CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS FOR

PROTECTIVE RELAYING
B. R. Ravishankar, G. Girija & Swaraj Kumar Das
In electrical system, the current transformers and voltage transformers are used to
measure the current and voltage signals to the protective relays for tripping the
protective devices in case of faults.
The main functions of current and voltage transformers are:
To transform currents or voltages from usually a high value to a value easy to

handle for relays and instruments.

To insulate the relays, metering and instruments from the primary high-

voltage system.
To provide possibilities of standardizing the relays and instruments, etc. to a

few rated currents and voltages.

Using the current / voltage value received from instrument transformer, the relay
generates in turn a tripping order according to the type of protection it provides and
the values at which it has been preset. This order is transmitted to one or more
breaking devices (circuit-breaker, contactor etc.,).
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTS)
Generally, CTs are classified as metering CTs, Protective CTs and Protective CTs for
special purpose applications. The latter two are intended to be connected to protective
relays. For large magnitude, close in faults, current transformer may saturate. But it
should provide sufficient current to operate the relay positively.
An instrument CT requires good accuracy around the nominal current value. The
metering instruments do not need to withstand currents as high as the protection
relays. This is why the instrument CTs, unlike the protection CTs, have the
lowest possible Safety Factor (SF) in order to protect these instruments through
earlier.
Protective Current Transformer
Protective current transformer are specified by three factors
1. Class of accuracy
2. Rated accuracy limit factor
3. VA rating.
Protection CTs are required to saturate sufficiently high to allow a relatively
accurate measurement of the fault current by the protection whose operating threshold
can be very high. Current transformers are thus expected to have an Accuracy Limit
Factor (ALF) that is usually high. The associated relay must be able to withstand
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high overcurrents. Protective CTs carry designation P, a maximum of 5 or 10 % a

corresponding VA burden, at rated current and an accuracy limit factor.
For example, 30 VA class 5P10, 5 A CT is compatible with a 30 VA continuous
burden at 5 A. This corresponds to a 6 V output. It produces no more than 5 % error at
10 X 6 = 60 V. The permissible burden is 30 / (5x5) = 1.2.
Protective CTS for Special Purpose Applications (Class PS Protection CT's)
These CTs should have matching characteristics since they are used in balanced
protection system like differential relays, distance relays etc.
For these CTs, secondary excitation characteristic, secondary winding resistance,
secondary burden resistance and turns ratio are sufficient to assess its performance in
relation to the protective relay system with which it is to be used
These CTs are specified as
1. Turns ratio.
2. Knee point voltage Vkp and Maximum exciting current at Vkp.
3. CT secondary resistance.
Errors in Current Transformer
All types of CTs will have its own errors. For instrument / metering CTs accuracy is
very important. But for protective CTs high accuracy is of less importance at rated
current and reasonable accuracy is required at fault currents. We shall now see the
source of errors in a current transformer.
In current transformer, the primary is connected in series with the network, which
means that the primary current (and secondary current) is not affected by secondary
burden. If the exciting current could be neglected, the transformer should reproduce
the primary current without errors and the following equation should apply to the primary and secondary currents:
Ip

I2

Is

Rct

Ie
Rb
Es
Lm

Rw

Fig.1. Equivalent Circuit of Current Transformer

Xb

Is = Np / Ns * Ip
In reality however, it is not possible to neglect the exciting current. Figure below
shows a simplified equivalent current transformer diagram converted to the secondary
side.
Fig. 1 shows that not all the primary current passes through the secondary circuit. Part
of it is consumed by the core, which means that the primary current is not reproduced
exactly. The equivalent diagram comprises all quantities necessary for error
calculations. The secondary internal impedance, however, must be taken into account,
but only the winding resistance Rct. The leakage reactance is negligible where
continuous ring cores and uniformly distributed secondary windings are concerned.
The exiting impedance is represented by an inductive reactance in parallel with a
resistance. Im and Iw are the reactive and loss components of the exiting current.
The error in the reproduction will appear both in amplitude and phase. The error in
amplitude is called current or ratio error and the error in phase is called phase error or
phase displacement. The corresponding vector representation would be as below:
In Fig. 2, Is represents the secondary current. It flows through the impedance of the
secondary winding and the burden which determines the magnitude and direction of
the necessary induced voltage Es and of the flux which is perpendicular to the
voltage vector. This flux is maintained by the exciting current Ie, having a
magnetizing component Im parallel to the flux , and a loss (or active) component Ia
parallel to the voltage. The vector sum of the secondary current Is and the exciting
current Ie is the vector I p representing the primary current divided by the turns ratio
(number of secondary turns to number of primary turns). Thus, for a current
transformer with turns ratio equal to the rated transformation ratio, the difference in
the lengths of the vectors Is and I p, related to the length of I p, is the current error ,
and the angular difference is the phase displacement.

Fig. 2
So, Errors in protective current transformers are defined as below.

Current Error (Ratio Error)

The error which a transformer introduces into the measurement of a current and which
arises from the fact that the actual transformation ratio is not equal to the rated
transformation ratio

E=

Kn.Is Ip
x100
Ip

where
Kn
Ip
Is

is the rated transformation ratio;

is the actual primary current;
is the actual secondary current when Ip is flowing, under the conditions of
measurement.

Phase Error

The difference in angle between the primary and secondary current vectors, the
direction of the vectors being chosen that the angle is zero for a perfect transformer.
The phase error is said to be positive when the secondary current vector leads the
primary current vector and vice versa. Its usually expressed in minutes or
centiradians.
Composite Error

The composite error Ec is generally expressed as a percentage of the r.m.s. values of

the primary current according to the formula:

100
Ec =
Ip

1
T

(Kn

is ip

)2

dt

where
Kn
Ip
ip
is
T

is the rated transformation ratio,

is the r.m.s. value of the primary current,
is the instantaneous value of the primary current,
is the instantaneous value of the secondary current, and
is the duration of one cycle.

Importance of Composite Error

The numerical value of the composite error will never be less than the vector sum of
ratio error and the phase error (the latter being expressed in centiradians).
Consequently, the composite error is always a true expression for the maximum value
of ratio error or phase error. When the power factor of the total load is known, it is
possible to estimate the ratio error and the phase error.

The current error is of particular interest in the operation of overcurrent relays, and
the phase displacement in the operation of phase sensitive relays (e.g. directional
relays).
In the case of differential relays, it is the combination of the composite errors of the
current transformers involved which must be considered.
For burdens between 50 percent and 100 percent of the rated burden, it is usually
conservative to estimate the composite error proportionally lower, but no estimate can
be made for greater burdens.
An additional advantage of a limitation of composite error is the resulting limitation
of the harmonic content of the secondary current which is necessary for the correct
operation of certain types of relays.
The limits of current error, phase displacement and composite error for protective CTs
are specified in standard as below:
Current error at Phase displacement at
Composite error at
Accuracy
rated primary
rated accuracy limit
rated primary current
Class
current
primary current
%
min
%
5P
1
60
5
10P
3
10
Importance of CT ALF

Accuracy limit Factor is defined as the multiple of rated primary current up to which
the transformer will comply with the requirements of 'Composite
Error'. Composite Error is the deviation from an ideal CT (as in Current Error), but
takes account of harmonics in the secondary current caused by
non-linear magnetic conditions through the cycle at higher flux densities.
Class 5P and 10P protective current transformers are generally used in overcurrent
and unrestricted earth fault protection.
Protective CT has to be accurate in the events of fault involving higher currents. This
is necessary so that operation of the relay is ensured. Accuracy Limit Factor ALF
defines the accuracy limit current as multiple of the rated primary current. i.e. the
current transformer have to maintain its specified accuracy upto ALF times of full
load primary current. This necessitates bigger core and hence size of the CTs are
generally higher.
When choosing a CT out of the standard CTs, it is necessary to keep in mind the
relationship linking the nominal ALF (linked to Rn) and the real ALF linked to the
real load Rp.

Importance of Turns Ratio

The ratio between the number of turns on the secondary winding and the number of
urns on the secondary. The turns ratio of the special purpose current transformer
determined shall not differ from the specified ratio by more than 0.25 percent.
It should be noted that as the turns ratio error is limited, transformers of this class are
suitable for protective schemes requiring close balance of the secondary currents from
different phases or circuits. Such current transformers should be so designed that
balance is maintained within the protective system when maximum through-fault
current is flowing through the primary windings of the current transformer used for
this system, that is, stability of the protection should be assured, whether in the
transient or in the steady state, upto the maximum through fault current which can be
passed in service through their primary windings.
Current Transformers of class PS shall be of low reactance and this may be
established in any of the ways described below.
a) The core is of the jointless ring type (including spirally wound cores).
b) The secondary turns are substantially evenly distributed along the whole length of
the magnetic circuit except that a circumferential spacing which does not exceed 20
mm on the outer periphery or which subtends an angle between radii not exceeding 30
degree, whichever is greater, is permissible between the two ends of the winding.
c) The primary conductor(s) passes through the approximate centre of the core
aperture or is approximately evenly distributed along the whole length of the magnetic
circuit.
d) Flux equalizing windings, where employed to meet the requirements of design,
consist of at last four parallel connected coils, evenly distributed along with whole
length of the magnetic circuit, each coil occupying one quadrant.
Such an arrangement ensures substantially even flux distribution within the core
irrespective of the presence of stray flux which may result from such conditions as the
close proximity of the return primary conductor.
Characterising CTs According To Applications

Different equipments need different types of protections like line incomers and
feeders, transformers, busbars, generators, motors, capacitor banks, etc.
Each component requires the use of several protections. However, to optimise choice
of a CT, it is important to know which protections it supplies, as well as their settings,
real impedance, short-circuit current, etc. For this reason it is required to study the
various applications.
A CT can supply several different protections either separate or grouped in a multiprotection system. This leads us to examine the protections determining CT sizing.

Some Operational Aspects

Differential Protection

A differential protection monitors an area limited by CTs which measure incoming

and outgoing currents. If the outgoing currents are not consistent with the incoming
currents, this is normally because a fault has occurred in the protected area.
In healthy conditions, the input current ie is identical to the output current is and
thus the differential current id = 0. Refer Fig.3. (High end differential principle), is
shown on the next page. A high fault current can flow through the monitored area and
cause CT saturation, hence the risk of nuisance tripping of the protection (non
stability). The stability of the relay is obtained by connecting it in series with a
stabilising resistance Rst.
This resistance is calculated in such a way that the derived current in the differential
circuit (Rst + Rp) cannot reach the relay setting threshold when the maximum through
current saturates a CT with its DC component. This results in:
(Rst + Rp) (Rct + 2 RL) Issc/Ir
Ie

Is

Application

(monitored area)
i'e

id

i's
Rst

Protection
(Rp)

Fig.3. High end differential principle

where
Issc = maximum through current observed at the CT secondary,
Ir = relay secondary setting current.
Rst may vary between a few ohms and a few hundred ohms (exceptionally it may be
greater than 1000 ohms).
For the relay to operate properly at Ir if a fault occurs in the area, the knee point
voltage Vk must be greater than:
2 (Rst + Rp + Rct + 2 RL) Ir.
Rct + 2 RL are negligible compared with Rst + Rp thus:
Vk 2 Ir (Rst + Rp).
By combining the above equations, it becomes:
Vk 2 Issc (Rct + 2 RL).
These equations show that Rst and Vk have greater values when Rct is high.
The result of these observations is that the CTs are optimised if Rct and Vk are as low
as possible and if the through current (seen from the CT secondary, i.e. Issc) is
defined without excess.
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Testing of Current Transformer

Since CTs are an important component of power system, it is necessary to test them
comprehensively. Following tests are specified in standards [IEC 60044-1 & IS 2705
(Part 1, 2, 3 & 4)]. There are different requirements for Metering CTs, Protective CTs
and Protective CTs for special purpose applications.
Type Tests

Short-time current test

Temperature-rise test
Lightning impulse test
Switching impulse test
Wet test for outdoor type transformers
Radio interference voltage measurements
Determination of errors
Instrument security factor
Composite error
Proof of low reactance

Routine Tests

The following tests apply to each individual transformer.

Verification of terminal markings and polarity

Power-frequency withstand test on primary winding
Power-frequency withstand test on secondary windings
Power-frequency withstand tests, between sections
Partial discharge measurement
Inter-turn overvoltage test
Determination of errors
Instrument security factor
Composite error
Rated knee point e.m.f. and maximum exciting current
Secondary winding resistance
Turns ratio

Special Tests

The following tests are carried out upon agreement between manufacturer and
purchaser:

Chopped lightning impulse test

Measurement of capacitance and dielectric dissipation factor
Multiple chopped impulse test on primary winding
Mechanical tests
Measurement of transmitted over voltages

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

Voltage transformers are either connected directly to the power system or

across a section of capacitor string connected between phase and ground (CCVTs).
Either type of transformer provides excellent reproduction of primary voltage, both
transient and steady state for protection functions.
An Inductive voltage transformer is very similar to conventional two-winding
transformer. If the voltage drops could be neglected, the transformer should reproduce
the primary voltage without errors. In reality, however, it is not possible to neglect the
voltage drops in the winding resistances and the leakage reactances. The primary
voltage is therefore not reproduced exactly. The equation between the voltages will in
this case be:
Us = {(Ns / Np) X Up} - U Where U is the voltage drop.

(Ns/Np)xIpZp

Up

Is

Ie

IsZs

IsZb

Us

Fig. 4 Equivalent circuit of inductive voltage transformer

A capacitor voltage transformer consists of HV Capacitor, intermediate voltage
capacitor forming a capacitive divider and an inductive intermediate voltage
transformer.
The
intermediate
terminal
from
the
divider
is
taken out from side wall under the porcelain cylinder to
the
inner electromagnetic unit.
A schematic of a CVT is given in the following diagram. The input voltage E1 is
transformed to voltage E2 at the HV divider output. This voltage is further reduced by
an IVT to E3.
The ratio of the capacitive divider is K1= C1+C2/C1 = E1/E2
The ratio of the intermediate voltage transformer is E2/E3
The total ratio factor is therefore K1 x K2

Typically, only C1 differs and a standard intermediate transformer is used for all
primary voltages. The intermediate voltage transformer (IVT) also contains reactors for
compensation of the capacitive voltage regulation.
The capacitor voltage transformer has a double function, one for metering/protection
and one for power line communications (PLC).

C1

E1
E2

C2

E3

Fig. 5 Equivalent circuit of capacitor voltage transformer

E1 input voltage
E2 Output voltage from divider
E3 output voltage from CVT
C1, C2 Divider capacitance
Important Considerations in Operation of Voltage Transformers

Rated voltage
Rated voltage factor
Burdens and accuracy classes
Transient response
Ferroresonance
The performance of a voltage transformer is based on its rated primary and secondary
voltage. Unlike CT, It is generally seen that the variation of accuracy within a wide
range of voltages is very small. The transformers will therefore supply a secondary
voltage at good accuracy even when the primary voltage varies considerably from the
rated voltage.

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Voltage transformers are usually connected phase to earth. In the event of a

disturbance in the network, the voltage across the voltage transformer may sometimes
be increased even up to the voltage factor (Vf) times the nominal rated performance
voltage.
Standard specifies following Vf:
1.9 for systems not being solidly earthed
1.5 for systems with solidly earthed neutral.
The duration is specified to be 30 seconds if automatic fault tripping is used during
earth faults, in other cases 8 hours. Because of the above-mentioned requirement the
voltage transformers operate with low flux density at rated voltage. The voltage
transformer core must not be saturated at the voltage factor.
An inductive voltage transformer has negligible deviations at different temperatures,
while capacitor voltage transformers may have more temperature dependence. The
accuracy class and rated burden are normally selected as follows:
The accuracy class for a protective voltage transformer is designated by the highest
permissible percentage voltage error prescribed for the accuracy class concerned,
from 5% of rated voltage to a voltage corresponding to the rated voltage factor. This
expression is followed by the letter P for protective voltage transformers. The
standard accuracy classes for protective voltage transformers are 3P and 6P.
Limits of voltage error and phase displacement is given in standard as below.
Accuracy class
Percentage voltage error
Phase displacement(min)
3P
3.0
120
6P
6.0
240
The pollution requirements of voltage transformer insulators are the same as described for current transformers.
When a primary short-circuit occurs, the discharge of the energy stored in the capacitive and inductive elements of the transformer will result in a transient voltage
oscillation on the secondary side. Specific requirements are put on capacitor voltage
transformer to reproduce rapid voltage changes, for instance when a short circuit
occurs in the network. This ensures that the protective relays function correctly. In an
inductive voltage transformer only the fast high frequency oscillation occurs. The
dominating low frequency oscillations in the capacitor voltage transformer do not
occur since there are no capacitors in the inductive voltage transformers.
Ferroresonance is a potential source of transient over-voltages. Switching, blown
fuses, and broken conductors can result in over-voltages which when ferroresonance
occurs between the magnetizing impedance of a transformer and the system
capacitance of the isolated phase or phases. Another example of ferroresonance
occurring is when an inductive voltage transformer is connected in parallel with a
large grading capacitor across the gap of a circuit breaker. Ferro-resonance occurs in
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circuits containing a capacitor and a reactor incorporating an iron core (a non-linear

inductance).
A capacitor voltage transformer with its capacitor divider and its intermediate voltage
transformer with non-linear magnetizing characteristics therefore is a typical source of
resonance. The phenomenon would normally be initiated if the core of the
intermediate voltage transformer gets saturated, for example during a switching
operation. A resonance oscillation, normally having a frequency lower than the
normal 50-60 Hz, may then be initiated and superposed on the normal frequency
voltage and may last a long time if it is not efficiently damped.
A ferroresonance oscillation, which is not damped out efficiently, is dangerous for the
transformer. Under such circumstances the core of the intermediate voltage
transformer works at full saturation and the magnetizing current might be large, so
that there is a risk of a failure. A damping arrangement that damps any resonance
oscillations effectively is thus a necessity. The standards specify certain requirements
on the damping and these tests should be performed in order to verify that these are
fulfilled.
Potential Transformer Testing

Following tests are specified in standards [IEC 60044-2 & IS 3156 (Part 1)].
Type Tests

a) Temperature rise test

b) Lightning impulse test for voltage transformers for service in electrically exposed
installation
c) Switching impulse voltage tests for voltage transformers of 420 kV and above
d) High voltage power frequency wet withstand voltage tests on outdoor voltage
transformers up to and including 245 kV
e) Determination of errors or other characteristics according to the requirements of the
appropriate designation or accuracy class
Routine Tests

The following tests apply to each individual transformer.

a) Verification of terminal marking and polarity
b) Power frequency dry withstand tests on primary windings
c) Power frequency dry withstand tests on secondary windings
d) Partial discharge measurement
e) Determination of errors or other characteristics according to the requirements of the
appropriate designation or accuracy class

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Special Tests

The following tests are performed upon agreement between manufacturer and
purchaser:
a) Chopped lighting impulse test as a type test
b) Short circuit withstand capability test as a type test
c) Commissioning test on non-earthed voltage transformers of up to and including
36 kV
REFERENCES

Introduction to Instrument Transformer by Brian D. Jenkins.

Cahier technique no. 194 Current transformers: how to specify them by

Paola Fonti Schneider Electric

IEC 60044-1:2003-02 - Instrument Transformers Part 1: Current

Transformers.

IEC 60044-2:2003-02 - Instrument Transformers Part 2: Inductive Voltage

Transformers.

IS 2705 (Part 1) : 1992 (Reaffirmed 2002) Current Transformers

Specification Part 1: General requirements.

IS 2705 (Part 3) : 1992 (Reaffirmed 2002) Current Transformers

Specification Part 3: Protective Current Transformers.

IS 2705 (Part 4) : 1992 (Reaffirmed 2002) Current Transformers

Specification Part 4: Protective Current Transformers for special purpose
applications

IS 3156 (Part 1) : 1992 (Reaffirmed 2002) Voltage Transformers

Specification Part 1: General requirements.

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