CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION
LED-based moving-message displays are becoming popular for transmitting information
to large groups of people quickly. These can be used indoors or outdoors. We can find such
displays in areas like railway platforms, banks, public offices, hotels, training institutes,
nightclubs and shops. Compared to LEDs, liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) are easy to
interface with a microcontroller for displaying information as these have many built-in
functions. But these cant be observed from a distance and large size LCDs are very costly.
LED-based displays can be of two types: dot-matrix and segmental. If you implement a
moving-message display with multiplexed dot-matrix LEDs, it will be very costly for
displaying 16 characters or more at a time. Moreover, programming will require a lot of
data memory or program memory space.
An external RAM may be needed to complement a microcontroller
likeAT89s52.However, if you use alphanumeric (16-segment LED) displays for the above
purpose, programming burdenis reduced and also it becomes highly cost-effective. You
can make your own display panel consisting of 16 alphanumeric characters at a much
lower cost. The circuit presented here uses 16 common-anode, single-digit, alphanumeric
displays to show 16 characters at a time.
Moreover, programming has been done to make the characters movein a beautiful
manner. A message appears on the panel from the right side, stays for a few seconds when
the first character reaches the leftmost place and then goes out from the left side. It
displays 16 different messages to depict different occasions, which can be selected by the
user through a DIP controlling electronic devices from a 89s52 is fun. Here is a scrolling
message display that mares use of the micro controller out put port. The Massage typed
from the keyboard of the PC is displayed on the light-emitting diodes arranged as 5x7 ldmatrix display in moving message format.
.

The PC; computer key board parallel port (LPT PORT) is used to output the

display code and the clock signal for the scrolling message display. The parallel ports in
terminated into a 25-pin D-type female connector at the back of the PC IBM PCs usually
come with one or two LPT ports. Each parallel port is actually made up l of three ports
namely. Data part, status port and control port. Here only data port is used scrolling
PROGRAM REACHES THE END of the message it starts from the beginning again To

change the text being displayed, exit the program by pressing Esc and edit the message txt
file using Notepad. After making changes to the message txt file save it and execute the
scroll.exe file. The program makes use of the out port b0 function which works perfectly
only on Windows 95/98 However the program may not work with the latest window
versions such as windows 2000/x When you try to save changes in the message txt file the
window shows an error saying Cant save message txt.
It is being used by some other application. This is because the scroll.exe file is
running. SO EXIT sacrilege file is running. So Esc key then save your changes made to
the massage txt file and run the scroll.exe file. Now you can view your changes in k the
message being displayed. The program does not show special characters like and It has
been developed for displaying alphabets (A through Z) digits (o through 9) and some
special characters like and Other special characters can be added as follows, Suppose you
want to display character A Draw A on the 5x7 LED display as shown in Fig 3. First 7CH
data is available at the input of IC2 and the first flip-flop of IC8 When a clock pulse is
received this data (7CH ) is output by IC2 and the first flip-flop of IC8 and new data 12H
arrives at f the input pin of IC2 and the first flip-flop of IC8 .
The output data of IC2 and the first flip-flop of IC8 becomes the input for IC3 and
the second flip-flop of IC8 When the next clock pulse is received 7CH data become
available at the output of IC3 and output of second flip-flop of IC8. 12 IS AVAILABLE
at the output of IC2 and the first flip-flop of IC8 and new data 11H is available at the
input of IC2 and the first flip-flop of IC8 This process continues until the message
completes. Now lets assume that you want to display < for this first draw this symbol on
the 5x7 matrix as shown in Assuming glowing LED as 1 converts the binary column
sequence into hexadecimal for all the five columns as shown in the figure. Finally add the
following lines in the software p r o g r a m where the comment Add your codes here
appears. Save the file and compile the program again on executing the program you can
watch < being displayed on the message display.
Other special characters can be added in the same way This project shows as to
how you can use the Atmel microcontroller AT89s52 to drive an LCD display module and
in turn use it as a handheld device to set the parameters of a control unit through RS 232
serial link. The circuit show the circuits of a microcontroller driven control unit and

microcontroller-driven handheld device comprising LCD module, Ports P0 and P2 of the

microcontroller have been configured to act as a common data bus for all the 16
alphanumeric displays whose corresponding data pins have been tied together to make a
common 16-bit data bus. Port-2 provides the higher byte of data, while port-0 provides the
lower one to light up a character on the display. Port pins P1.2-P1.4 and P1.5-P1.7 of the
microcontroller have been used as address inputs for decoder IC3 and IC4 (74LS138) to
enable one of the fourteen alphanumeric displays (DIS3 through DIS16) at a time,
respectively. However, displays DIS1 and DIS2 are enabled or disabled directly by port
pins P1.0 and P1.1. Pins 4 and 5 are grounded and pin 6 is made high to enable
decoder74LS138.the pin configuration of the common-anode alphanumeric display.

CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLE & WORKING

2. PRINCIPLE & WORKING

The circuit around IC1 (IC A T89s 52) is configured as a control unit while the circuit
around ICD driver unit The two unit are connected via an RS232 serial link. The

combination of an 8.2 k resistor and a 10uF capacitor provides hardware power on IC1
and IC at their pin 9. An 11.059MHz crystal is connected between pins 18 and 19 of
microcontrollers IC1 and IC2 each to generate the required click and baud rate of 9600
eight LEDs are connected to pins 39 through 32 (PO.7) of IC1, so we can see the status of
each pin of port 0. Txd (pin11) and Rxd (10pin) are used to transmit and receive serial data
through IC MAX232 .IC3 and IC4 (MAX232. IC3 and serve the purpose of linking the
microcontrollers.
Pin 14(T1OUT) of IC3 is connected to pin 13 (R1IN) of IC4 and vice versa the
control unit contains the program control unit contains the program contr. asm to send and
receive data to the handheld directive data to the handheld device (LCD module). IC2
contains the program module the program module asm to drive the LCD a 16- character x
4-row LCD display is used to display the day month-year. The LCD module is interfaced
through 8 bit data bus of IC2 on its port 2 (pins 21 through28) These pins are pulled high
through the 10k resistor network Internal registers of the LCD module are selected pin 1
(p1.0) of LCD module are connected to pins 22 (p1.1 )and 3 (p1.2) of IC2 respectively
Backlight current (intensity)is controlled through series resistor R12 at pin 16 if the LCD
module The contrast and viewing angle are controlled through preset VR1 at pin 3 of the
LCD module.
Four pins of port 1 (pins 4 through7) are used to sense which key has been pressed
The keys are Esc ok up and Down usually pins 4 through 7 are held high through 4.7 k
resistors but any of the pins can be pulled down using the corresponding switches S1
through S4 RS-232 link between the two circuits serves the purpose of transferring serial
data from one microcontroller to the other. The functioning of the system depends on the
fact that multiple LEDs when glow together they can be used to display some message.
The problem is with the fact that in order to control so many LEDs we will need equal
number of ports and such a circuit will consume large amounts of current. In order to cope
with this the system is designed as a scanning display such that only one of the 7 rows is
activated.

2.1 Principle

It is assumed that the control unit has some basic data say, someones birthday
stored in it .The day, month and the year data are stored at 30H, and 32H RAM locations
respectively. When the remote handheld device (LCD module) is connected to the control
unit through RS- 232 link IC MAX 232, IC2 is reset to start functioning. The data stored
in the control unit is displayed on the LCD screen. The user can then select the data
change the data, increment or decrement it using Up or Down key, and then transfer the
data back to the control unit. RAM locations are reserved for saving various variables such
as the days units and tens digits. One location (45H) has been defined for sensing the flag
to find whether serial ports has been interrupted or not. Port pins connected to pins 4
through 6 of the LCD module are defined as rs rw and en keys Esc Ok Up and down is
defined as port 1, which are connected to pins 4 through 7 of IC2, respectively. The main
program starts at location 0000H, while a jump instruction has been set at location 0023H
for the serial port interrupt service routine (ISR ) Whenever the serial port is interrupted,
the program is automatically branched to location 0023H.
Start the main program starts at location 0030H Initially the stack pointer is
initialized to some safe location where it will not get disturbed by normal routines of the
program. Timer I is set as a NOT gated timer for 8-bit auto-reload function mode. The
reload value of I is set for generating a baud rate of 9600 bits per second. The SCON
register is set for Mode 1 Operation and is kept ready for reception. Start timer 1 and set
the required interrupt request bits as enabled. The interrupt flag is kept cleared to start.
Now in Fig.3 A few steps after the clr intflg instruction and before step l are for initializing
the LCD module. Step 1. screen 1, screen 2, etc to be displayed on the LCD module are
predefined as scr 1, scr 2, etc at respective location As the program enters step 1, it first
screen to be displayed. The setup subroutine displays the screen. The first screen displayed
is a welcome massage. The program waits for the user to press Ok key to come out from
the welcome screen display. When the user presses OK Key the program control passes to
The program now displays the Birthday screen, indicating day, month, and year. A small
arrow pointer (> ) indicator gets added at Collocations COHso the arrow points at day
indicating that the parameter day is being selected.
The first character of each line on the LCD module has unique adders. The firs
character of first, second, third and fourth lines have address as 80HA, C0H, 90H, and
D0H, respectively. As the program executes the add day, add month, and year data is

retrieved from the master IC 89C51 (ICI) COVERTED into proper ASCII format and
saved at LCD locations the display now shows the day month and year also on the LCD
screen. If the user wishes to select month or year, he needs to press DOWN key and shift
the arrow pointer to the required selection place. ON pressing down key the arrow pointer
shifts down. Similarly on pressing Up key the arrow pointer shifts up This way the user
can select the parament he wishes to change In case no parameter is to be selected by
simply pressing Esc key the user can go back to step 1 which is the welcome screen once
the user has selected the parameter ok key takes the program to the next step. Step3. Here
the screen displays all the birthday characters. Except the arrow has been shifted to
indicate month, STEP4.
Here also the screen displays all the birthday characters except the arrow has been
shifted to indicate year. Step5. Depending upon the users selection of day or month or
year the program branches to step 5 or step 6 or step 7, where the screen displays set day
or set month or set year respectively. On screen 5 the LCD display set day .the day then
gets added on the screen. At keys label the program checks which key is pressed. As long
as no key is pressed the program keeps looping back to key 5 labels when the user presses
up key the parameter increments as the advance day and display day subroutines are called
in similarly by pressing down key the parameter decrements. During the advance day
subroutine the program first checks whether the day is already 13 If so if resets the day to
32 similarly the month doesnt go beyond 12 and the year doesnt go beyond 99 However
if the user is decrementing the day parameter the program first checks whether the day is
already 01. if so it resets the day to 31 the month to 12 and the year to 99 Whenever the
desired value of the day is seen on the screen pressing ok key take the program to transfer
the day data to the master IC.
The trfr-day subroutine transfers the value to the appropriate RAM location in the
control unit and returns to the screen. Steps 6 and 7 are similar to step 5 As soon as the
control unit of IC1 sends some data to the serial port, the serial interrupt at location 0023H
gets activated and the program control is passed to the serial port by the spint ISR (serial
port interrupt program) . Spent subroutines First all the interrupts are disabled since we do
not want any interrupt while serving this subroutine. Pushing the program status word
(psw) on the stack saves any useful information on the psw and accumulator The sbuf
register is then read and the same is stored at register B ri bit is then cleared for receiving

the next character flag is set to indicate the interrupt had occurred and finally the program
returns from the subroutine . Send subroutine. The program first disables all the interrupts
and clears the transmission completion flag. Then loads the buffer register to start the
transmission from IC2 to the control unit (ic1). As long as it bit remains low we need to
wait when the transmission is over ti bit goes high. The program then enables the interrupt
and returns to the main control Setup subroutine. The program first sets the address pointer
(register r2) to the first- line first column position (80H) OF the LCD It writes this address
to the LCD using the wi subroutine The program then gets the character from the screen
data library and writes data to the LCD using the wd subroutine THE setup subroutine
displays the character on the LCD screen.
Both the data pointer and the address pointer (register r2) are then incremented.
Line of LCD has been written, If so it modifies the address pointer to the second line
which is COH similarly when the second line is over the third line first character address
is set and then fourth line first character address is set as address pointer. Wi subroutine.
This subroutine is used for transferring control instruction to the LCD it first up the LCD
for writing instruction (rw=0en rs=0 and then moves the data to port 2 (p2.0 through p2.7)
from the accumulator. It then reads the busy bit at the accumulator it then reads the busy
bit at the rd busy subroutine and waits until the writing process is completed and finally
returns to the main program. WD subroutine. The subroutine is used for transferring data
to the LCD It first sets the lcd for writing data (rw=0 en=0, rs =1) and moves data to port
2 from the accumulator, it then reads the busy bit by the rd busy subroutine and waits until
the writing processes completed and finally returns to the main program . Rd busy
subroutine This subroutine is used for testing the busy bit during the writing operation to
the LCD it first selects the read set-up for the LCD (rw=1en=0 rs=0 .) .Then it sets port
2bit 7 (p2.7 ) and waits unit this bit become low after successfully writing to the LCD
Finally it returns to the main program . Dellm to delloom subroutines these are just time
delay for the control. Is stored the send con subroutine gets the control unit. This data is
now directly available in the two digit ASCII format for the control unit This data is now
directly available in the two digit ASCII format for the tens and units digits of day.
The tens and units digits of the day are stored and then display at LCD locations
c7H and C8H respectively the add month and add C8 year subroutines are similar to the
add day sub routine. Key press subroutine. This subroutine checks which key (Esc ok up

or Down ) has been pressed if no key is pressed the subroutine returns with the
accumulator containing FFH key switches are connected to port 1 (p1.3 through p1.6)
pins p1. Through p1.6 usually remain high until a key is pressed. If any key is sensed low
the program jumps to confirm whether to confirm whether it was an unintentional low or it
really happened by key press? For confirming so the program waits for the bounce period
of 10 milliseconds and then checks for the low again on the same key. If the key is not
sensed low now it is assumed to be an accidental low and the subroutine returns as if no
key was pressed. But if the key is sensed low for the second time also the program accepts
the key and waits for the user to release the key in about k300 milliseconds After 300
milliseconds, even if the user does not release the key the program repeats the action as if
the key is being pressed again with a code kin the accumulator Codes for the keys are; 0`1
for pressing Esc key 02 for pressing ok key 0;3; for pressing Up key 4 for pressing
Down key Trfr day subroutine. This subroutine transfers the day data to the appropriate
location in the control unit. When this subroutine is called the data is available as two
digits tens and units in the ASCII format. As the data needs to be stored at one RAM
ovation in the hex format the program has to convert the two ASCII digits into a single hex
digit by the asci hex subroutine.
At the end of the asci hex subroutine an equivalent hex number is available as hex
variable. The program now starts sending the characters first start code 02H IS SENT to
the control unit signaling it to get ready as the data is coming second the address 30H
assent where the day data is to be stored. Finally the hex variable is sent which is the
current day data the trfr-month and trfr-year are similar subroutines. Only the address
where the data is to be stored is different in each case. HEX-ASCI SUBROUTINE. First
the units and tens digits are reset to ASCII zero Then check whether the hex number is
already zero If yes, simply return. Else advance the units If the units digit has crossed
ASCII 9 we need to reset the units digit to zero and advance the tens digit simultaneously
the hex number has to be decremented .the process keeps repeating until hex number
becomes zero The accumulated tens and units are equivalent to the hex number originally
loaded, Asci-her subroutine. Here the process is almost opposite to what e die while
converting hex into ASCII First, the hex number is reset to zero. Then we check whether
both the units and tens digits are zero. If so we simply return. Otherwise we have to
advance the hex number simultaneously the units and tens digits are to be decremented.

The process keeps repeating itself until units and tens digits become zero; Adv-day
subroutine. This subroutine advances the day data but ensures that it does not go beyond
31. The first part checks whether the days units digit is 1 (DECIMAL) and tens digit is 3
(decimal). If so the program sets the units digit to 1 and the tens digit to 0 before returning.
The second part of the subroutine advances the days units digit until kit crosses 9
(ASCII39) After 9 the days units digit is reset to 0 and the tens digit is advanced.
Similarly, if the tens digit crosses 9 the program sets it to 0. Dec-day subroutine. This
subroutine decrements the day value. The first part checks whether the days units digit is
1 (decimal) and the tens digit is 0 (decimal) .If so the program sets the tens digit to 3
before returning. In the second part as the days units digit is decremented the program
tests whether it has gone below tests whether it has gone below zero. (When ASCII 30h
decrements it will become ASCII 2fh). The program sets the units digit to 9 (ASCII39H)
and decrements the tens digit as the tens digit is decremented the program tests whether it
has gone below zero if so the program sets the tens digit to 9. The adv-month and adv-day
subroutine and the dec-month and dec-year subroutine are similar to the dec-day
subroutine. Send-can subroutine.
This subroutine first sends the address to the control unit and waits for the interrupt
flag to go high. This means the data from the control unit is to be received at the specified
address. After receiving the data the interrupt flag gets cleared for the next instruction. The
data is received from register B saved as the hex variable and converted into the ASCII
code that is required for the LCD module and control unit is shown in Fig 4 and its
component layout in Fig 5 The combined PCB can be cut along the dotted lines to separate
the control unit and handheld unit comprising LCD module. Moving message displays are
a lot of fun, and one of my favorite projects to work on. A scrolling message display would
be a great addition to a robotics or other project that needs a message display. Snap one on
your hat before you go to that next football game, but carry a few spares. You'll probably
sell a few while you're there below is a "static" picture of the display in action. It scrolls
from right to left in normal operation, but you can experiment to see the effect of changing
the scroll direction.

Fig. 2.1 Display hello on LED screen

The colors aren't true, but that's the best my "El-Cheapo" digital camera would
produce. The movie file gives you a good idea of how the finished project works, shows
how the display scrolls & the scroll speed when set to 300 as in the sample code. I won't
go into great detail here since the simple code & datasheet will have you up & running
with a scrolling display in just a few minutes. You can easily modify this sample code for
use with other projects. I used the PIC16F877 running at 20MHz, but the 16F876 will
work equally well for this project. Connections from the PIC to display are shown in the
lower section of the project code, and quite simple, but if you have questions, don't
hesitate to ask.
These displays aren't cheap, but they are nice, and don't require series currentlimiting resistors for the matrix LED's. You have software control of the display brightness
settings - and current consumption. Just change the value assigned to D_Bus in the display
initialization routine to change the display brightness.
To change the display scroll speed - just change the value in: S_Speed = 300 ' Set
display scroll speed here

Fig. 2.2 PIN designation

Burning a chip is also called Programming but since we refer to writing a program
as "programming," we can think of burning a chip as "DOWNLOADING, DUMPING or
BURNING."The microcontroller we are using in this project (PIC16F84) can be
programmed and re-programmed up to 1,000 times and this makes it ideal for
experimenting. The other advantage of this chip is the ability to program it while it is "IN
CIRCUIT."

The manufacturer of the chip has produced only very vague information on

how to design a project capable of self-programming the chip when it is fitted to a project
as they have a vested interest in selling their own "simple programmer. But we want to
do it even cheaper than the cost of a commercial programmer and we want to design with
almost NO EXTRA parts on the board to provide this function. And it is quite possible.
There has been a range of programmers capable of doing this, from a NO PARTS
programmer to those having buffer chips to improve the programming signals. At first
glance these programmers may seem to be ideal but after studying and trying each of
them; the complexities they contain, don't make them suitable for the beginner. In simple
terms, they were too difficult to get going.
The authors were highly technical people and they expect highly technical
constructors to put them together. They offered little or no technical back-up and some
don't even supply a circuit diagram! It would have been nice to take one of these "Public
Domain" projects and use it in our project. But they weren't suitable. Many of them did not
verify the contents of the chip after programming and others were not suitable for
programming a chip "in-situ." You had to take the chip out of the project and program it on
a separate board. Some needed a 5v and 12-14v rail, while others needed to run under
DOS. After eliminating each design, we ended up with having to design something
ourselves. So here it is. THE BASICS The basics of programming a PICF84 are simple.
When /MCLR (pin 4) is taken HIGH (to a voltage called VIHH 12v to 14v), the chip
turns into programming mode and two pins change from in/out pins to Clock and Data
pins. Port B bit 6 (pin 12) changes from an in/out pin to CLOCK. (To clock data into the
chip during programming and clock it out of the chip during "read" mode Port B bit 7 (pin
13) changes from an in/out pin to DATA in/out. The /MCLR pin becomes V test mode
during programming mode. Data books on the state that the programming voltage (about
13v) is internally generated and the voltage delivered to the V test mode pin is purely a
reference voltage and no current is required to be delivered to this pin during
programming. Using these features we can produce a circuit with the PIC chip in

programming mode. This is shown in the diagram below. This is not a functional circuit as
the programming voltage (Vpp) must be able to be switched from LOW to HIGH to place
the chip in programming mode.
To understand the 5 lines of the Communications Port, the direction of data flow
and the voltage on the lines, we have to go back to the basic details of a SERIAL
COMMUNICATIONS PORT. The original use for this port was to connect a computer
(called the Data Terminal Equipment - DTE) to a device such as a printer, plotter or
modem (called the Data Communications Equipment - DCE). The mode of
communication is called RS-232. None of this involves our use of the port as we are not
using it in the way it was intended. For instance, we are taking advantage of the fact that
one of the lines produces a voltage of 12v and we use this voltage to power the project
during programming. To understand how the lines can be used, you need to know if each
line is an input or output and the voltage it is capable of supplying. Some of the lines are
capable of supplying very little current (less than 1mA while others can supply 25mA to
35mA).
Since our project draws very little current, (only 1mA or so in programming mode)
the current capability of the lines is not an issue. But the voltage they are able to produce
and the direction of signal-flow are the issues. Once we know the features of the lines, we
can write software to make them HIGH or LOW and either deliver data or receive data.
The TxD line is the Transmit Data line and it is purely used for the 12v it is capable of
supplying. IT is taken HIGH during programming so supply both the programming trigger
voltage for pin 4 of the PIC as well as the 5v rail for the operation of the chip. RTS is an
output line from the computer and it will be used to clock the chip during programming
mode so that command bits and data bits (from the DTR line) can To put the PIC chip into
programming mode, RTS and DTR are held LOW and Tx D is taken HIGH. The chip now
waits for 6 bits of data called a COMMAND. The first command may be "Load
Configuration" or "Load Data for Program Memory" or "Bulk Erase Program Memory."
In this way the commands and the data is placed in the. After programming is
complete, the program can be READ by sending a command "Read Data From Data
Memory" and the bits will be transmitted out of the PIC to the computer via the CTS
line. Resistors are needed between some of the lines and the chip to limit the current. The

10k in the diagram above is not really needed but since V test mode pin requires very little
current, the 10k will not upset the voltage delivered to the chip. The 2k2 feeding the 5v6
zener allows the 5v6 to be generated without reducing the voltage on the TXD line. The
22k on the RTS line allows almost any voltage to be present on the RTS line and only
deliver a maximum of 5v to the PIC. The 4k7 serves two purposes. It limits the voltage
from the DTR line to 5v, and allows the PIC to deliver an output to the CTS line. In other
words, if the DTR line is LOW, the PIC will be able to deliver a HIGH to CTS. This
simple-to-use three-color LED moving message sign features multiple graphics and effects
facilities. The mains adaptor means that you simply switch on and the unit is ready to go.
Messages can be easily programmed from the remote control or even with a PC via a
serial interface and the optional PC interface kit. Its ideal for promotional messages in
store, at parties, or anywhere a high visibility sign is required. The display is 16 characters
wide and longer messages automatically scroll across the screen. The display can also be
set to show the current time. This unit is supplied with remote control & batteries, mains
adaptor and mounting brackets. PC interface and software available separately (Order
Code TB39N).
Electronic Display Signs Electronic display signs are used nowadays in great
extent to display important information instantly all over the world, which uses LED
technology, which stands for light- emitting diodes. These are widely used in the worlds of
commerce, government and even non-profit organizations. Electronic display signs are
widely used in every metropolitan city and most others cities too. This shows their
popularity even in unlikely places as well. This is only because they allow the outlet to
simply and clearly present the information to the world, which can be clearly seen from
great distance. One of the unimagined area, Churches, uses this technology where they
employ these electronic displays, which helps lead worshippers in song. These electronic
display sign are remarkably easy to use and can be updated through data entered via an
infra-red remote keypad or through a computer. Of course, they can be programmed to get
automatically updated. Jayex technology limited is the one, leader in proving this.
These electronic displays utilized four line of text (it can be more or less depending
on the size and height of the character chosen) with fix limit of characters per line. Jayex
offers several models which varies in height of character, color system, graphic options,

LED intensity and dimming capability Sit back and take a big breath. You are about to
take part in one of the best microcomputer (microprocessor) projects you have seen.
They were really impossible to understand. You needed to be an expert to start the
first lesson! That's why he felt compelled to create a project that teaches in a completely
different way. Once you complete this course you will be able to look at the other projects
and work out what they are trying to present. I'm saying this because if you have seen the
other projects and given up in frustration, the worry is over. You can be assured, the
animations you see on the screen in the "Display Effects" page, are fully documented and
you will be able to create similar (and even better) effects. This course has been written
and designed by Colin Mitchell, the author of talking electronics. Talking Electronics is
Australia's most successful electronics publication and been on the market for more than
20 years. It has been produced solely by Colin Mitchell and has stood the test of time
without a single advertisement getting in the way of a good-quality construction article.
Don't you hate searching through a magazine for the articles? All our books and magazines
are ARTICLES ONLY and you don't finish up with 30 pages of projects out of a 150 page
magazine !Even though the projects presented by Talking Electronics have all been of a
simple nature, everyone has been described in detail with special sections on "How it
works" and "If it doesn't work." You can take an article and expand on it and create a
more-complex project. But this is only possible if you understand the fundamentals. That's
what we provide.
The fundamentals to back this up, TE provide kits for each and every project and
every PC board is available separately. All the kits are sent out the same day and you don't
have to wait weeks for something to arrive. We waited 3 weeks for one of the competitors
PIC kits and it came with NO PC board and NO circuit diagram! With TE kits, all you
have to do is ring up and order the kit over the phone and it will be sent THE SAME DAY.
For a few dollars extra it will be sent EXPRESS and you are ready to start THE NEXT
DAY.
We have sent out over 200,000 kits so we must be doing something right! Some
readers have bought over worth of kits and when we meet them at seminars and trade
shows, they say they owe their advancement in electronics to Talking Electronics. This is
the biggest compliment we can get and that's why we continue to provide information-

basics. This is the one area that has been so neglected. And that's where we excel. The
common thread of all magazine articles is to describe a project and assume it will work
first go. Not so with us.
The animation above shows just one of the things that can be done with the 5x7
Display. It's a miniature Video Wall and as such you can do ALMOST anything on it. Any
picture, pattern, animation or effect can be displayed. Once you see how a program is
written, you can produce frames for an animation, just like producing a cartoon .The
display above is called the LIFT DISPLAY. It can be used in an elevator to show the
progress from one level to the next and it shows the lift is traveling up or down. The next
closest thing to our display is an 8x8 LED matrix module. These are readily available in a
single colour (red, green, yellow) or tri-color, and you can use one of them if you wish.
But they require a little more programming - not much more but it is certainly the next
thing to go to after completing the course.
An 8x8 requires 16 lines in the form of 8 lines from a microcontroller and 8 lines
from a shift register. With an 8x8 matrix, the on-time for each row is slightly less than our
matrix and to produce a brightness equivalent to our matrix, the LEDs have to be scanned
with a higher drive-current. This requires drive transistors for the rows as well as the
columns. This is about the only difference and one of our future projects will show how
the modules are connected together. Back to our project . . . With our design, the scan is
only 5 columns and this gives the LEDs sufficient brightness from the allowable 25mA
from the micro. In one of the experiments you will "dumping onto the screen" as well as
scanning. You will be able to see the difference in brightness of the two modes, and when
you realise the energy delivered to a scanned LED is less than one fifth of a LED that is
being constantly turned on, you will see how efficient LEDs are with pulses of
energy. What can you do with the project? You can do an endless number of things.
You can produce counters, effects, tones, games, tunes animations, scrolling letters,
flashing letters and lots of other things. It's almost unlimited. Below is a simple 0 to 9
counter. You can make it count up or down, turn it into a two-digit counter or even a threedigit counter with each digit flashing, to show the tally. We have even produced a 5-digit
counter to show how far you can go with simple programming. Even though this project is
designed as a beginners guide to programming, the variety of effects that can be produced

can extend to quite complex programs and once you complete the course, you will feel
like an expert!

Fig. 2.3 LED display, displaying 0.

On the "Display Effects" page we have shown some of the capabilities of the
project. It can be used as a stand-alone module to produce any effect you need (the effects
can be controlled by input lines). Devices such as switches can be placed on the input lines
to increment or decrement the display, produce the "lift effect," flash numbers or letters or
even produce a scrolling effect. The 5x7 Display project consists of a small PC board
containing 35 LEDs arranged in a matrix of 5 rows of LEDs with each row containing 7
LEDs. The PC board also contains a PIC16F84 microcontroller chip and this 18-pin chip
has 13 pins (lines) that can be configured as input or output. Five of the lines are called
port "A" and these are connected to three switches and also the second chip on the board
(a shift-counter chip). The other 8 lines (called port B ) are connected to the seven rows of
LEDs and the eighth line is connected to a piezo diaphragm for PIEZO (sound)
experiments. Five transistors sink the cathodes of the five columns of LEDs and another
transistor drives the piezo diaphragm.
Resistors on the board limit the current to the LEDs to prevent damage to the
microcontroller as each output of the chip can deliver a maximum of 25 milliamps. A
capacitor and resistor near the chip creates the R-C timing for the oscillator (the chip
contains the rest of the components for the oscillator). A power supply electrolytic,
voltage-dropping diode and two slide switches complete the components for the 5x7 part
of the project. Also contained on the board are the components for the In-Circuit
Programmer. These components connect the serial port of a computer to the
microcontroller chip. The components pass the programming signals to the chip and at the
same time the voltages are modified so that they are at the correct levels for the chip. The
components also generate voltages for the chip - a 5v rail and a 13v rail. Finally, the set of

components around pin 12 amplify the current so that pin 12 will see a HIGH. The 5x7
project is connected to your computer via a 4-core cable and this connects to a 9-pin plug
to fit into the serial port of a computer.
The end result is the microcontroller chip (PIC16F84) can be programmed without
removing it from the board. This is called "IN CIRCUIT" programming and is very fast
and convenient when you are developing a program. POV -Persistence of Visio There is a
surprising feature with a Light Emitting Diode. If it is pulsed with twice the normal
current for 20% of the time, the result is almost as bright as if it is on all the time with the
rated current. This means they perform extremely effectively in a scanned situation and
even though the net energy into each LED is only about 10% as compared with ON all the
time, the brightness level is only reduced by about 50%. Surprisingly, a 50% reduction in
brightness is quite acceptable. This is one of the features of a scanned display. Before we
go any further, let's talk about the the concept of a scanning display. From the outset, you
have to be aware that he image seen on this type of display is a "trick." Only one column
of LEDs is displayed at a time and your eye merges the columns together to get a
"picture." This is called Persistence of Vision (POV) and occurs when the eye sees objects
that change at a rate higher than about 10 per second. A flickering effect is detected at a
rate up to about 20 per second but above 30 per second the effect is quite smooth. Our
display operates at a rate higher than 100 scans per second and the eye sees the display as
"steady." If the scan rate is reduced (by reducing the frequency of the micro-controller
clock) the individual columns can be seen.
LED Moving Message Display leds becoming more and more popular in all kinds
of lighting fixtures. For simpler, slimmer design, moving message displays utilize Light
Emitting Diodes (LED's) as the display technology. They offer bright displays that can be
eye catching in right environment. LED displays are a vital part of how companies today
are keeping in touch with their customers and employees. Whether you are advertising
your latest special to an audience of drive-by commuters, or informing plant personnel
about production goals? An LED display is the most effective way to communicate your
message. LED signs offer brilliant, animate movement attracting potential customers to
your message, while giving you the flexibility to update your message as often as you
need. Moving text, graphics, and animation capture the attention of the bystander in a
dynamic way. Whether for advertising or communication, your message is more

noticeable, more interesting and more likely to be remembered. And your message can be
updated frequently and easily to keep your communications current and exciting.
LED moving message displays are ideal for creating high visibility across the
globe. A pioneer in the world of electronic signs Jayex Technology Limited manufactures
LED moving message displays as a specialized equipment amongst the wide range of
displays available in the store. It has many features. Current technology highlights alarm
setting, password protection; built in time sequence, auto setting of different moving styles
etc. These displays are easy to install and operate. Message can be input by infrared
remote keypad or PC. This makes it very easy to use. There are many methods for
displaying message like cyclic, scroll up, scroll down, open to centre, open from right,
open from left, or any other customer defined type. Technology is the best choice when
you want to customize your message and look of the displays with the feature of battery
backup system. LED moving message displays comes with removable table stand. These
are used both of indoor and outdoor displays for each comes with different mounting
options. These come with different programmable display speed and pre defined graph for
easy to recall. Here different Buzz sound can be added anywhere within the message for
different alert indication. Introduction: Moving Message Displays are ideal for all type of
commercial establishments like Hotels, Restaurants, Retail Shops, Banks, Airports,
Clinics, Hospitals and other such places to get maximum attention of people. These
displays attract customers to watch the display with curiosity and your scrolling message
also is conveyed simultaneously. Very good advertising results are obtained from these
unique displays with latest technology. You can change the message as often as you want
yourself with ordinary computer keyboard without any prior experience of any kind.
Available in various sizes and are also made to custom requirements Specifications
for regular model: Display Matrix: 9 characters in 7x56, 2.5" high character LED
configuration. Power Supply: 220v AC Dimensions: Display Unit: 25 inches X 7 inches X
1.5 inches appx. Control Unit: 6 inches X 7 inches X 2 inches app.( fixed on back side of
display unit ) Compatible with any Computer Keyboard. Some of the routines in the
experiments for the 5x7 Display Project look very simple but a lot of thought has gone
into producing them. The art to producing a good routine is to make it look simple as this
will make it easy to follow and easy to trouble-shoot, if something goes wrong. The delay
routine is a typical example.

CHAPTER 3

STEPS OF PROJECT
MAKING

3. STEPS OF PROJECT MAKING

3.1 STEP TAKEN WHILE PREPARING CIRCUIT
The main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric
currents and signals through thin copper layer that is bounded firmly to and
insulating base material sometimes called the substrata. This base is
manufactured with an integral bounded layer of thin copper foil which has
to be partly etched or otherwise removed to arrive at a pre-designed pattern
to suite the circuit connections.
From the constructors point of view the main attraction of using PCB
is its role as the mechanical support for small components. There is less
need

for

complicated

and

time

consuming

metal

work

or

chassis

construction except perhaps in providing the [mal enclosure. Most straight

forward circuit designs can be easily converted into printed wiring layout
the thorough required to carry out the conversion can often highlights any

possible error that would otherwise be missed in convention point to point

wiring. The finished project is usually neater and truly a work of art.
Through proper design of PCB can get noise immunity. The
fabrication process of the printed circuit board will determine to a large
extent the price and reliability of the equipment. A common target aimed at
is the fabrication of small series of highly reliable professional quality
PCBs with low investment cost.
There are two types of PCB:3.1.1 Single sided board
3.1.2 Double sided board

3.1.1 Single sided board

The single sided PCBs are mostly used in endearment electronics
where manufacturing costs have to be kept at a minimum however in
industrial electronics. Also cast factors cannot be neglected and single
sided boards should be used whenever a particular circuit can be
accommodated on such boards.

3.1.2Double sided boards

Double sided PCBs can be made with or without plated through
holes. The production of boards with plated-through holes is fairly
expensive. Therefore, plated through hole boards are only chosen where the
circuit complexity and density dose not leave any other choice.

3.2 LAYOUT DESIGN

The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information on the
board before one can go on to the artwork preparation. This means that a

concept, which clearly defines all the details of the circuit, is a

prerequisite before the actual layout can start. The detailed circuit diagram
is varying important for the layout designer but the must also be familiar
with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the equipment.
When

designing

the

layout

one

should

observe

the

minimum

size

(component body length and weight). Before starting to design the layout
have all the required components to hand so that an accurate assessment of
space can be made care must be taken so as to allow for adequate air flow
after the components have been mounted.
It might be necessary to turn some components round to a different
angular position so that terminals are closer to the connections of other
components. The scale can be checked by positioning the components on
the squad paper. If any connection crosses, then one can reroute to avoid
such condition. All common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a
common line routed around the perimeter of the layout this will act as the
ground plane. If possibly try to route the outer supply line ground plane. If
possibly try to route the other supply lines around the apposite edge of the
layout or through the center. The first step is to rearrange the circuit to
eliminate the crossover without altering the circuit detail in any way.
Plan the layout as if looking at the top side of the board first this
should be translated in reverse later for the etching pattern. Larger areas
are recommended to maintain good copper adhesive. It is important to bear
in mind always

that copper track width must be at least to the

recommended minimum dimensions and allowance must be made for

increased width where termination holes are needed from this aspect it can
become little tricky to negotiate the route for connections to small
transistors. One can affect the copper interconnection pattern in the
underside of the board in a way described below Make the interconnections
pattern looking like conventional point to point writing by routing uniform
width of copper from component to component

3.3 ETCHING PROCESS

Etching process requires the use of chemicals, acid resistant dishes
and a running water supply. Ferric chloride is the maximum used solution,
but other enchants such as ammonium sulphate can be used.
Nitric acid can also be used but in general it is not used due to the
poisonous fumes. The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the
board using a latex type of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The
pattern is laid firmly on the copper, use vary sharp knife to cut round the
pattern carefully and remove the paper corresponding to the required
copper pattern areas. Then apply the resist solution clean outlines as for as
possible. While the board is drying to test all components. Before going to
the next stage, check the whole pattern and cross check against the circuit
diagram check for any foreign matter on the copper. The etching bath
should be in a glass or enamel disk. If using crystal of ferric chloride these
should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportion suggested. There
should be 0.5 Lt. Of water for 125 gm of crystal. The board is then
immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours, in this process only the non
hidden copper portion is etched out by the solution.
Waste liquid should be thoroughly diluted and buried in water land
never pour down the drain. To prevent particles of copper hindering further
etching, agitate the solutions carefully by gently twisting or rocking the
tray. The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is
needed to remove just the right amount of cooper. In spite of there being a
resist coating, there is no protection against etching away through exposed
copper edges; this leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that
the etched board can be removed properly and rinsed; this will halt etching
immediate.
Now the paint is washed out by the petrol. Now the copper layout on
PCB is rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only

the oxide layers over the Cu is removed. Now the holes are drilled at the
respective places, according to component layout as shown in figure.
Drilling is one of those operation that calls for great care, because most of
the holes will be made and vary small drill. For most purpose a no. 60 drill
all holes with this size first those that need to be larger can be easily
drilled again with the appropriate large size.

3.4 COMPONENT ASSEMBLY

There should be no damage, such as hair line crack in the copper on
PCB that could have a serious effect on the operational ability of the
completed assembly holes. If there are, than they can and should be
repaired first, by soldering a short link of bare copper wire over the
affected part. The most popular method of holding all the items is to bend
the wires further apart after they have been inserted in the appropriate
holes. This will hold the component in position ready for soldering.
Some component will be considerably larger than others, occupying
and possibly partly obscuring component. Because of this, it is best to start
by mounting the smallest first and progressing through to the largest,
before starting, makes certain that no further drilling is likely to be
necessary, because access may be impossible later. When filling each group
of components, mark off each one on the components list as it is fitted and,
if we have to leave the job, we will know where to recommence.
Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items, there are
good reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last step. The main
point is that these components are varying sensitive to heat and if
subjected to prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could be

internally damaged. All the components before mounting are rubbed with
sand paper so that oxide layer is removed iron their tips. Now they are
mounted according to the components layout.

3.5 Soldering Guide

3.5.1 First a few safety precautions:

Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. They are very hot (about
400C) and will give you a nasty burn.

Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron.

The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. An ordinary plastic flex
will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of burns
and electric shock.

Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.

Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment!

Work in a well-ventilated area.

The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite irritating.
Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the side of, not above, your work.

Wash your hands after using solder.

Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.

3.5.2 Preparing the soldering iron:

Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in. The iron will take a few minutes to
reach its operating temperature of about 400C.

Dampen the sponge in the stand.

The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold tap for a
moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping
wet.

Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. You can check if it is ready
by trying to melt a little solder on the tip.

Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip.

Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called 'tinning' and it will help the
heat to flow from the iron's tip to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug
in the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to wipe the tip clean on
the sponge.

3.5.3 You are now ready to start soldering:

Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.

Imagine you are going to write your name! Remember to never touch the hot
element or tip.

Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made. Make sure it touches both the
component lead and the track. Hold the tip there for a few seconds and...

Feed a little solder onto the joint.

It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape as shown
in the diagram. Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.

Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still.

Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before you move the circuit board.

Inspect the joint closely.

It should look shiny and have a 'volcano' shape. If not, you will need to reheat it
and feed in a little more solder. This time ensure that both the lead and track are
heated fully before applying solder.

3.5.6 Using a heat sink

Some components, such as transistors, can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you
are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the
component body. You can buy a special tool, but a standard crocodile clip works just as
well and is cheaper.
Soldering Advice for Components
It is very tempting to start soldering components onto the circuit board straight away, but
please take time to identify all the parts first. You are much less likely to make a mistake if
you do this!
1. Stick all the components onto a sheet of paper using sticky tape.

2. Identify each component and write its name or value beside it.
3. Add the code (R1, R2, C1 etc.) if necessary.
4. Many projects from books and magazines label the components with codes (R1,
R2, C1, D1 etc.) and you should use the project's parts list to find these codes if
they are given.
5. Resistor values can be found using the resistor colour code which is explained on
our Resistors page. You can print out and make your own Resistor Colour Code
Calculator to help you.
6. Capacitor values can be difficult to find because there are many types with
different labeling systems! The various systems are explained on our Capacitors
page.

Some components require special care when soldering. Many must be placed the correct
way round and a few are easily damaged by the heat from soldering. Appropriate warnings
are given in the table below, together with other advice which may be useful when
soldering.
For most projects it is best to put the components onto the board in the order given below:

3.6 What is solder?

Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a
temperature of about 200C. Coating a surface with solder is called 'tinning' because of the
tin content of solder. Lead is poisonous and you should always wash your hands after
using solder.
Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux, like the wires inside a mains flex.
The flux is corrosive, like an acid, and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts. This
is why you must melt the solder actually on the joint, not on the iron tip. Without flux
most joints would fail because metals quickly oxidize and the solder itself will not flow
properly onto a dirty, oxidized, metal surface. The best size of solder for electronics is
22swg (swg = standard wire gauge).

Desoldering
At some stage you will probably need to desolder a joint to remove or re-position a wire or
component. There are two ways to remove the solder:

3.6.1 With a desoldering pump (solder sucker)

Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks.

Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.

Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.

Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the molten
solder into the tool.

Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.

The pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.

3.6.2 With solder remover wick (copper braid)

Apply both the end of the wick and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.

As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the wick, away from the joint.

Remove the wick first, then the soldering iron.

Cut off and discard the end of the wick coated with solder.

After removing most of the solder from the joint(s) you may be able to remove the wire or
component lead straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool). If the joint will not
come apart easily apply your soldering iron to melt the remaining traces of solder at the
same time as pulling the joint apart, taking care to avoid burning yourself.

3.7 First Aid for Burns

Most burns from soldering are likely to be minor and treatment is simple:

Immediately cool the affected area under gently running cold water.

Keep the burn in the cold water for at least 5 minutes (15 minutes is
recommended). If ice is readily available this can be helpful too, but do not delay
the initial cooling with cold water.

Do not apply any creams or ointments.

The burn will heal better without them. A dry dressing, such as a clean
handkerchief, may be applied if you wish to protect the area from dirt.

Seek medical attention if the burn covers an area bigger than your hand.

3.8 To reduce the risk of burns:

Always return your soldering iron to its stand immediately after use.

Allow joints and components a minute or so to cool down before you touch them.

Never touch the element or tip of a soldering iron unless you are certain it is cold.

CHAPTER 4
BLOCK DIAGRAM

4. BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.1 Block Diagram Explanation

Message display Pins 2 through 9 forms the 8-bit data output port this is purely a
write-only port which means it can only output data. The base address of the first parallel
port (LPT1) is 378H OR 888 (decimal) Parallel-input parallel-output (PIPO) REGISTERS
ARE USED to shift the signal from right to left. The clock pulse and code signal are
generated by the computer program and output from the parallel port (bade address 0x378)
theoretically, we can add infinite number of PIPO registers but the maximum number of
registers is actually limited to the current triggering value of the shows the circuit of the
microcontroller-based moving-message display. It comprises microcontroller AT89s52,
three-to-eight decoder 74LS138, common anode alphanumeric displays, regulator 7805
and a few discrete components. The heart of the moving-message display is Atmel
AT89s52 microcontroller (IC1).

Fig. 3.1 Block diagram

It is a low-power, high-performance, 8-bit microcontroller with 4 kB of flash

programmable and erasable read-only memory (PEROM) used as on-chip program
memory, 128 bytes of RAM used as internal data memory, 32 individually programmable
input/output (I/O) lines divided into four 8-bit ports, two 16-bit programmable
timers/counters, a five-vector two-level interrupt architecture, on-chip oscillator and clock
circuit. To add a large number of PIPO registers, amplify the clock pulse prior to
connecting it to the PIPO ICs. Circuit description the circuit for the scrolling message
display IC74174 has been used as PIPO REGISTER WHICH comprises high-speed, hex
type flip-flops it is used as a 6-bit edge-triggered storage register THE DATA ON the
inputs of the flip- flop is transferred for storage during high-to low transition clock.
Data lines do through D5 l of the parallel part are connected to the input pins of the
first flop (IC2) the output of IC2 is fed to the next flip-flop IC input as well as LED. Data
line D6 is fed to IC8, while data line D7 is connected to the clock inputs of IC2 through
IC8 Clock pins of all the flip-flop ICs are connected together. Master reset pin 1 of all the
flip-flops is connected to Vcc. Pins 18 thr0ugh 25 of the parallel port are grounded. As
data present on lines DO through D6 shifts from the first stage to the next stage, And so on
the message appears as scrolling on the dot-matrix LED display. The present circuit
supports a display made of 42 LEDs comprising seven rows and six columns. Up to 30
such units can be added with no change in the circuit.
To add these units you need to amplify the clock pulse output, Note that each
character is displayed in a matrix of 5 columns and 7 rows (explained later) hence the
sixth column LEDs form part of the next character (column1) the power supply circuit.
The AC mains is stepped down by transformer x1 to deliver a secondary output of 7.5V
AC at 1A The transformer output is rectified by a full-wave bridge rectifier comprising
diodesD1 through D4 filtered by capacitor C1 then regulated by IC 7805C (ic1) to provide
regulated 5V DC to the circuit commercially 7X5 dot-matrix displays with discrete LEDs
may not be easily available in the market; therefore a perforated board with holes for the
LED leads may be used. The layout of such a board The holes are used for passing the
LED leads.

CHAPTER 5
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Message display Pins 2 through 9 forms the 8-bit data output port this is purely a
write-only port which means it can only output data. The base address of the first parallel
port (LPT1) is 378H OR 888 (decimal) Parallel-input parallel-output (PIPO) REGISTERS
ARE USED to shift the signal from right to left. The clock pulse and code signal are
generated by the computer program and output from the parallel port (bade address 0x378)
theoretically, we can add infinite number of PIPO registers but the maximum number of
registers is actually limited to the current triggering value of the shows the circuit of the
microcontroller-based moving-message display. It comprises microcontroller AT89s52,
three-to-eight decoder 74LS138, common anode alphanumeric displays, regulator 7805
and a few discrete components. the heart of the moving-message display is Atmel
AT89s52 microcontroller (IC1)

Fig. 5.1 Circuit diagram

It is a low-power, high-performance, 8-bit microcontroller with 4 kB of flash

programmable and erasable read-only memory (PEROM) used as on-chip program
memory, 128 bytes of RAM used as internal data memory, 32 individually programmable
input/output (I/O) lines divided into four 8-bit ports, two 16-bit programmable

timers/counters, a five-vector two-level interrupt architecture, on-chip oscillator and clock

circuit. To add a large number of PIPO registers, amplify the clock pulse prior to
connecting it to the PIPO ICs. Circuit description the circuit for the scrolling message
display IC74174 has been used as PIPO REGISTER WHICH comprises high-speed, hex
type flip-flops it is used as a 6-bit edge-triggered storage register THE DATA ON the
inputs of the flip- flop is transferred for storage during high-to low transition clock.
Available in various sizes and are also made to custom requirements Specifications
for regular model: Display Matrix: 9 characters in 7x56, 2.5" high character LED
configuration. Power Supply: 220v AC Dimensions: Display Unit: 25 inches X 7 inches X
1.5 inches appx. Control Unit: 6 inches X 7 inches X 2 inches app.( fixed on back side of
display unit ) Compatible with any Computer Keyboard. Some of the routines in the
experiments for the 5x7 Display Project look very simple but a lot of thought has gone
into producing them. The art to producing a good routine is to make it look simple as this
will make it easy to follow and easy to trouble-shoot, if something goes wrong. The delay
routine is a typical example. It can be laid out using simple-to-follow instructions or
complex instructions. Let's not worry about the complex approach; our aim is to show how
easy it is to program the PIC chip

CHAPTER 6
PCB LAYOUT

6. PCB LAYOUT

Fig 6.1 PCB layout

CHAPTER 7
CODING

7. CODING
7.1 Operating Manual for Keyboard
7.1.1 Data Entering and Editing
Press F9 Function key: - WR PAD appears on screen.
Press Insert Function key: - First message will appear on screen i.e.
<01>Message <FX>

For new ram it will be <01> <FX>

EDIT your message according to requirement
Press enter function key to save the data appearing on screen and it will switch to the next
page i.e.
<02>Message <FX>
NOTE: - Must enter <FZ> at the end of last message for proper functioning

7.2 Settings for Date and Time

Press F9 Function key WR PAD appearing on screen
Press F11 Function key Setting for TIME appearing on screen
i.e. TIME

**:**

HH:MM

7.2.1 Set the Time Accordingly

Press F11 Function key It saves the time, setting for DATE appearing on screen i.e.
i.e. DATE

**:**:**

DD: MM: YY

7.2.2 Set the Date Accordingly

Press F11 Function key it saves the date, and get back to the display mode.

7.3 Commands and Speed Settings

7.3.1 Commands
<FB> :

bold fonts (14*10) approximately

<FC> :

complement the running matter

<FD> :

call the live date

<FE> :

normal english (11*8) approximately (caps and small char)

<FF> :

bold fat fonts (16*14) approximately

<FH> :

normal thin hindi fonts (11*8) approximately

<FJ> :

jump to next message or page

<FN> :

small font (7*5)

<FT> :

call the live time

<FV> :

vertical font

<FX> :

end of current message

<FZ> ;

end of all the message and jump to the first message

7.3.2 Speed Settings:<S1>

Fastest speed in single look

<S2>

Fast speed in single look

<S3>

Fastest speed in double look

<S4>

Fast speed in double look

<S5>

Fastest speed in triple look

<S6>

Fast speed in triple look

<S7>

Fastest speed in four look (slider)

<S8>

Fast speed in four looks (slider)

<S9>

Fast speed (slider)

<S0>

Slow speed in single look

7.3.3 Functions and Effects:<F3>

Flashing the screen

<F6>

Freeze the screen

<D1>

Curtain up

<D2>

Curtain down

<D3>

Curtain right to left

<D4>

Curtain left to right

<D5>

Curtain out to in

<D6>

Curtain in to out

<D7>

Page up

<D8>

Page down

<D9>

Page out to in

<D0>

Page in to out

I.E. <F6>MESSAGE <F6>

Note: - Function must start and stop with the same close or command

7.4 Operating For Hindi with Keyboard

Press F2 Function key the data appearing on screen in the following format i.e.
<01> <FH>Message<FX>
<01><FH><FX>

NEW MESSAGE

After pressing the F2 Function key you can type in hindi

Commands for the two lines format is the command <DU> for the upper line and <DL>
for the second line.
For pictures on the screen
<P0> TO <P9> AND <PA> TO <PZ>

CHAPTER 8
HARDWARE SECTION

8. HARDWARE SECTION

8.1 PCB MANUFACTURING PROCESS & LAYOUT MAKING

From the constructors point of view the main attraction of using PCB
is its role as the mechanical support for small components. There is less
need

for

complicated

and

time

consuming

metal

work

or

chassis

construction except perhaps in providing the [mal enclosure. Most straight

forward circuit designs can be easily converted into printed wiring layout
the thorough required to carry out the conversion can often highlights any
possible error that would otherwise be missed in convention point to point
wiring. The finished project is usually neater and truly a work of art.

Through proper design of PCB can get noise immunity. The

fabrication process of the printed circuit board will determine to a large
extent the price and reliability of the equipment. A common target aimed at
is the fabrication of small series of highly reliable professional quality
PCBs with low investment cost.
There are two types of PCB:-

1. Single sided board

The single sided PCBs are mostly used in endearment electronics where
manufacturing costs have to be kept at a minimum however in industrial
electronics. Also cast factors cannot be neglected and single sided boards
should be used whenever a particular circuit can be accommodated on such
boards.

2. Double sided boards

Double sided PCBs can be made with or without plated through holes. The
production of boards with plated-through holes is fairly expensive.
Therefore, plated through hole boards are only chosen where the circuit
complexity and density dose not leave any other choice.

8.1.1 Layout Design

The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information on the
board before one can go on to the artwork preparation. This means that a
concept, which clearly defines all the details of the circuit, is a
prerequisite before the actual layout can start. The detailed circuit diagram
is varying important for the layout designer but they must also be familiar
with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the equipment.
When

designing

the

layout

one

should

observe

the

minimum

size

(component body length and weight). Before starting to design the layout
have all the required components to hand so that an accurate assessment of
space can be made care must be taken so as to allow for adequate air flow
after the components have been mounted.

It might be necessary to turn some components round to a different angular

position

so

that

terminals

are

closer

to

the

connections

of

other

components. The scale can be checked by positioning the components on

the squad paper. If any connection crosses, then one can reroute to avoid
such condition. All common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a
common line routed around the perimeter of the layout this will act as the
ground plane. If possibly try to route the outer supply line ground plane. If
possibly try to route the other supply lines around the opposite edge of the
layout or through the center. The first step is to rearrange the circuit to
eliminate the crossover without altering the circuit detail in any way.
Plan the layout as if looking at the top side of the board first this
should be translated in reverse later for the etching pattern. Larger areas
are recommended to maintain good copper adhesive. It is important to bear
in mind always

that copper track width must be at least to the

recommended minimum dimensions and allowance must be made for

increased width where termination holes are needed from this aspect it can
become little tricky to negotiate the route for connections to small
transistors. One can affect the copper interconnection pattern in the
underside of the board in a way described below Make the interconnections
pattern looking like conventional point to point writing by routing uniform
width of copper from component to component
8.1.2 Etching Process
Etching process requires the use of chemicals, acid resistant dishes
and a running water supply. Ferric chloride is the maximum used solution,
but other enchants such as ammonium sulphate can be used.
Nitric acid can also be used but in general it is not used due to the
poisonous fumes. The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the
board using a latex type of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The
pattern is laid firmly on the copper, use vary sharp knife to cut round the
pattern carefully and remove the paper corresponding to the required
copper pattern areas. Then apply the resist solution clean outlines as for as

possible. While the board is drying to test all components. Before going to
the next stage, check the whole pattern and cross check against the circuit
diagram check for any foreign matter on the copper. The etching bath
should be in a glass or enamel disk. If using crystal of ferric chloride these
should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportion suggested. There
should be 0.5 Lt. Of water for 125 gm of crystal. The board is then
immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours, in this process only the non
hidden copper portion is etched out by the solution.

2FeCl3 + 2H2O + 3Cu 0 3CuCl2 + 2Fe (OH) 2

Waste liquid should be thoroughly diluted and buried in water land

never pour down the drain. To prevent particles of copper hindering further
etching, agitate the solutions carefully by gently twisting or rocking the
tray. The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is
needed to remove just the right amount of cooper. In spite of there being a
resist coating, there is no protection against etching away through exposed
copper edges; this leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that
the etched board can be removed properly and rinsed; this will halt etching
immediate.
Now the paint is washed out by the petrol. Now the copper layout on
PCB is rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only
the oxide layers over the Cu is removed. Now the holes are drilled at the
respective places, according to component layout as shown in figure.
Drilling is one of those operation that calls for great care, because most of
the holes will be made and vary small drill.

8.1.3 Component Assembly

There should be no damage, such as hair line crack in the copper on
PCB that could have a serious effect on the operational ability of the
completed assembly holes.

If there are, than they can and should be repaired first, by soldering
a short link of bare copper wire over the affected part. The most popular
method of holding all the items is to bend the wires further apart after they
have been inserted in the appropriate holes. This will hold the component
in position ready for soldering.
Some component will be considerably larger than others, occupying
and possibly partly obscuring component. Because of this, it is best to start
by mounting the smallest first and progressing through to the largest,
before starting, makes certain that no further drilling is likely to be
necessary, because access may be impossible later. When filling each group
of components, mark off each one on the components list as it is fitted and,
if we have to leave the job, we will know where to recommence.
Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items, there are
good reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last step. The main
point is that these components are varying sensitive to heat and if
subjected to prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could be
internally damaged. All the components before mounting are rubbed with
sand paper so that oxide layer is removed iron their tips. Now they are
mounted according to the components layout.

8.1.4 Soldering Guide

8.1.4.1 First a few safety precautions:

Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.

They are very hot (about 400C) and will give you a nasty burn.

Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron.

The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. An ordinary plastic flex
will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of burns
and electric shock.

Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.

Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment!

Work in a well-ventilated area.

The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite irritating.
Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the side of, not above, your work.

Wash your hands after using solder.

Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.

8.1.4.2 Preparing the soldering iron:

Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in the iron will take a few minutes to
reach its operating temperature of about 400C.

Dampen the sponge in the stand.

The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold tap for a
moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping
wet.

Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. You can check if it is ready
by trying to melt a little solder on the tip.

Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip.

Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called 'tinning' and it will help the
heat to flow from the iron's tip to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug
in the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to wipe the tip clean on
the sponge.

8.1.4.3 You are now ready to start soldering:

Fig 8.1.4.1 How a good soldering is done

Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.

Imagine you are going to write your name! Remember to never touch the hot
element or tip.

Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made.

Make sure it touches both the component lead and the track. Hold the tip there for
a few seconds and...

Feed a little solder onto the joint.

It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape as shown
in the diagram. Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.

Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still.

Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before you move the circuit board.

Inspect the joint closely.

It should look shiny and have a 'volcano' shape. If not, you will need to reheat it
and feed in a little more solder. This time ensure that both the lead and track are
heated fully before applying solder.

Fig. 8.1.4.2 Crocodile chip

8.1.4.4 Using a heat sink

Some components, such as transistors, can be damaged by heat when soldering so
if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint
and the component body. You can buy a special tool, but a standard crocodile clip works
just as well and is cheaper.
8.1.4.5 Soldering Advice for Components
It is very tempting to start soldering components onto the circuit board straight away, but
please take time to identify all the parts first. You are much less likely to make a mistake if
you do this!

Fig.8.1.4.5.1 Soldering Advice for Components

7.

Stick all the components onto a sheet of paper using sticky tape.

8.

Identify each component and write its name or value beside it.

9.

Add the code (R1, R2, C1 etc.) if necessary.

10.

Many projects from books and magazines label the components with codes

(R1, R2, C1, D1 etc.) and you should use the project's parts list to find these codes
if they are given.

11.

Resistor values can be found using the resistor colour code which is

explained on our Resistors page. You can print out and make your own Resistor
Colour Code Calculator to help you.

12.

Capacitor values can be difficult to find because there are many types with

different labeling systems! The various systems are explained on our Capacitors
page.Some components require special care when soldering. Many must be placed
the correct way round and a few are easily damaged by the heat from soldering.
Appropriate warnings are given in the table below, together with other advice
which may be useful when soldering. For most projects it is best to put the
components onto the board in the order given below:

Components

Pictures

Reminders and Warnings

Chip Holders
1
(DIL sockets)

Connect the correct way round by

making sure the notch is at the
correct
end.
Do NOT put the ICs (chips) in yet.

2 Resistors

No special precautions are needed

with resistors.

Small value capacitors

(usually less than 1F)

These may be connected either way

round.
Take care with polystyrene capacitors
because they are easily damaged by
heat.

Electrolytic capacitors
(1F and greater)

Connect the correct way round. They

will be marked with a + or - near one
lead.

5 Diodes

Connect the correct way round.

Take care with germanium diodes
(e.g. OA91) because they are easily
damaged by heat.

6 LEDs

Connect the correct way round.

The diagram may be labeled a or +
for anode and k or - for cathode; yes,
it really is k, not c, for cathode! The
cathode is the short lead and there
may be a slight flat on the body of
round LEDs.

7 Transistors

Connect the correct way round.

Transistors have 3 'legs' (leads) so
extra care is needed to ensure the
connections
are
correct.
Easily damaged by heat.

Wire Links between points

on the circuit board.
single core wire

9 Battery clips, buzzers and

other parts with their own

Use single core wire; this is one solid

wire which is plastic-coated. If there
is no danger of touching other parts
you can use tinned copper wire, this
has no plastic coating and looks just
like solder but it is stiffer.
Connect the correct way round.

wires
Wires to parts off the
circuit board, including
10 switches, relays,
variable resistors and
loudspeakers.

11 ICs (chips)

stranded wire

You should use stranded wire which

is flexible and plastic-coated. Do not
use single core wire because this will
break when it is repeatedly flexed.
Connect the correct way round.
Many ICs are static sensitive.
Leave ICs in their antistatic
packaging until you need them, and
then earth your hands by touching a
metal water pipe or window frame
before touching the ICs.

8.1.4.6 What is solder?

Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a
temperature of about 200C. Coating a surface with solder is called 'tinning' because of
the tin content of solder. Lead is poisonous and you should always wash your hands after
using solder.

Fig. 8.1.4.6.1 Reels of solder.

Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux, like the wires inside a mains flex.
The flux is corrosive, like an acid, and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts. This
is why you must melt the solder actually on the joint, not on the iron tip. Without flux
most joints would fail because metals quickly oxidize and the solder itself will not flow

properly onto a dirty, oxidized, metal surface. The best size of solder for electronics is
22swg (swg = standard wire gauge).

8.1.4.7 Desoldering
At some stage you will probably need to desolder a joint to remove or re-position a wire or
component. There are two ways to remove the solder:
8.1.4.7.1 With a Desoldering pump (solder sucker)

Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks.

Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.

Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.

Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the molten
solder into the tool.

Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.

The pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.

8.1.4.7.2. With solder remover wick (copper braid)

Apply both the end of the wick and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.

As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the wick, away from the joint.

Remove the wick first, then the soldering iron.

Cut off and discard the end of the wick coated with solder.

After removing most of the solder from the joint(s) you may be able to remove the wire or
component lead straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool). If the joint will not
come apart easily apply your soldering iron to melt the remaining traces of solder at the
same time as pulling the joint apart, taking care to avoid burning yourself.

8.1.4.8 First Aid for Burns

Most burns from soldering are likely to be minor and treatment is simple:

Immediately cool the affected area under gently running cold water.

Keep the burn in the cold water for at least 5 minutes (15 minutes is
recommended). If ice is readily available this can be helpful too, but do not delay
the initial cooling with cold water.

Do not apply any creams or ointments.

The burn will heal better without them. A dry dressing, such as a clean
handkerchief, may be applied if you wish to protect the area from dirt.

Seek medical attention if the burn covers an area bigger than your hand.

To reduce the risk of burns:

Always return your soldering iron to its stand immediately after use.

Allow joints and components a minute or so to cool down before you touch them.

Never touch the element or tip of a soldering iron unless you are certain it is cold.

8.2 COMPONENT USED

8.2.1 Semiconductors:
IC1 - AT89s52 microcontroller
IC2, IC3 - 74LS138 3-to-8 decoder

IC4 - 7805 5V regulator

T1-T16 - BC558 pnp transistor
D1-D4 - 1N4007 rectifier diode
LED LED1 - 5mm

8.2.2 Resistors (all -watt, 5% carbon):

R1-R16 - 2.2-kilo-ohm
R17-R32 - 120-ohm
-R37 - 10-kilo-ohm
R38 - 220-ohm

8.2.3 Capacitors:
C1, C2 - 33pF ceramic disk
C3 - 2200F, 25V electrolytic
C4 - 1F, 16V electrolytic
C5 - 10F, 16V electrolytic
C6 - 0.1F ceramic disk

8.2.4 Miscellaneous:
X1 - 220V AC primary to 9V,
500mA secondary transformer
XTAL - 11.0592MHz crystal
S0-S3 - 4-pin DIP switch

S4 - Push-to-on switch

8.3 Component Description

8.3.1 Resistors
Example:

Fig. 8.3.1.1 Physical structure

Circuit symbol:

Fig 8.3.1.2 Circuit symbol

8.3.1.1Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with
a light-emitting diode (LED) to
LED.

The Resistor
Color Code
Color Number
Black

Brown

Red

Orange

Yellow

Green

Blue

Violet

Grey

White

limit the current passing through the

Fig. 8.3.1.1.1 Resistor color code

8.3.1.2 Connecting and soldering

Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering.
Resistor values - the resistor color code
Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an omega ( ). 1
resistor values are often given in k
1k

= 1000

and M .

1 M = 1000000 .

Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands.

Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have 4 bands:

is quite small so

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.

The third band indicates the number of zeros.

The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may
be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

Fig. 8.3.1.2.1 Resistor color bands.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000
On circuit diagrams the

= 270 k .
is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.

8.3.2 Buzzer and Bleeper

These devices are output transducers converting electrical energy to sound. They contain
an internal oscillator to produce the sound which is set at about 400Hz for buzzers and
about 3 kHz for bleepers. Buzzers have a voltage rating but it is only approximate, for
example 6V and 12V buzzers can be used with a 9V supply. Their typical current is about
25mA. Beepers have wide voltage ranges, such as 3-30V, and they pass a low current of
about 10mA. Buzzers and beepers must be connected the right way round, their red lead is
positive (+).

8.3.3 Inductor (coil)

An inductor is a coil of wire which may have a core of air, iron or ferrite (a brittle
material made from iron). Its electrical property is called inductance and the unit for this is
the henry, symbol H. 1H is very large so mH and H are used, 1000H = 1mH and
1000mH = 1H. Iron and ferrite cores increase the inductance. Inductors are mainly used in
tuned circuits and to block high frequency AC signals (they are sometimes called chokes).
They pass DC easily, but block AC signals; this is the opposite of capacitors.

Fig. 8.3.3.1 Inductor (miniature)

Fig. 8.3.3.2 Circuit symbol

Inductors are rarely found in simple projects, but one exception is the tuning coil of
a radio receiver. This is an inductor which you may have to make yourself by neatly
winding enameled copper wire around a ferrite rod. Enameled copper wire has very thin
insulation, allowing the turns of the coil to be close together, but this makes it impossible
to strip in the usual way - the best method is to gently pull the ends of the wire through
folded emery paper.
Warning: A ferrite rod is brittle so treat it like glass, not iron! An inductor may be
connected either way round and no special precautions are required when soldering.

8.3.4 Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers are output transducers which convert an electrical signal to sound.
Usually they are called 'speakers'. They require a driver circuit, such as a 555 astable or an
audio amplifier, to provide a signal. There is a wide range available, but for many
electronics projects a 300mW miniature loudspeaker is ideal. This type is about 70mm
diameter and it is usually available with resistances of 8
64

and 64 . If a project specifies a

speaker you must use this higher resistance to prevent damage to the driving circuit.

Most circuits used to drive loudspeakers produce an audio (AC) signal which is combined
with a constant DC signal.
The DC will make a large current flow through the speaker due to its low
resistance, possibly damaging both the speaker and the driving circuit. To prevent this
happening a large value electrolytic capacitor is connected in series with the speaker, this
blocks DC but passes audio (AC) signals.

8.3.5 Diodes

Example:
Fig. 8.3.5.1 Diodes

Circuit symbol:
Fig. 8.3.5.2 Circuit symbol

8.3.5.1 Function

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit
symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version
of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.
8.3.5.2 Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a
person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage
across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all
normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost
constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep
characteristic (current-voltage graph).
8.3.5.3 Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real
diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits
because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction.
However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is
exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called
breakdown. Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small
currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents.
8.3.5.4 Connecting and soldering
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or
+ for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is
marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labeled with their code in small print;
you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes!
Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small
unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should
use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard

crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink. Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special
precautions are needed for soldering them.

8.3.8 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Example:
Fig 8.3.8.1 LED

Circuit symbol:
Fig 8.3.8.2 Circuit symbol of diode

8.3.8.1 Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
8.3.8.2 Connecting and soldering

Fig. 8.3.8.2.1 Connecting & soldering of an LED

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or +
for anode and k or for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the
short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside
the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification

method). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you
are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.

Fig 8.3.8.2.2 Circuit diagram for

LED

8.3.8.3 Testing an LED

Never connect an LED
power

directly to a battery or

supply!

It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn
it out. LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick
testing purposes a 1k

resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or

less. Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

8.3.8.4 Colors of LEDs

Fig. 8.3.8.4.1 Colors of LED.

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, and blue and white. Blue and
white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colors. The color of an LED is
determined by the semiconductor material, not by the coloring of the 'package' (the plastic
body). LEDs of all colors are available in uncolored packages which may be diffused
(milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The colored packages are also available
as diffused (the standard type) or transparent.

8.3.8.5 Tri-color LEDs

Fig. 8.3.8.5.1 Tri-color LED.

The most popular type of tri-color LED has a red and a green LED combined in
one package with three leads. They are called tri-color because mixed red and green light
appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on. The
diagram shows the construction of a tri-color LED. Note the different lengths of the three
leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs; the outer leads (a1 and
a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to
give the third color.

8.3.9 Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying
DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

8.3.9.1Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means
that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F
is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F

n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F

p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor
with different labeling systems! There are many types of capacitor but they can be split
into two groups, polarized and Unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

8.3.9.2 Polarized capacitors (large values, 1F +)

Examples:
Fig. 8.3.9.1.1 Polarized capacitor

Circuit symbol:
Fig. 8.3.9.1.2 Circuit diagram

8.3.9.2.1 Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat
when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are
attached to each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end
(10F in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the
circuit board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed
with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for
example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. It the
project parts list does not specify a voltage; choose a capacitor with a rating which is

greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most
battery circuits.

8.3.10 Multimeters

Fig. 8..3.10.1 Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD)

Multimeters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-position switch

on the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an
ohmmeter. They have several settings (called 'ranges') for each type of meter and the
choice of AC or DC. Some multimeters have additional features such as transistor testing
and ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency.
8.3.10.1 Choosing a multimeter
The photographs below show

modestly priced multimeters

which

for

general electronics use, you

should be able to buy meters

like these for less than 15.

A digital multimeter is the

best choice for your first

multimeter;

cheapest will be suitable for

are

suitable

even

the

testing simple projects.

Fig.8.3.10.2 Digital Multimeter

If you are buying an analogue multimeter make sure it has a high sensitivity of 20k
/V or greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics. The
sensitivity is normally marked in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value
(sensitivity on AC ranges is less important), the higher DC value is the critical one.
Beware of cheap analogue multimeters sold for electrical work on cars because their
sensitivity is likely to be too low.
8.3.10.2 Digital multimeters
All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use virtually no power
from the circuit under test. This means that on their DC voltage ranges they have a very
high resistance (usually called input impedance) of 1M

or more, usually 10M , and they

are very unlikely to affect the circuit under test. Typical ranges for digital multimeters like
the one illustrated: (the values given are the maximum reading on each range)

DC Voltage: 200mV, 2000mV, 20V, 200V, 600V.

AC Voltage: 200V, 600V.

DC Current: 200A, 2000A, 20mA, 200mA, 10A*.

*The 10A range is usually unused and connected via a special socket.

AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).

Resistance: 200 , 2000 , 20k , 200k , 2000k , Diode Test.

Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges cannot be
used to test diodes and other semiconductors. Multimeters are easily damaged by careless
use so please take these precautions:

Always disconnect the multimeter before adjusting the range switch.

Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit.

Never leave a multimeter set to a current range (except when actually taking a
reading).
The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the meter has a low
resistance.

CHAPTER 9

ADVANTAGE &
APPLICATION

9. ADVANTAGES & APPLICATION

9.1 Application
LED-based moving-message displays are becoming popular for transmitting
information to large groups of people quickly. These can be used indoors or outdoors. We
can find such displays in areas like railway platforms, banks, public offices, hotels,
training institutes, nightclubs and shops.

Limitation
At the heart of the moving-message display is Atmel AT89s52microcontroller It is
a low-power, high-performance, 8-bit microcontroller with 4 kB of flash programmable
and erasable read-only memory(PEROM) used as on-chip program memory, 128 bytes of

RAM used as internal data memory, 32 individually programmable input/output (I/O) lines
divided into four 8-bit

CHAPTER 10
FUTURE
ENHANCEMENT

10. FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

Many more messages would be possible if complete Port-3 is used for message
selection. Pins RxD,TxD, INT0 and INT1 have been kept free, so that these can be used
interfacing with the serial port of the PC. Also, interrupt pins can be used to display some
message and sound an alarm in the case of an emergency. For example, a fire sensor can
be connected to INT0 and a vibration detector to INT1. These pins can also be used to
send signals to synchronize a similar system that displays another related message at the
same time, so a 16-character, two line displays is made possible.

CHAPTER 11
SOFTWARE USED

11.

1. setupLayo1PCB
2. dip beta
3. AutoTRAX

SOFTWARE USED

CHAPTER 12
REFERENCE

12.

www.google.com
www.texas.com
www.efymeg.com
www.efy.com
www.micro.edu/echips.com
www.answers.com
www.google.com
www.national.com
www.ascom.com
www.electronicsconsulting.co.uk/
www.radarsystem.com
www.electronicsproject.com
www.scienceproject.com

REFERENCES