.
These findings point to many of the important aspects of Tintos (1987) attrition model:
pre-entry characteristics, academic and social integration, commitment, and external
environmental factors.
While Kowalskis research only hinted at aspects of Tintos model, Pascarella and
Terenzini (1983) attempted to validate the model using a path-analytic approach with data
collected from a sample of 763 residential university freshmen. In general, the analysis
yielded results consistent with the models expectations. And, according to Pascarella and
Terenzini (1983), the classification analyses correctly identified approximately 80% of
the persisters and voluntary withdrawals.
Initial goal commitment was influenced by pre-college characteristics and
schooling, and in turn, had a direct influence on both academic and social integration, and
subsequent commitment to graduation from college. Although initial institutional
commitment had a direct effect on subsequent institutional commitment, it did not
influence social integration. Academic integration directly influenced goal commitment,
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which in turn, had a direct effect on persistence. Social integration directly influenced
institutional commitment, which in turn, directly affected persistence. Unexpectedly,
academic integration also had a direct influence on institutional commitment. Although
the direct effects of academic and social integration on persistence were approximately
equal, the effect of institutional commitment was nearly three times that of goal
commitment.
Interestingly, none of the background characteristics or initial commitment
variables had a direct influence on persistence. Rather, their effects were indirect,
transmitted via social and academic integration or subsequent institutional and goal
commitment. Thus, it appears that the influence of differences in pre-college
characteristics and levels of commitment are mediated predominantly by variations in
students actual freshmen year experiences.
When the sample was separated by gender, Pascarella and Terenzini (1983) found
notable differences. For women, the results indicated social integration had a somewhat
stronger direct effect on voluntary freshmen year persistence/withdrawal decisions than
academic integration, whereas the reverse was found for males. Further analysis
suggested a significant compensatory interaction between social and academic integration
and between institutional and goal commitment. Academic integration was most
important for students with low levels of social integration, and vice versa. Similarly,
goal commitment was most important for students with low levels of institutional
commitment, and institutional commitment was most salient for students with low levels
of goal commitment.
Also in 1983, Pascarella and Chapman conducted a multi-institutional, path
analytic validation of Tintos model of attrition. In this longitudinal study, data were
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collected from 2,326 freshmen from 11, 2-year and 4-year institutions (both residential
and commuter). Again, the results generally supported the predictive validity of the
model. However, unlike the results of Pascarella and Terenzini (1983), the direct effects
of institutional and goal commitment on persistence were approximately equal. Social
and academic integration, while not directly influencing persistence, did have an indirect
effect through their direct influence on institutional commitment (social integration) and
both institutional and goal commitment (academic integration). Only two other variables
had direct effects: living on campus (positive) and attending a 2-year institution
(negative). The results indicated that background variables such as socioeconomic status
and high school grades, as well as institutional factors such as size, were mainly indirect,
with their effects transmitted via social and academic integration and institutional and
goal commitment.
The data supported much of Tintos model. The results also suggested that there
are differences in the patterns of influence depending on the type of institution. These
differences concerned social and academic integration. Social integration played a
stronger role in influencing persistence at 4-year residential institutions, while academic
integration was more salient at 2- and 4-year commuter institutions. The influence of
background characteristics on persistence was also different for each type of institution.
High school achievement had a direct effect on persistence for the 4-year commuter
sample, and affiliation needs had a direct negative effect in the 2-year commuter sample.
The authors note that goal commitment, which had the strongest direct effect on
persistence at the 2-year commuter sample, was strongly influenced by background traits
and uninfluenced by integration.
According to Aitken (1982), most studies of retention have not estimated formal-
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structural models, but rather attempted to test for association between retention and a
series of potential explanatory variables. Aitken (1982) commented that the Pascarella
and Terenzini (1982) study is an exception, but that the researchers included sixteen precollege characteristics in their single equation with little theoretical justification. In a
desire for a more mathematical approach to the study of student persistence, Aitken
(1982) presented a four equation structural model of student satisfaction, performance
and retention. His formal, mathematically-derived model includes variables that capture
the impact of various aspects of the physical environment and the quality of services
provided at the institution, and is specified in such a way that identifies where these
variables have their major impact. Each equation measures major aspects of students
experience: retention, academic satisfaction, living satisfaction, and academic
performance.
Aitkens model was developed from data gathered from 892 first-year students at
the University of Massachusetts. For retention, results showed that poor grades play the
largest relative role in explaining non-retention. This was followed by satisfaction with
residential living experience and academic experience. For external factors impacting
retention, concern with family/personal problems was statistically significant
(negatively). Interestingly, concern with financial problems was not significant, indicating
that financial constraints do not appear to be as important a factor in causing student
withdrawal as previously assumed. Activity involvement was also not significant. Aitken
explained however that since this variable has been found to be significant in explaining
nationwide retention over four years, its major impact might come after the first year.
Regarding academic satisfaction, four variables were identified; in order of
importance they were perceived GPA, followed by course satisfaction, a measure of
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isolation, satisfaction with major, and rating of instructors. Aitken (1982) stated that
academic performance appears to be even more important in determining retention rates
since it not only has a direct effect on retention, but an indirect one as well through
academic satisfaction.
Results demonstrated that peer relationships are important predictors for living
satisfaction. Liking people on the floor or corridor, satisfaction with the behavior of other
students in the dormitory as a whole, and roommate satisfaction were all highly
significant and rank as the top three variables in terms of importance. Older students were
less satisfied with dormitory living than younger students, indicating this may be due to a
proportionately smaller group of students their age with whom they associate.
However, peer relationships were not the only important determinant of living
satisfaction. At a staff level, the more effective the student dorm counselor the greater the
students satisfaction with their living environment. Satisfaction with dorm physical
condition, study facilities, dorm security and delay in room assignment were also all
statistically significant. On the other hand, dorm size, satisfaction with university food
service, and satisfaction with dorm head of residence did not significantly impact living
satisfaction.
A multitude of variables had a significant effect on academic performance,
measured by GPA at the end of the first academic year. Higher GPA was associated with
higher high school rank, higher SAT verbal and math score, gender (female), positive
rating of instructors, fewer sick days, enrollment in more small-sized courses, and fewer
personal problem days. Contrary to theoretical expectations, student satisfaction with
study facilities was negatively related to GPA. Aitken (1982) stated because this variable
is positively related to dorm living satisfaction but negatively to GPA, it appears to be
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picking up two effects: variation in the actual quality of study facilities and variation in
the students perceived need for study facilities. He surmised that students with high
academic motivation may tend to rate study facilities lower than those with less academic
motivation, and therefore the variable appears, in part, to be a measure of motivation.
Another interesting result regarding academic performance relates to the
significant negative effect of peer relationships. The results suggest that peer relationships
play a dual role in retention. On the one hand, peer relations are essential for students
satisfaction with their campus living experience, which in turn positively affects the
prospects for retention. On the other hand, the more time spent on social relations, the
less is available for study, which tends to lower both the students grades and academic
satisfaction. The prospects for retention would appear to be improved, therefore, by
programs that can integrate the students academic and social experiences (Aitken, 1982,
p. 45).
In a longitudinal study, Cabrera, Nora, and Castaneda (1993) tested an integrated
model of student retention, combining Tintos model with that of Bean (1985, as cited in
Cabrera, Nora, & Castaneda, 1993), which places a greater emphasis on factors external
to the institution. Their goal was to examine to what extent the two theories could be
merged in order to improve understanding of the underlying processes of persistence in
college. Their research examined two environmental variables and four endogenous
variables. Encouragement from friends and family and attitudes towards their financial
situation comprised the environmental variables, while the endogenous variables included
measures of academic integration, social integration, institutional commitment and goal
commitment.
The largest total effect on persistence was accounted for by intent to persist,
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followed by GPA, institutional commitment, encouragement from friends and family,

goal commitment, academic integration, finance attitudes, and social integration. The
largest total effect on intent to persist was accounted for by institutional commitment,
followed by encouragement from friends and family, goal commitment, academic
integration, social integration, and finance attitudes. Thus, whereas Tintos model
constrained the role of environmental variables to shaping commitments, Cabrera et al.
(1993) found that these factors exert an influence in the socialization and academic
experiences of the students. This supports Beans propositions that environmental
variables should be taken into account in explaining persistence processes.
As indicated by Cabrera, Nora, and Castaneda (1993), intention to persist appears
to be an important variable in predicting college student withdrawal. Okun, Benin, and
Brandt-Williams (1996) examined moderators of the relation between intention and
institutional departure. They hypothesized that the magnitude of the relation between
intention and subsequent enrollment behaviors varied with grades, commitment, and
encouragement from others to stay. Specifically, they posited that as semester GPA
increases, the intent-departure relation will increase. For students who earn good and
excellent grades, intention (to stay or transfer) should be strongly related to institutional
departure because the grades should not undermine their intentions. In contrast, for those
who intend to transfer, fair grades may reduce the probability of success in college in
general; and for those who intend to stay, fair grades may reduce the probability of
success at their current college. Thus, intention should be moderately related to
institutional departure among those with fair grades. For students who do poorly, the
intentions of both those who intend to stay and to transfer are undermined. In these cases,
intention should be weakly related to institutional departure.
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The second hypothesis of the Okun et al 1996 study was that as commitment
increases, the intent-departure relation would increase. It was expected that when students
assigned the highest priority to their grades, they would be most likely to enact their
intentions. Thus, the relation between intention and departure behavior would be strong
when doing well in college was the highest priority. In contrast, for students who made
doing well in college their second or third highest priority, it was expected that some of
them would shift their intentions in the face of unforeseen events, such as job changes.
For students who did not make doing well in college one of their three highest priorities,
the researchers predicted that the association between intention and departure would be
weak. These students lack commitment to the academic component of college and hence
should be most susceptible to shifting their intentions.
And, the third hypothesis was that as encouragement to stay increases, the intentdeparture relation would decrease. Despite low encouragement to stay, students intending
to stay are expected to re-enroll, whereas low encouragement to stay should lead to high
departure rates among those intending to transfer. Thus, intention should be strongly
related to persistence among students with low encouragement to stay. According to
Okun et al, high encouragement to stay should undermine the intention of students
planning to transfer, because changing colleges often is contingent on the support of
significant others. Consequently, intention should be weakly related to departure among
students high in encouragement to stay.
Researchers drew a random sample from introductory psychology courses,
stratified proportionately by day versus evening courses, offered at a community college
in Phoenix, Arizona. In total, there were 652 students included in the final analyses. The
sample only differed from the rest of population in that it was somewhat biased towards
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students who earned some credit hours and at least a C average.

In general, the findings indicated that for students who intend to stay and to
transfer alike, credit loads of 1-3 hours and semester GPAs below 2.0 are associated with
increased risk of institutional departure. The intention to transfer appears to be
undermined by high encouragement to stay and by moderate commitment to the goal of
doing well in college. Contrary to the first hypothesis, poor academic performance, did
not moderate the intention-departure relation. One explanation was that nonacademic
events such as work and family attenuate the relation between intention and institutional
departure.
In support of the second hypothesis, the intention-departure relation was higher
among students who place a high priority in doing well in college as compared to students
who place a moderate priority on doing well. A moderate as opposed to high priority on
doing well in college may contribute to unintended persistence among students intending
to transfer. Surprisingly, the intention-departure relation was also strong among student
who placed a low priority on doing well in college. The authors are cautious about this
result, as it may be an anomaly, in that only 9 students in the sample intended to transfer
and assigned a low priority to doing well in college.
The results also confirmed the third hypothesis, in that for students who intended
to transfer, encouragement from others to stay exhibited a strong, inverse linear relation
with institutional departure. When encouragement to stay was high, over 80% of students
intending to transfer subsequently re-enrolled in the same college. Thus, encouragement
may play a vital role in unintended persistence among students intending to transfer. Precollege variables such as gender, age, ethnicity, marital status, number of children, and
hours working did not exert a direct effect on institutional departure.
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In 1998, Kern, Fagley, and Miller focused on the relationship between retention
and GPA and academic-related variables including learning, study and test-taking
strategies, students attitudes about college, and ACT scores. The study asked the
following questions: What variables are related to GPA and to attrition? Do different
variables predict attrition than predict GPA? What variables predict GPA and attrition
after controlling for subject differences in ACT and the other variables? The sample
consisted of 102 undergraduate students enrolled in a career planning and development
course at a southwestern state university.
Multiple regression analyses revealed that GPA has a direct effect on attrition and
that ACT scores as well as certain study skills like information processing, selecting main
ideas, self testing, and the composite of motivation, time management, and concentration
have indirect effects on attrition through GPA. The authors comment that these findings
suggest that GPA and retention should be considered distinct outcomes. In bivariate
correlations, only motivation was significantly related to both GPA and attrition.
Therefore, although prior academic achievement was significantly related to college
GPA, other variables also were significantly related to GPA. These variables, especially
information processing, time management strategies and test strategies, are amenable to
intervention. Moreover, the finding that attrition was more strongly correlated to
motivational self-ratings than to learning and study skills may be useful in alternative
intervention strategies as opposed to those concentrating on enhancing study skills alone.
On an international level, Mackie (2001) explored student withdrawal behavior
during the first year of an undergraduate modular program in the business school of a new
university in England. This qualitative study examined the reasons why some students
voluntarily left the university, while others, who share similar experiences and
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difficulties, stayed. Special attention was given to the complex interplay of factors
(personal, institutional and external), which lead up to the decision by a student to
withdraw.
Mackie (2001) found that individual commitment plays a critical role in the
decision to persist or withdraw. Based upon the data, Mackie developed a model of the
first year experience. In this model, the major hurdles of the first year are social and
organizational integration. Initial commitment, long-term objective, and continued
motivation are identified as the driving forces that push or pull the student over these
hurdles. The height of the hurdles is not as important a factor as the willingness of the
student to jump (Mackie, 2001, p. 273). Initial commitment is the push, and long-term
objective and sustained motivation are the pull.
Social integration feedback from peers and organizational integration feedback
from professors increases or decreases the commitment to stay. Progress is further
fostered or impeded by external factors. Departure results from a failure of social or
organizational integration, insurmountable external problems or failure in individual
commitment. Either commitment levels are strong enough to overcome the problems, or
feedback is negative and commitment decreases. Departure early in the year is most likely
the result of a failure in social integration, particularly in making friends and supportive
relationships. Departure later in the year is most likely the result of a failure in
organizational integration and is concerned with the type and content of courses.
While individual commitment emerged as a central factor, Mackie emphasized
that the intention is not to place blame for departure with students themselves. Students
arrive with some level of commitment and intention to complete and that by the
beginning of the second term universities succeed, for some, in turning this expectant
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hope into fears realized and may have failed to exploit the potential within that initial
commitment (Mackie, 2001, p. 275).
Personality, College Performance, and Attrition
Spurred by a drop what they considered a predictive validity of the Scholastic
Aptitude Test (SAT), Wolfe and Johnson (1995) investigated the utility of using
personality variables in predicting college GPA. Data was collected from 201 students
enrolled in psychology courses at SUNY Geneseo. Subjects completed the Jackson
Personality Inventory, a scale compiled from the Multidimensional Personality
Questionnaire representing each basic dimension on the original questionnaire, the 35item Big 5 Inventory, and additional items representing need for cognition, general selfefficacy, self-handicapping, and academic procrastination. SAT scores were obtained
from the colleges records office.
The study supported Wolfe and Johnsons assertion that personality dimensions
can, in fact, predict college performance. Specifically, self-control emerged as the most
robust predictor. Multiple regression analyses revealed that in predicting GPA, it does not
matter how self-control is defined or measured. Organization, control, conscientiousness
and self-efficacy all accounted for roughly equal portions of GPA variance, and all
entered their respective analyses ahead of SAT.
Musgrave-Marquart and Bromley (1997) also found that personality dimensions
could predict college performance. One hundred sixty-one university students enrolled in
psychology courses completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory measuring
neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness, the Academic
Attributional Style Questionnaire, and the Substance Use Questionnaire. The analyses
revealed that conscientiousness, openness and neuroticism stood out as the best predictors
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of academic achievement using stepwise multiple regression. In support of the

hypothesis, conscientiousness was the best predictor of high GPA. Costa and McCrae
(1992, as cited in Musgrave-Marquart and Bromley, 1997) explained that openness is
modestly related to intelligence and somewhat more strongly related to measures of
divergent thinking. The results of this study appear to confirm this contention.
Unexpectedly, neuroticism was also positively correlated with GPA. The authors deduced
that the studys timing was central in this finding. The survey was administered at the end
of the semester when students typically are more aroused and anxious. This result raises
the question as to whether neuroticism, with its multiple components (anxiety,
anger/hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability), is an
element of academic success within a temporal context.
As opposed to research on college performance, much less research exists
regarding the ability of personality characteristics to predict college retention (Tross et al.,
2000). However their importance is no less than that of other predictors. According to
Tinto (1987), pre-entry characteristics indirectly affect departure by influencing a
persons formulation on intentions and commitments regarding future educational
activities. In this sense, Tinto (1987) asserted that commitments mirror aspects of
personality, which predispose an individual toward goal attainment. And, though
intuitively it would make sense that personality must play a role in student withdrawal,
we are unable to say just how different elements of personality affect student leaving
(Tinto, 1987, p. 79).
Okun and Finch (1998) investigated the role of the Big Five personality
dimensions in the dynamics of institutional departure. Their hypothesized path model of
institutional departure focused on four variables: subjective social integration, changes in
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institutional commitment, cumulative GPA, and institutional departure. For social

integration, they proposed that extraversion and agreeableness would indirectly affect it
through their influence on organizational involvement and number of friends.
Conscientiousness was expected to exert an indirect effect on social integration via initial
institutional commitment and also via organizational involvement. Openness to
experience was posited to exert an indirect effect on social integration via its influence on
living in a dorm.
They predicted that institutional commitment at time 2 would be affected by
institutional commitment at time 1 and subjective social integration. They reasoned that
institutional commitment would exert a direct effect on cumulative GPA, and that
students with high conscientiousness would attain higher grades than students with low
conscientiousness. A similar prediction was made in reference to openness to experience.
And finally, they hypothesized that the likelihood of institutional departure would
decrease as cumulative GPA and institutional commitment increased.
Their sample consisted of 240 first-time, first-semester students enrolled in
introductory psychology course at a large Southwestern state university. Participants
completed the 44-item version of the Big Five Inventory and 4-items measuring
institutional commitment from the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire. Seven
weeks later the participants completed the subjective integration scale and the
institutional commitment scale of the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire.
Cumulative GPA and enrollment status was extracted from the universitys student
records system at the end of the spring semester.
Overall, Okun and Finch (1998) found that personality dimensions contribute
substantially to the prediction of institutional departure. The sensitivity rate for detecting
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students who departed, using cumulative GPA, institutional commitment at time 2 and
conscientiousness as predictors was 78.6%, higher than previous studies using a
minimum of six predictors. In terms of their specific hypotheses, some were confirmed,
while others were not supported by the data.
For subjective social integration, neuroticism and initial institutional commitment
were the strongest predictors. As neuroticism increased, first time, first-semester students
were less likely to have made an adequate adjustment to the social demands of starting
college. This stands in somewhat of a contrast to Musgrave-Marquart and Bromleys
findings that found neuroticism to be a positive indicator of academic adjustment.
Consistent with past research, those with higher levels of institutional commitment were
more likely to perceive themselves as being integrated into the universitys social system.
Involvement in organizations, conscientiousness, and extraversion were
significant positive predictors of subjective social integration. Conscientiousness
appeared to influence initial institutional commitment and organizational involvement,
which, in turn, exert direct effects on subjective social integration. Extraversion was
positively related to number of friends and to organizational involvement, thereby,
indirectly effecting subjective social integration via organizational involvement. Contrary
to the hypothesis however, neither number of friends nor living in the dorm were
predictors of subjective social integration. Openness to experience was positively related
to living in a dorm; however, it did not exert an indirect effect on subjective social
integration. Also, contrary to predictions, agreeableness did not predict number of friends,
which in turn, did not predict subjective social integration.
Regarding institutional commitment at time 2, significant effects were associated
with initial institutional commitment, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. As
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hypothesized, institutional commitment at time 1 exerted both a direct and indirect effect
via subjective social integration on institutional commitment at time 2. Neuroticism had a
negative indirect effect on institutional commitment at time 2 through its influence on
subjective social integration. In contrast, conscientiousness had a positive indirect effect
on institutional commitment at time 2 via its influence on organizational involvement and
initial institutional commitment.
In support of the hypothesis for cumulative GPA, conscientiousness was found to
exert a direct effect. However, contrary to expectations, openness to experience and
institutional commitment at time 2 did not exert a direct effect on cumulative GPA. Less
than 4% of the variance in cumulative GPA was accounted for in the study.
As predicted, the strongest predictor of institutional departure was cumulative
GPA. As GPA increased, the likelihood of institutional departure decreased. Also as
expected, institutional commitment at time 2 was inversely related to institutional
departure. Although not part of the original predictions, conscientiousness was found to
exert a direct effect on institutional departure. As conscientiousness increases, first-time,
first-semester students were more likely to persist at the institution.
In review, in Okun and Finchs (1998) study of the Big Five personality
dimensions, conscientiousness exerted a much larger total effect on institutional departure
than either institutional commitment at time 2 or subjective social integration.
Conscientiousness exerted both a direct effect as well as indirect effect via organization
involvement, initial institutional commitment, and grades upon departure.
In 2000, Tross et al. investigated the influence of a somewhat different set of
personality characteristics on student persistence. They examined the impact of
conscientiousness, achievement, and resiliency in predicting college performance and
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college retention. There were two primary hypotheses for this study. First, individuals
possessing higher levels of achievement, conscientiousness, and resiliency would
subsequently earn higher college GPAs than would individuals possessing lower levels of
these characteristics. Second, individuals possessing more achievement,
conscientiousness and resiliency should be more likely to stay than individuals with lower
levels of these characteristics.
The sample consisted of 844 first-year students enrolled in psychology courses at
a large, public southeastern university. During the first week of classes, participants
completed the Achievement, Academic Commitment, and Resilience scales of the
College Adjustment Inventory. Additional information, including high school GPA, total
SAT score and first-year cumulative college GPA, was gathered from the colleges
student records. Retention was operationally defined by whether or not the participants
were enrolled in the colleges subsequent academic year.
The findings supported the hypothesis that conscientiousness significantly
predicts both college GPA and college retention. Conscientiousness predicted both
involuntary and voluntary attrition. They surmised that more conscientiousness
individuals may be more likely to feel commitment to their chosen college and less likely
to consider other academic or professional options, and hence are more likely to stay
enrolled. However, the personality dimensions of achievement and resiliency were not
significant predictors.
The zero-order correlations between achievement and college performance and
retention were significant, but these effects were lowered significantly when
conscientiousness was entered into a combined regression equation. In essence, the
predictive ability of achievement was used by conscientiousness. The authors noted that
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the predictive ability of achievement was restricted by apparent range restriction, as

evidenced with a high mean and low standard deviation. Additionally, Tross et al. (2000)
point out that the institution where the study was conducted was highly selective, which
may have contributed to the possible range restriction on the achievement measure.
There were no significant results for resiliency. One explanation posited by the
researchers is that individuals must face a significant challenge before resiliency can be
demonstrated. Given that the study was conducted at the beginning of the students first
foray into higher education, they may not have yet experienced the adversity necessary to
adequately gauge resiliency.
Limitations of Previous Research
The majority of previous research on college performance and retention has
primarily focused on what Tross et al. (2000) call the usual cast of characters, with an
over-reliance on can do and an under-reliance on will do. Tross et al. (2000) stress
that there is a difference. According to Wolfe and Johnson (1995) as the SAT continues
to show signs of predictive weakness, promising alternatives should be explored. For
these reasons, the characteristic of conscientiousness and personality variables in general,
deserve more research attention. Widening the investigation to examine these personality
characteristics will help generate a more complete picture of students at risk for
departure, and can thereby help shape future intervention programs geared toward
retention.
Possible Predictor: Conscientiousness
There exists a host of potentially relevant personality characteristics that may
provide additional insight into the dynamics of institutional departure. To further build
upon research in this arena the current study will examine the role of a specific
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personality trait, conscientiousness.

Conscientiousness can be defined as the tendency to carry out tasks in a careful
manner until their completion (Tross et al., 2000). A more conscientious person is
diligent, careful, and organized, whereas a less conscientiousness person is unreliable,
imprecise, disorganized, and impetuous. It has been found to be a valid predictor of
occupational performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Mount, Barrick, & Strauss, 1999) and
of academic performance (Okun & Finch, 1998; Tross et al., 2000; Wolfe & Johnson,
1995). Research demonstrates that the personality characteristic of conscientiousness
adds significant variance to the prediction of subsequent college GPA (Wolfe & Johnson,
1995).
In addition, conscientiousness does not appear susceptible to response distortion
or social desirability (Ellingson, Sackett, & Hough, 1999; Hough, Eaton, Dunnette,
Kamp, & McCloy, 1990) and is a relatively stable, personality-based characteristic
(Hough & Schneider, 1996). Research such as that of Wolfe and Johnson (1995), Okun
and Finch (1998), and Tross et al. (2000) provides additional support for the use of
conscientiousness in the academic setting and the inclusion of this characteristic in
models that seek to explain academic performance and retention. However, additional
research is needed to further investigate the dynamics between conscientiousness and
retention (Tross, et al., 2000), specifically regarding commitment and integration.
Individuals possessing higher levels of conscientiousness may be more likely to
stay than individuals with lower levels of this characteristic. Individuals who are more
responsible, reliable, and driven, will be more involved and committed to the college and
obtaining good grades, and hence, less likely to withdraw.
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Current Study
The present study explores the question: What is the impact of conscientiousness
on college student departure? To investigate this question, participants completed two
self-report questionnaires: the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire and the
conscientiousness subscale of the NEO-FFI along with a demographic questionnaire.
Figure 2 illustrates the hypothesized path model of institutional departure being
tested in the current study. Following are the specific predictions for four endogenous
variables: academic integration, goal commitment, grade point average (GPA), and
institutional departure.
Academic Integration
It was anticipated that two variables, conscientiousness and initial goal
commitment, would have direct effects on academic integration. Conscientious students,
those who want to excel and who are organized and diligent, will become more involved
in the academic system of the college, as opposed to students who are disorganized,
impetuous and who do not want to put in extra effort. As posited by Tintos model
(1987), initial goal commitment is an antecedent to academic integration. It is reasoned
that those students committed to educational attainment will invest themselves in the
academic life at the university. Conscientiousness should also exert an indirect effect on
academic integration via goal commitment.
Goal Commitment
It was hypothesized that there will be a significant path from conscientiousness to
initial goal commitment. Those who are diligent and planning will have a strong
commitment to educational goals. Initial goal commitment in turn, is expected to directly
influence goal commitment at time 2. Likewise, academic integration will directly
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influence goal commitment at time 2. The more integrated into the academic system of
the university, the more committed the student will become to educational goals.
Moreover, conscientiousness will indirectly impact goal commitment at time 2 via its
connection to academic integration and initial goal commitment.
First Semester GPA
As previous research has demonstrated conscientiousness predicts academic
performance (Okun & Finch, 1998; Tross et al., 2000). Therefore, it was expected that
conscientiousness will directly impact first semester GPA. Being organized, hardworking,
and persistent, conscientious students are expected to obtain better grades than low
conscientious students. The amount of academic integration should directly impact grades
as well. Greater involvement in academic endeavors leads to increased knowledge, which
is then reflected in academic performance.
Institutional Departure
Grades were expected to predict institutional departure. Previous research has
indicated that poor grades (Aitken, 1982; Okun & Finch, 1998) are strongly associated
with institutional departure. Based upon the study by Okun and Finch (1998)
conscientiousness was also hypothesized to exert a direct influence of institutional
departure.
If these hypotheses are supported, the results would suggest the utility of
incorporating personality dimensions into studies on the dynamics of institutional
departure.
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Method
Participants
Fifty-six first-year, first-semester college students (19 males, 37 females), age 18
and older, served as participants. Table 1 provides a complete description of the samples
demographic characteristics. Participants were solicited from the incoming freshmen
student population at Western Connecticut State University, with 43 of the participants
residing in campus residence halls. This institution is a non-selective predominantly
commuter university.
Materials
Table 2 provides a description of the measured variables. A demographic
questionnaire was used to gather information on the characteristics of the sample (see
Appendix A for copy of questionnaire). The questionnaire asked for age, gender,
ethnicity, number of hours worked at a job, number of credits being taken, and if the
students parents and siblings have attended college.
Conscientiousness was assessed with a subscale of the NEO-FFI (Costa &
McCrae, 1985). The NEO-FFI was developed to meet the needs of researchers and
professionals who need a brief, comprehensive measure of the five domains of
personality. This instrument is a shortened version of Form S of the NEO-PI. The
conscientiousness subscale consists of 18-items. In each case the participant responds
using a 5-point scale. Examples of items on the subscale include: I think twice before
answering a question; I strive for excellence in everything I do; I have a clear set of goals
and work towards them in an orderly fashion. In the current study, the conscientiousness
subscale of the NEO-FFI had an alpha reliability of .78.
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The Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (Baker & Siryk, 1984) is a selfreport questionnaire containing items that are rated on a 9-point scale (1 = doesnt apply
to me at all, 9 = applies very closely to me). Goal commitment was measured with items
from the Institutional Attachment/Goal Commitment subscale. The items relate to the
students feelings about being in college in general. The three items from this subscale
were: I am pleased now about my decision to go to college; Lately I have been giving a
lot of thought to dropping out of college altogether and for good; and, I find myself giving
considerable thought to taking time off from college and finishing later. With the present
sample, the three goal commitment items had an alpha reliability of .64 at time 1 and an
alpha reliability of .69 at time 2. The correlation between goal commitment scores at time
1 and time 2 was .325, p<.05.
Academic integration was measured using the Academic Adjustment subscale of
the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire. It consists of 24 items referring to
various facets of the educational demands characteristic of the college experience.
Example items from this subscale include: Recently I have had trouble concentrating
when I try to study; I am enjoying my academic work at college; I have been keeping up
to date on my academic work. The academic integration subscale had an alpha reliability
of .89 in the current study.
Grade point average (GPA) and enrollment status were extracted from the
computerized student information system at the start of the spring semester. Enrollment
status was coded 1 if the student was not registered for classes at the beginning of the
spring semester, and was coded 2 if the student was registered for classes at the beginning
of the spring semester.
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Procedure
This study was approved by the Human Subjects Review Committee of Western
Connecticut State University as well as the Human Studies Council at Central
Connecticut State University (see Appendix B for approval forms).
Data were collected in two waves. Initial data collection (time 1) was conducted
in groups in the lounge areas of the various residence halls at Western Connecticut State
University following a mandatory meeting for freshmen residents within the first two
weeks of the fall semester. Participants completed an informed consent form. Once the
forms were completed and handed in, participants were given a packet consisting of:
demographic questionnaire, conscientiousness subscale of the NEO-FFI, and the goal
commitment subscale of the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire, in that order.
Approximately nine weeks later, at time 2, participants were contacted individually to
complete the goal commitment subscale (for a second time), along with the academic
integration subscale of the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire. Students either
completed the measurements at the researchers office, or they completed them over the
telephone with the researcher.
Participants were instructed to complete each scale thoroughly and to take as
much time as necessary. It took approximately 40 minutes to complete the questionnaire
packet at time 1, and approximately 15 minutes to complete the packet at time 2. At the
initial data collection 64 students completed the informed consent and survey packet.
Fifty-six of those students completed the packet at time 2.
Fall semester GPA and enrollment status for the spring semester were extracted
from the student information system by matching students with either their student
identification number or their full name, as some students did not feel comfortable
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providing the researcher with their identification number.

There were no missing data.
Results
Prior to analysis, means and standard deviations were obtained for all variables to
determine if the distributions for each were normal. With the exception of goal
commitment, the variables did not violate the assumption of normality. Both goal
commitment at time 1 and time 2 were highly negatively skewed. In order to use the data
for goal commitment appropriately, the variable, at time 1 and time 2, was reverse-coded
to make it positively skewed. Then, log base 10 transformations were done to reduce
skewness. It should be noted that this process does create a restricted range.
Correlations
Table 3 presents the correlations among the six measured variables.
Structural Equation Analysis
Structural equation modeling (SEM) via LISREL VIII (Joreskog & Sorbom, 2000)
was used to test the hypothesized model of the influence of conscientiousness on the
dynamics of institutional departure (see Figure 2). Single indicators were used in this
study due to the small sample size. If the measurement model with multiple indicators
were used, number of estimated parameters would have been too large for the sample
size. The covariance matrix was analyzed for the six indicators using maximum
likelihood estimation. For each indicator the error variance was fixed at one minus the
alpha times the total variance of the indicator. Additionally, the factor loading was fixed
at the square root of the total variance minus the error variance. The structural component
of the model was specified in keeping with the anticipated direct and indirect effects on
institutional departure as shown in Figure 2. Conscientiousness and goal commitment at
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time 1 were allowed to correlate.

In the current study, three indices were employed to assess model fit: the Chi
Square goodness-of-fit test, the Tucker Lewis Index (or non-normed fit index; NNFI), and
the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). A non-significant chi-square
value, that is with a probability greater than .05, indicates that the data fit the
hypothesized model. For the Tucker-Lewis Index values of .90 or greater reflect an
adequate fit of a specified model to the data. For the Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation values less than .05 indicate a good model fit.
The fit of the initially specified model was weak, 2(6, N)=9.23, p=.19,
NNFI=.88, RMSEA=.26. Inspection of the modification indices revealed that adding a
path from goal commitment at time 2 to departure would significantly improve the fit of
the model to the data. The addition of this path corresponds to previous research by
Pascarella and Chapman (1983) as well as Pascarella and Terenzini (1983), who found
that the lower the goal of college completion (goal commitment), the greater the
likelihood of college withdrawal. Therefore, this path was specified in the revised model.
The fit of the revised model was satisfactory, 2(5, N)=4.13, p=.53, NNFI = 1.04,
RMSEA =0.0. The t-values associated with four of the structural paths in the original
hypothesized model were not statistically significant. Accordingly, these paths were
deleted from the model. Also, the path from academic integration to goal commitment at
time 2 was only significant at the .10 level. While this is a low standard, it is not
unreasonable to include the path given the small sample size.
The trimmed model was then re-estimated with only the significant paths. Figure
3 presents the standardized path coefficients associated with the trimmed model.
Discussion
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The present study explored whether the personality dimension of

conscientiousness has an influence on the dynamics of institutional departure. Using
multiple goodness of fit criteria, and with an added path, the model was shown to provide
a satisfactory fit to the data. Overall, it appears conscientiousness does increase the
prediction of institutional departure. Nevertheless, before elaborating on the findings, it is
important to discuss several limitations of the present study.
Study Limitations
Limitations of the present study revolve predominantly around sample issues.
Lack of student interest to participate in the study caused much of the difficulty in data
analysis. Any results obtained from a sample of only 56 participants must be interpreted
with great caution. This small sample may in part, explain why goal commitment at time
1 was not significantly linked with goal commitment at 2 or academic integration as
previous research has repeatedly demonstrated.
The sample is also relatively homogeneous in terms of race and gender. The
majority are white non-Hispanic women, followed by white non-Hispanic men. The fact
that the study was conducted at only one medium-sized university limits generalization.
Additionally, there was a relatively low dropout rate within the small sample. Due to time
constraints on the study, enrollment status was obtained after only a single semester of
college had been completed. This may not have been enough time to accurately gauge the
dynamics at play in decisions to persist or depart. The majority of studies in this area
obtain enrollment status at the end of the spring semester, when departure typically
occurs. For all these reasons, as stated above, caution must be taken in making
generalizations of the research findings to different types of students and different types
of higher education institutions.
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Academic Integration. It was originally hypothesized that conscientiousness and
initial goal commitment would each exert a direct effect on academic integration. Only
conscientiousness had a significant direct effect. The positive sign associated with the
beta for conscientiousness indicates that as conscientiousness increases, first-semester
students are more likely to become integrated into the academic system of college. This
suggests that those students who are more diligent, organized, and have a drive to excel,
will become more involved in the academic life and activities of college, as opposed to
students who are disorganized, impetuous, and who do not want to put in extra effort.
According to Tintos model (1987) and previous research (Pascarella & Terenzini,
1983; Pascarella & Chapman, 1983), initial goal commitment is an antecedent of
academic integration. However, the findings of this study do not indicate that connection.
It may be that the sample size was just too small to garner an effect.
Goal Commitment. As suspected, conscientiousness was found to have a
significant direct effect on initial goal commitment. The negative sign associated with the
beta is somewhat deceiving. Recall that initial goal commitment was recoded making it
positively skewed, as opposed to negatively skewed, in order to transform the data to
reduce skewness. Therefore, a lower number then became associated with stronger
commitment. Thus, the significant path means that more conscientious students have, at
least initially, a stronger commitment to educational goals.
Regarding direct effects on goal commitment at time 2 once again the results are
mixed. It was hypothesized that initial goal commitment and academic integration would
each directly effect goal commitment at time 2. Consistent with Tintos model (1987),
academic integration directly effected goal commitment at time 2. Because goal
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commitment at time 2 was recoded to reduce skewness, greater commitment became

associated with a lower score. Thus, the negative sign associated with the path from
academic integration should be interpreted to mean that the more integrated into the
academic system of the university, the more committed the student becomes to
educational goals.
Contrary to expectations, initial goal commitment did not influence subsequent
goal commitment. Again, this may be due to the very small sample size.
In terms of indirect effects, conscientiousness had a positive indirect effect on
goal commitment at time 2, via its influence on academic integration. More
conscientiousness students have greater integration into the academic life of college and
thereby have a greater commitment to educational goals.
First Semester GPA. It was hypothesized that conscientiousness and academic
integration would each directly impact first semester grade point average. In support of
the hypothesis, academic integration exerted a significant positive direct effect on first
semester GPA. The more integrated students become into academic activities at the
university, the better their grades.
Conscientiousness did not have a significant direct impact on first semester GPA.
This is not consistent with previous research demonstrating that conscientiousness
directly influences grades (Wolfe & Johnson, 1995; Okun & Finch, 1998; Tross, et al,
2000). However, via its connection to academic integration, conscientiousness exerted a
significant indirect effect on GPA. More conscientious students become more involved in
academic life at the university and this then translates into a higher GPA.
Institutional Departure. Confirming the hypothesis, GPA had a significant direct
effect on institutional departure. As GPA increased, the more likely a student was to re-
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enroll at the institution. Or, to say it another way, as GPA increased, the likelihood of
institutional departure decreased. This finding is consistent with previous research
indicating that poor grades strongly predict institutional departure (Aiken, 1982; Kern,
Fagley, & Miller, 1998; Okun & Finch, 1998).
Although not predicted, goal commitment at time 2 was inversely related to
institutional departure. As a students commitment to educational goals increases, the less
likely they are to leave the university. This corresponds to previous research by Pascarella
and Chapman (1983) as well as Pascarella and Terenzini (1983), who found that the
lower the goal of college completion (goal commitment), the greater the likelihood of
college withdrawal.
Contrary to expectations, conscientiousness did not exert a direct effect on
departure. On one hand, this result confirms findings by Pascarella and Chapman (1983)
which demonstrated that background characteristics indirectly influence departure. On the
other hand, this contrasts with the findings of Okun and Finch (1998) and may warrant
further investigation.
Overall, the results of the present study suggest that conscientiousness does in fact
influence the dynamics of institutional departure. Conscientiousness, a pre-entry variable
in Tintos model (1987), appears to influence the process of departure by exerting an
indirect effect on institutional departure via academic integration. More conscientious
students become more involved in academic activities or situations at college, greater
academic integration leads to a higher GPA and greater commitment to educational goals,
which decrease the likelihood of institutional departure.
Implications
The results of the present study suggest the utility of incorporating personality
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traits into the study of institutional departure. Who a student is, based on background
characteristics as well as personality, does appear to play an important role in shaping
commitment and integration into university life. It may not be enough to provide students
only with the necessary skills to perform well in college. As Tross et al (2000) contend it
is not always an issue of can do, but rather will do. A student who is not
conscientious may indeed know the skills for college success, but simply may not be
using them. Widening the college departure investigation to include variables such as
personality can help generate a more complete picture of students at risk for departure,
and can thereby help shape future programs geared toward retention.
Practical Implications
In a practical sense this studys findings reiterate the importance of early
engagement by the university to first-year students. Though specific student attributes,
such as conscientiousness, are largely beyond the control of the university, the institution
can control the settings in which students find themselves. While conscientious students
make the effort and become involved in their educational endeavors, the key for
universities is also to engage those students at the other end of the conscientiousness
spectrum. The path for these students, who are not particularly conscientious, does not
have to lead to departure. The university can foster educational commitments and
integration thereby diverting the path to institutional departure. The primary place for this
to occur is in the classroom.
Tinto (1999) points out that most freshmen experience education as isolated
learners. Their learning experiences resemble a spectator sport, in which faculty talk
dominates and where only a few students actively participate. By rethinking the structure
of the freshmen year classroom it may be possible to engage both conscientious and
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unconscientious students. One suggestion is to build learning communities which

transform students from spectators into participants (Tinto, 1999).
At a basic level, learning communities involve block scheduling and/or linking
courses with a common theme. Learning communities enroll the same students in several
classes so they get to know each other quickly and fairly well and in a way that is an
integral part of their academic experience. Shared knowledge is another key aspect of
learning communities. Learning communities seek to involve students in ways, both
socially and intellectually, that promote cognitive development. They try to foster an
appreciation for the many ways in which ones own knowing is enhanced when other
voices are part of the learning experience (Tinto, 1999, p. 7). Learning communities also
ask students to become responsible to each other in the learning process. Students
participate in collaborative groups, which require them to be mutually dependent on one
another. This dependency ensures that the learning of the group does not advance
without each member doing her or his part (Tinto, 1999, p. 7).
In addition, academic advising should be a fundamental part of learning
communities. Advising should be woven into the fabric of the freshmen year. Regular
contact with an academic advisor can foster commitment to educational goals and
increase academic integration among unconscientious students, who according to this
study, do not appear to actively do this independently.
Future Research
Most importantly, the results of the present study need to be replicated, as well as
extended. The sample size issues faced in this study alone make replication a necessity.
One direction for future research involves examining the narrow traits, such as
achievement-striving and self-discipline, which comprise the broader personality
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dimension of conscientiousness. Although achievement and conscientiousness have been

treated similarly in some personality taxonomies, research by Hough et al. (1990)
indicates that achievement and conscientiousness are conceptually distinct personality
characteristics. The narrow traits defining the Big Five factors can surpass those broad
dimensions themselves in prediction of course grades (Paunonen & Ashton, 2001). Much
important information may be lost when focused solely at the broad Big Five factor level.
It seems plausible that the different aspects comprising the Big Five dimension of
conscientiousness may impact the dynamics of institutional departure in different ways.
For instance, self-discipline and deliberation may have a greater influence on goal
commitment, whereas competence and achievement-striving may have a greater impact
on academic integration.
Another important direction for future research is to differentiate among firsttime, first-semester students who persist, transfer, and drop out. What factors differentiate
drop-outs, transfer students and persisters? As Okun and Finch (1998) surmise, dropouts
will likely have low GPA, low institutional and goal commitment, compared to transfer
students who should exhibit moderate to high GPA, moderate to high goal commitment,
and low institutional commitment. Persisters should exhibit moderate to high grades, high
goal and institutional commitment. Also, are there changes in the way personality
dimensions influence the dynamics of institutional departure for drop-outs, transfer
students, and persisters?
Lastly, much of the research conducted on institutional departure appears to have
been conducted at relatively selective, if not highly selective, institutions of higher
education. The average GPA in the Tross, et al (2000) study was 3.64 and the average
SAT score was 1232. The 4 year retention rate of the university used in Okun and Finch
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(1998) was 82.4%. This stands in contrast to the university used in the present study
where the average SAT score is 940 and where the freshmen retention rate is 70.6%.
More research in this area needs to be conducted at universities which are not so
selective. Typically, these are the institutions facing serious retention rate issues. It is at
these institutions where a better understanding of departure needs to take place.
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Table 1
Description of Demographic Variables
________________________________________________________________________
Variable
Frequency %
SD
Description code/scales
________________________________________________________________________
Age
18
50
89.3
10.7
Men
19
66.1
Women
37
33.9
47
83.9
Afr. American
7.1
Latino
5.4
Other
3.6
> 19
Gender
Ethnicity
White
Attended College
Mother
0 = No, 1 = Yes
Yes
28
50.0
No
25
44.6
5.4
No answer/NA
Father
0 = No, 1 = Yes
Yes
27
48.2
No
26
46.4
No answer/NA
Page numbers
5.4
Sister
0 = No, 1 = Yes
Yes
13
23.2
No
30
53.6
No answer/NA
13
23.2
Brother
0 = No, 1 = Yes
Yes
16.1
No
37
66.1
No answer/NA
10
17.9
40
71.4
8-10
14.3
11-20
10.8
21+
3.6
Work Hours
0
Credit Hours
13.51 1.85
< 12
5.4
22
39.3
9.0
15
19
33.9
> 15
10.7
12
13-14
________________________________________________________________________
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Table 2
Description of Measured Variables
________________________________________________________________________
Description
Variable
SD
Reliability
code/scales
________________________________________________________________________
Conscientiousness
66
7.66
.78
1 = Strongly Disagree
9 = Strongly Agree
Goal Commitmenta
1 = Strongly Disagree
9 = Strongly Agree
Time 1
.58
.62
.64
Time 2
.41
.54
.69
Academic Integration
1 = Strongly
Disagree
9 = Strongly Agree
Time 2
156.44
25.36
2.65
.94
Cumulative GPA
.89
0 = All Fs
4 = All As
Institutional Departure
1 = Not registered
2 = Registered
________________________________________________________________________
Note: Reliability was estimated by coefficient .
a
Due to skewed data log transformations were performed on goal commitment at time 1
and time 2.
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Table 3
Correlations among Study Variables
________________________________________________________________________
Variable
_______________________________________________________________________
1. Conscientiousness
2. Goal Commitment time 1

3. Academic Integration
4. Goal Commitment time 2
5. Grade Point Average
6. Departure
--
.429**
.569**
-.326*
.419*
.278*
--
-.350**
.325*
-.391**
.212
--
.385**
--
.512** .263*
-.166
-.373**
--
.407**
--
________________________________________________________________________
*p < .05. **p < .01.
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Figure 1. Tintos longitudinal model of institutional departure. From

Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition
(p. 114), by Vincent Tinto, 1987, Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press. Copyright 1987 by The University of Chicago Press. Reprinted
with permission.
Conscientiousness
GPA
Departure
Academic
Integration
Goal Commitment
(Time 1)
Page numbers
Goal Commitment
(Time 2)
Figure 2. Hypothesized model of the influence of conscientiousness on institutional

departure.
Conscientiousness
Page numbers
GPA
.55
-.62
Departure
Academic
Integration
-.48
Goal Commitment
(Time 1)
Figure 3. Trimmed model with standardized path coefficients.
-.37
Page numbers
Appendix A
Demographic Questionnaire
AGE: _________________________
GENDER: (circle one)
Male
Female
ETHNICITY: (check one)

_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
White Non-Hispanic
Black or African American
Latino or Hispanic
Asian
Pacific Islander
Native American
Native Hawaiian
Other: ___________________________
NUMBER OF CREDITS YOU ARE TAKING THIS SEMESTER: ___________

NUMBER OF HOURS YOU WORK PER WEEK: _____________________
(If you do not work then write 0 hours.)
HAVE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING MEMEBERS OF YOUR FAMILY ATTENDED
COLLEGE:
Mother
Father
Brothers
Sisters
Yes
_______
_______
_______
_______
No
________
________
________
________
Appendix B
Approval Forms
Page numbers
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Prior to completing her Masters Degree in Psychology at Central Connecticut State

University, Alicia R. Damia earned a B.A. in Psychology at Western Connecticut State
University in Danbury, CT and a B.A. in Communications at Marist College in
Poughkeepsie, NY. After a brief career as a newspaper editor and technical writer, Alicia
decided to take a position as an academic advisor to undeclared freshmen at Western
Connecticut State University. She makes her home in Danbury, CT.

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The Influence of Conscientiousness

on the Dynamics of Institutional Departure

The Influence of Conscientiousness

The Influence of Conscientiousness

Central Connecticut State University

The Influence of Conscientiousness

In order to develop and improve retention services it is important to understand

commitment to a specific institution the greater the probability of college persistence.

followed by GPA, institutional commitment, encouragement from friends and family,

students who earned some credit hours and at least a C average.

of academic achievement using stepwise multiple regression. In support of the

institutional commitment, cumulative GPA, and institutional departure. For social

the predictive ability of achievement was restricted by apparent range restriction, as

personality trait, conscientiousness.

providing the researcher with their identification number.

time 1 were allowed to correlate.

The present study explored whether the personality dimension of

The Influence of Conscientiousness

commitment at time 2 was recoded to reduce skewness, greater commitment became

unconscientious students. One suggestion is to build learning communities which

dimension of conscientiousness. Although achievement and conscientiousness have been

university settings. College Student Journal, 36 (1), 69-83.

Higher Education, 67 (5), 577-596.

performance. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55 (2), 177-185.

2. Goal Commitment time 1

Figure 1. Tintos longitudinal model of institutional departure. From

Figure 2. Hypothesized model of the influence of conscientiousness on institutional

Figure 3. Trimmed model with standardized path coefficients.

ETHNICITY: (check one)

NUMBER OF CREDITS YOU ARE TAKING THIS SEMESTER: ___________

Prior to completing her Masters Degree in Psychology at Central Connecticut State

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