Sarvasastraprayojanamatmadarshanam

"The end of all the scientific pursuit and endeavor is to know our own self."
Human existence on earth, as per the Hindu mythology, dates back to over 8 million years. These years
have been divided into four "yugas," viz. Satyuga (5.6 million years), Treta (1.4 million years), Dwapar
(4.68 lakh years) and the present yug "Kalyug" that started approximately 5000 years ago. Ancient Indian
literature was considered to be written around 5000-1000 BC. Ancient Indian literature was considered to
be written around 5000-1000 BC(1). [1]
Indian thinkers placed enough emphasis on consciousness as the primary reality. This also led to the
conjecture that first and foremost, we are conscious self, one with Brahman. The proof in psychology was
considered to be subjective experience. The Indian tradition has approached the problem by focusing on
the quality, purity, and concentration of the antahkarana, the inner instrument of knowledge used by the
person who has experience. The Indian tradition has developed a plethora of methods to enhance the
quality and reliability of inner observation. The relook in Indian conceptualization of human nature reveals
interesting observations about the doctrines of mind, personality and self. Indian writing has placed
enough emphasis on the positive view of human nature. The human nature is viewed to be having strong
inwardly character. Human nature is kaleidoscopic; this has been amply stated by both eastern and
western scientists. [2] Western literature referred to experiences of self nearly 6000 years ago; the
experiences during sleep and dreams were considered to be wandering, shadow-like entities, which in
Shamanism came to be known as "spirits." This idea of a wandering spirit capable of ethereal travel into
and outside the body has existed among cultures until 8 th -5 th century BC. Homer explained the presence
of these entities, i.e. spirit, as the "soul." Interestingly, the location of these spirits was considered to be
head by Homer. [3],[4],[5]
In Indian scriptures, the roots of psychology can be traced back to the vast storehouse of ancient religious
and philosophical text. The analysis of various sources like Atharveda, the Upanishads, the Mahabharata
and others reveals the fine aspect of human nature. Ancient Indian thinkers were characteristically
synthetic in their views. According to Indian conception, human nature is not the accidental offshoot of an
unconscious nature, but has its root like every other thing in the being of an absolute self. [6]
Transpersonal psychology as a developing branch, also referred to as fourth force, has found in the
Indian tradition a significant body of knowledge on transcendental dimension of human
nature. [7] Tart [8] has referred to ancient traditions like Buddhism, Christian mysticism, Hinduism, Sufism
and others as spiritual psychologies. He is categorical in asserting that modern psychology developed in
western context has nothing to offer about self and one has to look toward these spiritual psychologies to
fill the void. Thus, transpersonalists have found Indian wisdom literature like Veda, Upanishads, Yoga
Sutra and others as spiritual psychologies and also as consciousness disciplines [9]which offer insight into
farther reaches of human nature. The thought has close affinity to that of Maslow, [10] who referred to the
transcendental dimension of human existence. Indian tradition has much to offer by way of theoretical
models and practical techniques in enhancing human potential and optimal well-being. In fact, the Holistic
Therapy concept of body-mind-spirit has been influenced by the Indian tradition, in particular by Ayurveda
and Yoga.

Evolution of ATMAN Concept in Indian Psychology

The analysis of the ultimate reality can be traced back to the upanishadic terms
of Brahman and Atman. Brahman in Upanishads meant "prayer," being derived from a root (brh) meaning
"to grow" or to burst forth. Brahman as prayer is what manifests itself in audible speech. The philosophic
significance it bears in the Upanishads is the primary cause of the universe that bursts forth
spontaneously in the form of nature as a whole and not as mere speech.
Atman originally meant "breath" and then came to be applied to whatever constitutes the essential part of
man, his self or soul. The distinctive meaning of Brahman is the ultimate source of outer world while that

of Atman is the inner self of man. Though they seem to be having independent significance, they were
used interchangeably. The source of the central essence of the individual is distinguished from the
physical form leading to the development of the word Atman as the meaning of soul or self. Atman as the
soul or self is the inmost truth of man; the method of unveiling the truth was subjective and often it was
based on introspection. The concept of universal consciousness was universalized, i.e. the universe was
described as parts of purusa or a giant man. To exemplify few, the departed soul was addressed in the
funeral hymns as "let thin eye go to the sun, thy breath, to the wind, etc." The notion of parallelism
between the individual and the world runs throughout the literature of the later vedic period. Atman as the
self or inmost truth of man becomes the cosmic soul or self. The concept of unity is so wonderfully
integrated into the upanishadic teaching that is expressed in the great saying (Mahavaka) like "I
am Brahman0" or by the equation Brahman-Atman. The individual as well as the world is the
manifestation of the same reality and both are therefore at bottom one. There is continuity between nature
and man. The Vedantic psychology asserts that Brahman is the innermost universal being characterized
by pure consciousness (Chit) and Atman (the self) is the innermost individual being characterized by
individual consciousness (Chitta). The essence of personality is something beyond body, life, mind and
intellect. It is Atman, the self. Its chief attribute is consciousness. The self exists before, in and after the
various states of consciousness: wakeful, dream and sleep. Denial of consciousness means denial of
everything else. Hence, mind and self are not identical. The self is knower (kshetrajna), the seer (drasta),
the witness (sakshi), and the immutable (kutastha). The composite whole of chit and achit (consciousness
and matter), kshetrajna and kshetra (knower and known), karta and karana (doer and its instrument) is
the total personality called Jiva and Jivatman - the embodied self. Jiva (the individual), Purusha (the
person), Samsari (the worldly
person), Vijnanaghana/Vijnanatma, Prajna, Atma/Pratyagatma, Sariri, Karta, Bhokta, and Kshetrajna are
synonymous.
This concept of manas had existed in the upanishadic teaching as cosmic soul. The Upanishads use two
other terms for the soul, viz. bhokta(experiment) and karta (agent), they together emphasize the
psychological or conscious aspect of the activity. The principle of unconscious activity is
termed prana and that of conscious activity is termed as manas. The conscious side activity of soul is
carried out by the manas with the aid of the 10 indriyas: 5 of knowledge (cakus, srota, tvak, ghrana,
touch, smell and flavor) and 5 of action (vak, pana, pada, payu andupastha, which are respectively the
organs of speech, holding, moving, excretion and generation).
Cognition: In Indian psychology, the root of the word "mind" was originally used in the sense of thinking
and that of the "soul" in the sense of a substantial principle different from it, of which the physical body
and development are manifestations.

Mind in Upanishads
The Aitareya Upanishad gives the following as the names
of manas: samjnana, ajana, vjana, prajnana, medhasdtisttidhrti, mati, manias, giti,smuti, sankalp, kratu, a
su, kama and vasa. The cognitive aspect of human nature was quantified in these descriptions. The
functions ofmanas may be translated as to determine knowledge, feeling of lordship, differential cognition
and intelligence. Besides the word manas, the word citta is also used in this Upanishad. Chitta is what
understands the pragmatic value of things.

Mind in Advaita Vedanta

Mind in the Advaita is described as the internal organ (antahkarna). The external organs are instruments
of either action or perception. Hands, feet, etc. are organs of activity; eye, ear, etc. are organs of sense
perception. The five sense organs have as their objects, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Mind is

capable of establishing contact with all the external organs. The entire apparatus of the internal organs
consists of four divisions: manas, buddhi, ahanakara and citta. The Advaitins often
include ahankar in manas and citta in buddhi, and divide antahkarna into budddhi and manas only.

Mind in the Purva Mimansa

The theory of mind according to Purva mimansa is different from Advaita. The two leading exponents of
the mimansa are Prabhakara and Kumarila. According to Prabhakara, manas is a substance (dravya),
atomic (anu), eternal and extremely mobile. Kumarila, like Prabhakara, treats manas as an organ
(indriya). It is never operative apart from the body. Advaita treats antehkarna as being composed of four
divisions; the mimansa as a whole treats it as being composed of only one entity manas.

Mind in the Samkhya and Allied Schools

The Samkhya account of mind is akin to that of the Advaita; mind is called antahkarna or inner organ and
consists of only three divisions:buddhi, ahankara, and manas. Manas is called an indriya or organ, the
number of indriyas thereby becoming 11 instead of 10. It has a special function to perform, namely,
perceiving sukha (pleasure) and dukkha (pain).
Atman or purusa is different from antahkarana. It is pure cit or consciousness. Antahkarna is due to the
reflection of Atman in prakrti, which is composed of
three gunas (constituents): sattva (purity), rajas (activity) and tamas (insensibility). Out
of prakrti comes mahat or buddhi; out ofbuddhi comes ahankara; out of ahankara comes manas and 10
organs of sense and action.
Manas is regarded as both an organ of sense and an organ of action, for the reason that it directs the
activities of both kinds of organs. All these mental processes, i.e. buddhi, ahankara, manas and the
senses can operate either simultaneously or in succession.

Mind-in the Nyay and Vaisesika School

Atman, according to the Upanishads, is sat (existence), cit (consciousness) and anand (bless). So, every
form of happiness or pleasure, the Advaita maintains, should be derived from the ananda of Atman.
According to Nyayavaisesika, Atman has 14
qualities: buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), dukha (pain), iccha (desire), dvesa (hatred),yatna (strivin
g), sankhya (number), pramiti (size), prathaktva (distinctness), amyoga (contact), vibhya (separation), bh
avana (imagination),dharma (merit) and adharma (demerit).
Buddhist literature has no conception of manas apart from buddhi, citta, or vjnana. The concept
of atman and pudgala are used interchangeably in Buddhist school of thought. It designates self with soul
(atman). They regarded it as being composed of five skandhas(aggregates): rupshandha or the
aggregate of matter, vednanshandha or the aggregate of concept, sanskaraskandha or the aggregate of
latent forces like instincts third skandha "samjna" means perception or the capacity to conceptualize
things, and vijnanaskandha refers to the aggregate of consciousness. Everything except rupshandha is
having psychological component. Personality is viewed just as an aggregate of aggregates.

Mind in Jainism

The concept of manas in Jainism is neither a single function nor a single entity. The name is given to two
different
things - dravyamanas or substantial manas and bhavamanas or ideal manas. The former is the matter
or pudgale and the latter is jnana orbuddhi and so belongs to Atman. There is a material as well as
spiritual manas. If we look at the analysis done by Indian authors, manas can be defined as a functional
concept constituted by mood, thought, and intellect,
which are nicely amalgamated and synchronized and cannot function in isolation. They always function in
unison. [11]

Affect : Indian Perspective

Indigenous contribution theory in this sphere is the theory of rasa. Rasa is esthetic pleasure, which is said
to be taken to the sublime bliss of God realization (Brahmasradesahodara). The Upanishads say that the
nature of Braham is ananda (bliss).
The writers on alankara (rhetoric, poetics) follow the upanishadic view and say that rasa is one and
is Braham. But it can take different forms, which are usually accepted as nine corresponding to
nine bhavas (emotions or sentiments). They
are sringara (love), una (heorism), karuna(pity), adhbuta (wonder), hasya (laughter), bhayanak (dread), bi
bhatsa (disgust), raudra (fury), and snata (quiet or peace). At their base lie the corresponding dominant
feelings of rati (sexual
craving), utsaha (energy), soka (sorrow), vismaya (astonishment), hasa (mirth), bhaya (fear),yugupsa (av
ersion), krodha (anger) and nirveda (self-disparagement). Besides the description of various rasas, they
have been given different symbolic meanings in consonance with their respective nature. The furious, the
terrible, the comic, the erotic, the pathetic, the horrible, the marvelous and the heroic are supposed to be
red, black, white, dark gray, dark blue, orange and yellow, respectively.
Interestingly, pleasure (sukha), happiness (pitti), and bliss (ananda) are supposed to form an ascending
series. The neutral feeling which characterizes the state of dispassion or indifference (vairagya) is
necessary for attaining the highest condition of the mind or soul. Higher feelings are those connected with
spiritual elevation, e.g. contentment, peace, magnanimity, love, kindness, humility, honesty, etc. and those
proceeding from an enlightened interest in the well-being of fellow greatness; they are classified under the
four forms: matre, karuna, muditaand upeksa. The training to master the feeling and achieving the higher
goals was inherent in our system, which is time and again reflected in modern psychology under
adaptability and emotional quotient.

Conation : Indian Perspective

There are four ideals of life which prompt a man to act. They
are dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire) and moksa (liberation). Though a big part of voluntary
action is connected with the obeying of scriptural injunctions, performance of appointed duties are the
cultivation of spiritual disciplines. Conation occurs in the whole range of behavior of human philosophy.
Jainism gives the longest list of actions that men perform for their moral elevation or undoing.

Types of Human Nature

Medical man undertook studies on human nature in terms of two main habits - the phthisis and apoplectic
- or in terms of four humors, i.e. food, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. Indian medical classification
categorizes men according to the preponderance of vayu (mind), pitta(bile), and kapha (phlegm). The
subsequent classification systems of Dr. Kretshmer and Dr. W Sheldon are equally comprehensive.
The Dharma Sastra has given a psycho-sociological scheme of classification in order to establish the
fourfold social structure (catuvana) on the sattva, rajas, and tamas. Under the distinctive principle
laws, karma and heredity are the determining factors in the development of human nature,
Caraka: The exponent of the Ayurveda system of medicine has analyzed the human constitution as a
mind-body complex, with a view to discovering the etiology of bodily and mental diseases and their
remedies.
Caraka's classification
A)

1. Brahmasattva type - Highly intellectual and moral

2. Aryasattva type - Endowed with care perception
3. Aindrasattva type - Energetic powerful
4. Yamyasattva type - Endowed with presence of mind
5. Varunassattva type - Calm but courageous
6. Kauberasattva type - Fond of family life
7. Gandharvasattva type - Fond of music

B) Following are named after demonic and aggressive animal species in which the element
of rajas predominates:

1. Asurasattva type - Characterized by physical prowess

2. Raksasa type - Marked by enduring wealth, aggressively cruel
3. Paisava type - Cowardly
4. Sarpa - Heroic in anger
5. Praithya - Loving food
6. Sakura - Given to sensuous desires

C) The following are named after lower animals, vegetation. These are the classes wherein the element
of tamas predominates.

1. Pasavasattva type - Dirty in dress

2. Matsyasattva type - Given to anger
3. Vanaspatya type - Living a purely vegetative life

Classification of human nature in Bhagavad Gita is based on the main faculties of human mind: thinking,
will, feeling (knowledge, devotion and action). They are being conceived as the margas or ways of life.
The individuals in whom will prevails take to karma yoga. Bhakti marga pursues the path of devotion. The
Gita attempts another classification of man's nature according to his sraddga (preponderant desire),
sattviki, rajasiki or tamasiki resulting from the dominating influence of the fundamental constituting
components of sattva, rajas or tamas in life of desire.

Therapeutic Aspects of Indian Cultural Traditions

Indian cultural traditions call it religious rituals or customary traditions. All of them are nicely woven into
the system providing cushioning impact. The supportive or reassuring aspect of Indian psychological
intervention is built in within the network of relationships. The nurturant aspect of relationships is the most
unique part of Indian culture. The significant word in the therapy is "arise" (uthishthe). This arousal is from
their areas of inactivity, from ignorance to knowledge, from apathy to a positive feeling and from inertia to
purposeful activity. Gita brings out the ingredients of the relationship so well that Krishna considers his
pupil as a friend capable of intelligent interrogation and exercising the power of discrimination. There is on
the part of Arjuna, a total sense of surrender and readiness to be instructed and to be told what is to be
done. The master and the pupil in Gita display what is extremely necessary for a rapport. The counseling
on the battle field was akin to crisis intervention and a noteworthy brief intervention. The immense
potentiality in resources of human mind is brought about in the discourse on the battle field. These
parameters indicate Gita as a masterpiece of psychotherapy touching upon every aspect of mental
activity.
Nasto Mohan Smritit Labdha
tvatprasadhanmayacyuta
Sthitosrigatsamsehah
Karisyecacnamtava
"My delusion is destroyed. I have regained my memory through your grace Achyuta. I am firm. I am free
from doubt. I shall act according to your word."
These psychotherapeutic traditions provided a global framework of physical psychological and spiritual
health. The rescue from teen jap-addhi, uyaadhi and upaadhi was the goal of these traditions.
The buddhist tradition
The way of Nirvana was provided by the Buddhist tradition. Psychology of Nirvana considered Nirvana to
be the goal of mental health. Nirvana is attained as a result of transformation - a transformation is a state
of self-fulfillment, realistic self-evaluation, freedom from inner conflicts and a stable emotional life.
The yogic tradition

Yoga means union -union of the individual consciousness with cosmic consciousness. The ancient
Indians set a high value on introspection and reflection. Through the meticulous study and practice of
Yoga, they perfected their faculty of intuition, attained serenity of mind, and made very careful analyses of
the constitution of the mind and the mental processes. The Buddha synthesized and integrated the main
ideas of the Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, laying emphasis on the exercise of concentration, and
developed the most comprehensive psychology of intuition, in which intuition was considered as a higher
level/form of consciousness or Bodhi. [12]
The bhakti tradition
Saheja is seen as an ideal of mental health. Saheja is both a process and a state characterized by
spontaneity, bringing about harmony with oneself and culminating into illumination.
Carl Gustav Jung was significantly influenced by the teachings of the East, [13] Eugene Taylor, in his
book [14] , on the history of spirituality, comments on the basis of existing trends that Indian psychology is
bound to have an increasing influence on the world culture, especially as a new epistemology. It will be
appropriate to conclude that the core of Indian psychology is its spiritual understanding. Its real value will
show itself when this spiritual knowledge is used not only for individual liberation, as it has done in the
past, but also for a comprehensive, collective transformation of life, and this has future implications. The
Indian philosophy and Indian psychology has a treasure house of practical and spiritual knowledge as its
heritage.

Conclusion

An attempt has been made here to present, in brief, the main thrust of different schools of Indian
philosophy in as much as it relates to an understanding of human personality and its behavioral
paradigms. It is evident from the above that the vast reservoir of knowledge and wisdom that forms an
inherent part of Indian philosophers and thinkers has much to offer to the students of psychology. The
immense psychotherapeutic value that each school of thought individually offers is indeed promising to
the mental health professionals.
http://www.industrialpsychiatry.org/article.asp?issn=0972-6748%3Byear%3D2010%3Bvolume
%3D19%3Bissue%3D2%3Bspage%3D77%3Bepage%3D81%3Baulast%3DSrivastava

Islamic Beliefs about Human Nature

According to the Qur'an, Allah "created man from a clot of blood" at the same time he created
the jinn from fire. {1}Humans are the greatest of all creatures, created with free will for the purpose of
obeying and serving God.
The Qur'an includes a version of the biblical story of the fall of Adam (Qur'an 7), but it does not conclude
from it the doctrine of original sin as some Christian theologians have. In the Quranic version of the story,
Adam and Eve begged God's forgiveness (7:23) and he punished them with a mortal life on earth but
added, "from it [earth] you will be taken out at last" (7:25). Since Allah forgave the sins of the first pair,
Muslims believe, all are born in Al-Fitra, a natural state of submission to Allah. {2} True repentance from
sin returns a person to this original sinless state.

According to Muslim theology, mankind's chief failing is pride and rebellion. In their pride, humans attempt
to partner themselves with God and thereby damage the unity of God. Thus pride is Islam's cardinal sin.
The cardinal virtue, then, is submission, or islam.
References
1. Qur'an 96:1-3.
2. Qur'an 20:122-23.
http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/beliefs/human.htm
Qualities of human life
The status of life as a human, at first glance, has nothing very special about it. In the hierarchy
of Buddhist cosmology it is low but not entirely at the bottom. It is not intrinsically marked by extremes of
happiness or suffering, but all the states of consciousness in the universe, from hellish suffering to divine
joy to serene tranquility can be experienced within the human world.
Humans can be seen as highly favored, in that they have an immediate reason to seek out
the Dharma and yet also have the means to listen to it and follow it. Among the lower realms, Pretas (aka
hungry ghosts), and dwellers in the Narakas (Buddhist hell(s)) are gripped by pain and fear, and can only
endure their lot but cannot better themselves. Animals are intellectually unable to understand the Dharma
in full. The way of life of the Asuras is dominated by violence and antithetical to the teachings of the
Dharma. Most of the Brahmas and Devas simply enjoy reaping the fruits of their past actions and think
that they are immortal and forever to be happy and so they don't try to practice the Dharma. When their
past karmas have all had their result, these devas will fall into lower worlds and suffer again. The lowest
sorts of devas deal with strife, love, and loss just as humans do, but even so they lack the spur of
imminent mortality that can lead humans to seek, not merely a better future life, but an escape
from sam sraaltogether. However there are stories of beings in these realms deciding to practice and
reaching enlightenment. [2][3]
For this reason, life in the world of humans is known as "the precious human rebirth". Born close to the
pivot point of happiness and suffering, humans have a unique capacity for moral choices with long term
significance.[4]
The human rebirth is said to be extremely rare. The Majjhima Nikaya (129 Balapandita Sutta) compares it
to a wooden cattle-yoke floating on the waves of the sea, tossed this way and that by the winds and
currents. The likelihood of a blind turtle, rising from the depths of the ocean to the surface once in a
hundred years, putting its head through the hole in the yoke is considered greater than that of a being in
the animal realm, hungry ghost realm or hell realm achieving rebirth as a human. This is because,
according to the sutta, in these realms there is no Dhamma (Sanskrit Dharma), no practicing what is right,
no doing what is wholesome, and no performing of merit. However it is generally implied that if one is
already living as a human they will continue to be reborn in the human world based on good works and so
they will be one again and again as long as they are moral and good in the ways described in Buddhist
rules regardless of whether or not they are Buddhist themselves. The idea is that one must be good and
moral because falling below the human realm is dangerous as the odds of one becoming a human again
with any great frequency is slim. [5]
Among humans there are also better and worse conditions for attaining enlightenment. Besides being
born as a human, the favorable conditions for obtaining enlightenment are:

Being born a human at a time when a Buddha has arisen, has taught the Dharma, and has left
a Sagha that carries on the teachings; at such times there is a chance to learn the Dharma.

Being born a human in countries where the Dharma is known. Buddhist commentaries contrast
the "central lands" where Buddhism is known and can be practiced (originally just northern India, but
now including a much larger portion of the globe) with "border countries" where Buddhism is
unknown or cannot be practiced due to legal or practical impediments, for instance, a lack of qualified
teachers. Technically a "central land" is one which possesses any one of the
Buddhist saghas of bhiksus, bhiksuns, upsakas or upsiks.

Being born a human who has the physical and intellectual capacity to grasp the basic message of
the Dharma.

Accepting the relationship between good or evil actions and their consequences, believing that
good actions will lead to a happier life, a better rebirth or to enlightenment.

Confidence in the moral teachings conveyed in the Vinaya.

Avoiding crimes against people and against the Dharma.

Having sincere compassion for other people.[6]

Just as it is difficult to obtain birth as a human, it is also difficult to be born at the time when a Buddha's
teaching is still available. Out of the infinite kalpas (incredibly long periods) in time, most have no
Buddhas appearing in them at all. The present kalpa is called "Fortunate" because it is said that 1,000
Buddhas will appear in it, something that is very unusual. [7]
For this reason, Buddhist teachers say that one's present condition as a human should be valued very
highly, and not allowed to slide by, as the combination of existence as a human and the presence of a
Buddha's teaching may not come again for a very long time. Any human, in this view, who finds himself or
herself in a position to learn the Dharma, would be remiss if he or she did not take advantage of it. This
view also stands in contrast to those who would claim that, if one is to be reborn multiple times, there is
no need to worry about one's actions in this life as they can always be amended in the future; rather,
there is no assurance that in a long series of lives one will ever obtain the right circumstances for
enlightenment, so it is important to seize the day.
With regard to a fortunate human life, Pabongka Rinpoche said: "Instead of feeling so much regret when
we lose our money, we should develop regret when we waste our human life." [8]
[edit]Myth of human origins
According to the Aggaa Sutta (DN.27), humans originated at the beginning of the current kalpa as
deva-like beings reborn from the bhsvara deva-realm. They were then beings shining in their own light,
capable of moving through the air without mechanical aid, living for a very long time, and not requiring
sustenance.
Over time, they acquired a taste for physical nutriment, and as they consumed it, their bodies became
heavier and more like human bodies; they lost their ability to shine, and began to acquire differences in
their appearance. Their length of life decreased, they differentiated into two sexes and became sexually
active. Following this, greed, theft and violence arose among them, and they consequently established

social distinctions and government and elected a king to rule them, called Mahsammata, "the great
appointed one". Some of the kings of India in the Buddhas day claimed descent from him.
[edit]Nature of the human realm
In the visionary picture of the human realm presented in Buddhist cosmology, humans live on four
continents which are, relatively speaking, small islands in a vast ocean that surrounds the axial worldmountain of Sumeru, and fills most of the Earth's surface. The ocean is in turn surrounded by a circular
mountain wall called Cakravda (Sanskrit) or Cakkavl a
(Pli) which marks the horizontal limit of the
earth. Because of the immenseness of the ocean, the continents cannot be reached from each other by
ordinary sailing vessels, although in the past, when the cakravartin kings ruled, communication between
the continents was possible by means of the treasure called the cakraratna (Pli cakkaratana), which a
cakravartin and his retinue could use to fly through the air between the continents.
The four continents are:

Jambudvpa (Sanskrit) or Jambudpa (Pli) or ( is also translated as in

Chinese) is located in the south.

Prvavideha or Pubbavideha or ( is also translated as ) is located in the

east.

Aparagodnya or Aparagoyna or ( is also translated as ) is located in

the west.

Uttarakuru or is located in the north.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism
No age knows so much and so many things about human nature as does ours, yet no age knows less
about what man really is. Having lost their awareness of God, many people today are concerned primarily
with their present existence. The loss of awareness of God makes many people uncertain about the
meaning of life, because it is only in reference to God and His revelation that the nature and destiny of
human life can be truly understood.
The question of human nature has been a consistent concern in the history of Western thought. In
chapter 1 we noted that, historically, most Christians have defined human nature dualistically, that it
consists of a material, mortal body and an immaterial, immortal soul which survives the body at death.
Beginning with the Enlightenment (a philosophic movement of the 18th century), attempts have been
made to define man as a machine that is part of a giant cosmic machine. Human beings hopelessly are
trapped within a deterministic universe and their behavior is determined by such impersonal and
involuntary forces as genetic factors, chemical secretions, education, upbringing, and societal
conditioning. People do not have an immaterial, immortal soul, only a mortal, material body that is
conditioned by the determinism of the cosmic machine.
This depressing materialistic view that reduces human beings to the status of a machine or an animal
negates the Biblical view of man created in the image of God. Instead of being "like God," human beings
are reduced to being "like an animal." Perhaps as a response to this pessimistic view, various modern
pseudo-pagan cults and ideologies (like the New Age) deify human beings. Man is neither "like an animal"
or "like God," he is god. He has inner divine power and resources that await to be unleashed. This new
humanistic gospel is popular today because it challenges people to seek salvation within themselves by
tapping into and releasing the powers and resources that slumber within.

What we are experiencing today is a violent swing of the pendulum from an extreme materialistic view of
human nature to an extreme mystic, deification view. In this context, people are confronted with two
choices: Either human beings are nothing but preprogrammed machines, or they are divine with unlimited
potential. The Christian response to this challenge is to be sought in the Holy Scriptures which provide the
basis for defining our beliefs and practices. Our study shows that Scripture teaches we are neither
preprogrammed machines nor divine beings with unlimited potential. We are creatures created in the
image of God, and dependent upon Him for our existence in this world and in the world to come.
Objectives of the Chapter. This chapter seeks to understand the Old Testament view of human nature
by examining four prominent anthropological terms, namely,soul, body, heart, and spirit. The various
meanings and usages of these terms are analyzed to determine if any of them is ever used to denote an
immaterial substance which functions independently of the body.
Our study indicates that the Old Testament does not distinguish between physical and spiritual organs,
because the entire range of higher human functions such as feeling, thinking, knowing, loving, keeping
Gods commandments, praising, and praying is attributed not only to the "spiritual" organs of the soul and
spirit but also to the physical organs of the heart and, occasionally, to the kidneys and viscera. The soul
(nephesh) and the spirit (ruach) are used in the Old Testament to denote, not immaterial entities capable
of surviving the body at death, but a whole spectrum of physical and psychological functions.
In undertaking this investigation we must keep in mind that Bible writers were not familiar with modern
physiology or psychology. They did not necessarily know, for example, that the sensation we experience
when our hand touches an object is caused by nerves that transmit the information to the brain. The word
"brain" does not occur in the English Bible. Bible writers knew nothing of the nervous system or
respiratory system. For the most part, they defined human nature in terms of what they saw and felt.
This chapter is divided into five major parts. The first part examines what the creation story tells us about
the original make-up of human nature. The subsequent four parts analyze the four fundamental terms of
human nature that we find in the Old Testament, namely, soul, body, heart, and the spirit. Our
investigation indicates that all these terms describe not wholly different substances each with its own
distinct functions, but the interrelated and integrated capacities and functions of the same person. The
fact that a person consists of various parts which are integrated, interrelated, and functionally united,
leaves no room for the notion of the soul being distinct from the body and thus removing the basis for the
belief in the survival of the soul at the death of the body.
PART I: HUMAN NATURE AT CREATION
Creation, Fall, and Redemption. In seeking to understand the Biblical view of human nature, we must
recognize first that the meaning of human life is defined in Scripture in terms of creation, the fall into sin,
and Gods plan of redemption. These three basic truths are fundamental for understanding the Biblical
view of human nature and destiny. Chronologically, these are the first three truths we encounter in
Genesis 1 through 3, where we find the first account of creation, the Fall, and redemption. Thematically,
everything else in Scripture is a development of these three concepts. They provide the prism through
which human existence, with all its problems, is viewed and defined.
When Jesus addressed the question of marriage and divorce, He approached it first in terms of what
marriage was meant to be at creation. Then He looked at it from the perspective of the Fall, because sin
explains why allowance was made for divorce (Matt 19:1-8). Similarly, Paul appeals to creation, the Fall,
and redemption to explain the role distinctions between men and women (1 Cor 11:3-12; 1 Tim 2:12-14)
as well as their equality in Christ (Gal 3:28).
When we view human nature from the Biblical perspective of creation, the Fall, and redemption, we
immediately see that creation tells us about the original make up of human nature, the Fall about its
present condition, and redemption about the restoration being accomplished in the present and

consummated in the future. Thus a comprehensive Biblical definition of human nature must take into
consideration what human nature was at creation, what it became after the Fall, and what it is now and
will become in the future as a result of redemption.
The Creation of Man. The logical starting point for the study of the Biblical view of human nature is the
account of the creation of man. We use here the term "man" as used in Scripture, namely, including both
man and woman. The first important Biblical statement is found in Genesis 1:26-27: "Then God said: Let
us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and
over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that
creeps upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male
and female he created them."
This first account of mans creation tells us that human life began not as a result of fortuitous natural
forces or of a chance mutation in the animal world, but as a result of a personal creative act of God. It was
after the Lord had called into existence the earth with all its vegetation and animals that He announced
the making of man. It is as if people were the specific focus of Gods creation. The impression conveyed
by the narrative is that when God came to the creation of man, He entered into something different and
distinctive.
At the end of each stage of the worlds creation, God stopped to contemplate what He had wrought and to
pronounce it "good" (Gen 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25). Then God set out to create a being that could have
lordship over His creation; a being with whom he could walk and talk. The adverb "then" at the beginning
of verse 26 (RSV) suggests that the creation of man was something special. All the previous creative acts
of God are presented as a continuous series linked together by the conjunction "and" (Gen 1:3, 6, 9, 14,
20, 24). But when the cosmic order of creation was finished and the earth was ready to sustain human
life, then the Lord uttered His intention of making man. "Then God said, Let us make man" (Gen 1:26).
After creating man, God pronounced His whole creation "very good" (Gen 1:31).
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