Transformer Testing

Winding Resistance measurement

IEC
11.2 Measurement of winding resistance
11.2.1 General
The resistance of each winding, the terminals between which it is measured and
the temperature of the windings shall be recorded. Direct current shall be used for
the measurement.
In all resistance measurements, care shall be taken that the effects of selfinduction are minimized.
11.2.3 Liquid-immersed type transformers
After the transformer has been under liquid without excitation for at least 3 h, the
average liquid temperature shall be determined and the temperature of the
winding shall be deemed to be the same as the average liquid temperature. The
average liquid temperature is taken as the mean of the top and bottom liquid
temperatures.
In measuring the cold resistance for the purpose of temperature-rise
determination, special efforts shall be made to determine the average winding
temperature accurately. Thus, the difference in temperature between the top and
bottom liquid shall not exceed 5 K. To obtain this result more rapidly, the liquid
may be circulated by a pump.
IEEE

5. Resistance measurements
Resistance measurements are of fundamental importance for the
following purposes:
a) Calculation of the I^2* R component of conductor losses
b) Calculation of winding temperatures at the end of a temperature test
c) As a quality control test of the manufacturing process
d) As a base for assessing possible damage in the field
5.1 Determination of cold temperature
The cold temperature of the winding shall be determined as accurately as
possible when measuring the cold resistance. The precautions in 5.1.1,
5.1.2, and 5.1.3 shall be observed.
5.1.1 General
Cold-resistance measurements shall be made on a transformer only when
the liquid or winding temperature is stable. The temperature is considered
stable if the top liquid temperature does not vary more than 2 C in a 1 h
period.
5.1.2 Transformer windings immersed in insulating liquid
The temperature of the windings shall be assumed to be the same as the
average temperature of the insulating liquid, provided
a) The windings have been under insulating liquid with no excitation and
with no current in the windings for a minimum of 3 h for a transformer
without pumps and for 1 h for transformer with pumps running before the
cold resistance is measured.
b) The temperature of the insulating liquid has stabilized, and the
difference between top and bottom temperature does not exceed 5 C.

5.1.3 Transformer windings out of insulating liquid

The temperature of the windings shall be recorded as the average of
several thermometers or thermocouples inserted between the coils, with
care used to see that their measuring points are as nearly as possible in
actual contact with the winding conductors. It should not be assumed that
the windings are at the same temperature as the surrounding air.
5.2 Conversion of resistance measurements
Cold winding resistance measurements are normally converted to a
standard reference temperature (Ts) equal to the rated average winding
temperature rise plus 20 C. In addition, it may be necessary to convert
the resistance measurements to the temperature at which the impedance
loss measurements were made. The conversions are accomplished by
Equation (1):
Rs = Rm * (Ts +Tk)/(Tm+Tk) (1)
where
Rs
Rm
Ts
Tm
Tk

is the resistance at desired temperature Ts ()

is the measured resistance ()
is the desired reference temperature (C)
is the temperature at which resistance was measured (C)
is 234.5 C (copper) or 225 C (aluminum)

NOTEThe value of Tk may be as high as 230 C for alloyed aluminum.

5.3 Resistance measurement methods
5.3.1 Voltmeterammeter method

The voltmeter-ammeter method is the most common method used

for transformer winding resistance measurement. Resistancemeasuring systems employing computer-controlled digital
voltmeters, current measuring shunts, and/or digital ammeters of
appropriate accuracy are commonly used for cold-resistance
measurements and in connection with temperature-rise
determinations.
To use this method, the following steps should be taken:
a) Measurement is made with direct current, and simultaneous
readings of current and voltage are taken using the
connections in Figure 1. The required resistance is calculated
from the readings in accordance with Ohms Law. Electronic
switching power supplies may be used as voltage sources;
however, batteries or filtered rectifiers may also be used,
especially in instances where less ripple is desired in the
measurement. Automatic recording of the resistance data is
recommended so that the time to saturation and the
variability of the resistance readings after stabilization can be
documented.

b) The voltmeter leads shall be independent of the current leads

and shall be connected as closely as possible to the terminals
of the winding to be measured. This step is to avoid including
in the reading the resistances of current-carrying leads and
their contacts and of extra lengths of leads.
c) When making manual resistance measurements:
1) The measuring instruments shall have ranges that are close to
full scale to minimize errors of observation.
2) The voltmeter may be disconnected from the circuit before
switching the current on or off to protect the voltmeter from injury
by off-scale deflections. To protect test personnel from inductive
kick, the current may be switched off by a suitably insulated switch
with a protective circuit to discharge the energy.
3) Due to inaccuracy of deflecting ammeters and voltmeters,
current shunts and digital voltmeters or high-accuracy digital
ammeters or other high accuracy instrumentation should be used
that meets the requirement of IEEE Std C57.12.00.
d) Resistance is recommended to be measured at intervals of 5 s
to 10 s, and the readings used shall be after the current and
voltage have reached steady-state values.
When measuring the cold resistance, preparatory to making a heat
run, note the time required for the readings to become constant.
That period of time should be allowed to elapse before taking the
first reading when final winding hot-resistance measurements are
being made. The residual flux in the core should be made the same
for both the cold-resistance and hot-resistance measurements by
saturating the core with direct current prior to the measurement.
In general, the winding will exhibit a long time constant. To reduce
the time required for the current to reach its steady-state value, a
noninductive external resistor may be added in series with the dc
source. It may then be necessary to increase the source voltage to
compensate for the voltage drop in the series resistor. The time will
also be reduced by passing a direct current through other windings
in either the same polarity as the winding being tested for windings
on the same phase or opposite polarity for other phases during

these tests. For delta-connected windings, the time can also be

reduced by opening the delta connection.
e) It is recommended that ten or more readings, but a minimum
of four readings, should be used for each cold-resistance
measurement, and the average of the resistances calculated
from these measurements shall be considered to be the
resistance of the circuit. The current used shall not exceed
15% of the rated current of the winding whose resistance is to
be measured. Larger values may cause inaccuracy by heating
the winding and thereby changing its temperature and
resistance.
5.4 Resistance measurement connections and reporting
The individual phase- or terminal-to-terminal resistance readings
shall be reported along with the sum total winding resistance.
5.4.1 Wye windings
For wye windings, the reported resistance measurement may be
from terminal to terminal or from terminal to neutral. For the
reported total winding resistance, the resistance of the lead from
the neutral connection to the neutral bushing may be excluded. For
terminal-to-terminal measurements, the total resistance reported is
the sum of the three measurements divided by two.
5.4.2 Delta windings
For delta windings, the reported resistance measurement may be
from terminal to terminal with the delta closed or from terminal to
terminal with the delta open to obtain the individual phase readings.
The reported total winding resistance is the sum of the three phase
readings if the delta is open. If the delta is closed, the reported total
winding resistance is the sum of the three phase-to-phase readings
times 1.5.
Electric Power Transformer Engineering
17.6.3 Winding Resistance Measurements
17.6.3.1 Purpose of Winding Resistance Measurements
Measurements of dc winding resistance are of fundamental importance
because they form the basis for determining the following:
Resistance measurements, taken at known temperatures, are used in the
calculation of winding conductor I^2*R losses. The I^2*R losses at known
temperatures are used to correct the measured load losses to a standard
reference temperature. Correction of load losses is discussed in
Resistance measurements, taken at known temperatures, provide the basis to
determine the temperature of the same winding at a later time by measuring
the resistance again. From the change in resistance, the change in
temperature can be deduced. This measurement is employed to determine

average winding temperatures at the end of heat run tests. Taking resistance
measurements after a heat run test is discussed in Section 17.6.4.
Resistance measurements across the transformer terminals provide an
assessment of the quality of internal connections made to the transformer
windings. Loose or defective connections are indicated by unusually high or
unstable resistance readings.
17.6.3.2 Nature of the Quantity Being Measured
The dc winding resistance differs from the value of resistance indicated for the
resistor shown in Figure 17.16 or the resistors that appear in textbook
illustrations of the PI or T equivalent circuits of transformers to represent the
resistance of the windings. The resistors in the equivalent circuits include the
effects of winding I^2*R loss, eddy loss in the windings, stray losses in
structural parts, and circulating currents in parallel conductorsnamely, they
represent the resistive components of the load loss. The resistors shown in
the equivalent circuits can be thought of as representing an equivalent ac
resistance of the windings. The dc resistance of the windings is a different
quantity, one that is relevant for calculating I^2*R, for determining average
winding temperature, and for evaluating electrical connections.
17.6.3.3 How Winding-Resistance Measurements Are Made
The measurement of power transformer winding resistance is normally done
using the voltmeter ammeter method or using a ratio metric method to display
the voltage-current ratio directly. A circuit for the measurement of winding
resistance is shown in Figure 17.17. A dc source is used to establish the flow
of steady direct current in the transformer winding to be measured. After the
R-L transient has subsided, simultaneous readings are taken of the voltage
across the winding and the current through the winding. The resistance of the
winding is determined from these readings based on Ohms law.

17.6.3.4 Discussion of the Measurement Process

If a dc voltage is applied as a step to a series R-L circuit, the current will rise
exponentially with a time constant of L/R. This is familiar for the case where

both resistance and inductance remain constant during the transient period.
For a transformer winding, however, it is possible for the true resistance, the
apparent resistance, and the inductance of the winding to change with time.
The true resistance may change if the direct current is of high-enough
magnitude and is applied long enough to heat the winding substantially,
thereby changing its resistance during the measurement. The inductance
changes with time because of the nonlinear B-H curve of the core steel and
varies in accordance with the slope of the core-steel saturation curve. In
addition, there is an apparent resistance, Ra, during the transient period.
Ra =V/I=R+(L/I)*I
Note that the apparent resistance, Ra, is higher than the true resistance, R,
during the transient period and that the apparent resistance derived from the
voltmeter and ammeter readings equals the true resistance only after the
transient has subsided.
Resistance measurement error due to heating of the winding conductor is
usually not a problem in testing transformers, but the possibility of this effect
should be taken into consideration, especially for some low-current
distribution transformer windings where the dc current can be significant
compared with the rated current. It is more likely that errors will occur because
of meter readings taken before core saturation is achieved. The process
involved in core saturation is described below.
Compared with the exponential current-versus-time relationship for the R-L
circuit with constant R and constant L, the current in a transformer winding,
when a dc voltage is first applied, rises slowly. The slow rate of rise comes
about because of the high initial impedance of the winding. The initially high
impedance results from the large effective inductance of the winding with its
iron core. As the current slowly increases, the flux density in the core slowly
rises until the core begins to saturate. At this point, the winding no longer
behaves like an iron-core coil and instead behaves like an air-core coil, with
relatively low inductance. The rate of rise of the current increases for a period
as the core saturates; then the current levels off at a steady-state value.
Typical shapes for the voltage, current, and apparent resistance are shown in
Figure 17.18. The magnitude of the dc voltage affects the rate at which flux
builds up in the core, since V = N(d/dt). The higher the magnitude of the dc
voltage, the shorter is the time to saturation because of a higher value for
d/dt. At the same time, though, the coil must be able to provide the required
magneto motive force in ampere turns, N I, needed to force the core into
saturation, which leads to a minimum value for the dc current. Of course,
there is an upper limit to the value for dc current, namely the point at which
conductor heating would disturb the resistance measurement.
Note the time scale of the graph in Figure 17.18. It is very important that the
steady-state dc current be attained before meter readings are taken. If this is
not done, errors in excess of 20% are easily realized.

17.6.3.5 Winding Resistance and Average Winding Temperature

Two of the three purposes listed above for measuring the dc resistance of a
transformer winding inherently involve a concomitant measurement of
temperature. When measuring resistance for the purpose of calculating I^2*R
at a given temperature, the I^2*R value obtained will be used to determine the
load-loss value at a different temperature. When the winding resistance is
measured before and during a heat run, the determination of average winding
temperature at the end of a heat run test requires knowledge of winding
resistance at two temperatures.
The winding dc resistance at two temperatures, T1 and T2, will have values of
R1 and R2, respectively, at the two temperatures. The functional relationship
between winding resistance and average temperature is shown in Equation
17.4:
R1/R2 = T1+Tk / T2+Tk (17.4)
Where
R1 is the value of winding resistance, corresponding to average winding
temperature of T1
R2 is the value of winding resistance, corresponding to average winding
temperature of T2
Tk is 234.5C for copper, 225C for aluminum
Correction of load loss for temperature is covered in Section 17.6.2.
Determination of average winding temperature in a heat run test is covered in
Section 17.6.4.
J&P Transformer Handbook
Resistance of windings

The DC resistances of both HV and LV windings can be measured simply by

the voltmeter/ammeter method and this information provides the data
necessary to permit the separation of I^2*R and eddy-current losses in the
windings. This is necessary in order that transformer performances may be
calculated at any specified temperature.
The voltmeter/ammeter method is not entirely satisfactory and a more
accurate method such as measurement with the Wheatstone or Kelvin double
bridge