Question :

What is the difference between a Verilog task and a Verilog function?

The following rules distinguish tasks from functions:
A function shall execute in one simulation time unit;
a task can contain time-controlling statements.
A function cannot enable a task;
a task can enable other tasks or functions.
A function shall have at least one input type argument and shall not have an output or
inout type argument;
a task can have zero or more arguments of any type.
A function shall return a single value; a task shall not return a value.
Question :
What is a feedback? And explain different types of feedback.
:Feedback is a process whereby some proportion of the output signal of a system is
passed (fed back) to the input. This is often used to control the dynamic behaviour of
the system.
Types of feedback:
Negative feedback: This tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilizes and
linearizes operation). Negative feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted, into
the system's input; generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated.
Positive feedback: This tends to increase output. Positive feedback, sometimes
referred to as "cumulative causation", is a feedback loop system in which the system
responds to perturbation (A perturbation means a system, is an alteration of function,
induced by external or internal mechanisms) in the same direction as the perturbation.
In contrast, a system that responds to the perturbation in the opposite direction is
called a negative feedback system.
Bipolar feedback: which can either increase or decrease output.

feedback is a process of some part of output is feed in the input that is known as feed
back.
two type of feedback:
negative
positive
feedback is the process in which taking some fraction of output and feed it in input for
getting stabilized,noise free output

Feedback is the process in which some portion of output inject in the input through
resister network.feedback are of two types : 1)negative feedback
2)positive feedback

Feedback is the injection of output signal to part of the system input.

It is positive when output signal is fed without inverting its polarity.
Feedback is negative when output signal is flipped before being added to input
The output signal is connected(fed) to the input signal is called
geedback....................They are two types of feedback. 1)Positive feedback 2)Negative
feedfack...
Question :
Explain AM and FM.
AM-Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.
FM-Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.
Amplitude Modulation(AM)-In AM,amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the baseband signal(original information signal is reffered to as
baseband signal such as voice,video etc) keeping phase and frequency constant.
In AM,Modulation Index(m)=Em/Ec
where Em=modulating signal voltage
Ec=carrier signal voltage
when Em<=Ec,Modulation Index(m) lies between 0&1 and no distortion is introduced
in the AM wave.
when Em>=Ec,Modulation Index(m) is greater than 1,this will distort the shape of
AM signal and this distortion is called as over modulation.
Frequency Modulation(FM)-In FM,frequency of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the baseband signal kepping phase and amplitude constant.
In FM,Modulation Index(mf)=fm/fm
where fm=fmax-fmin/2
=Maximum frequency deviation
fm=Modulating frequency
Question :
What is attenuation?
Attenuation is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal. Signals may
attenuate exponentially by transmission through a medium, or by increments
calculated in electronic circuitry or set by variable controls. Attenuation is an
important property in telecommunications and ultrasound applications because of its
importance in determining signal strength as a function of distance. Attenuation is
usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of medium (dB/cm, dB/km, etc)
and is represented by the attenuation coefficient of the medium in question

Attenuation is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal. Signals may

attenuate exponentially by transmission through of the output.
the attenuation is the decrease in the signal strength due to passing through a medium
which is noisy..
the attenuation causes the amplitude to reduc
attenuation controls the amplitude of input signal
It ruduces the power level of the signal.the resister network is used for this purpose.
Attenuation=20log(Vmax/Vmin) IN dB
20log(vmax/vmin)in db=attenution
attenution is done at medium forthat we use a teriminal is called as reasistor it reduce
sisnal strenggth and amp,litude levels while propigating throuh medium
it is the process of reducing amplitude of the transmition signal it is know as
attenuation
it levels signal
attenuation is the process by which the strength of the signal is to be decreased and at
a particular range of a frequency of the signal is to be passed out otherwise its
attenuate or in other words sttoped therefore the signal is to attenuated and also occur
the reduction in the intensity of that signal.
Reduction of signal strength during transmission.Attenuation is the opposite of
amplification and is normal when a signal is sent from one point to another

it attenuates the signal without changing its magnitude.

Attenuation is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal. Signals may

attenuate exponentially by transmission through a medium, or by increments
calculated in electronic circuitry or set by variable controls. Attenuation is an
important property in telecommunications and ultrasound applications because of its
importance in determining signal strength as a function of distance. Attenuation is
usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of medium (dB/cm, dB/km, etc)
and is represented by the attenuation coefficient of the medium in question
Question :
What is a semi conductor?

A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of

a conductor and that of an insulator(An Insulator is a material that resists the flow of

electric current. It is an object intended to support or separate electrical conductors

without passing current through itself); it can vary over that wide range either
permanently or dynamically.

Semiconductor is material,thats conducting range is in between conductor and

insulator.

A semiconductor is a solid substance which has an energy gap of 1eV. Which does not
conducts at 0'K temperatue. But Conducts by addition of impurities or by

Simple example of that is Diode which is semiconductor. Having two P and N

junctions with barrier as insulator between two junctions which are conductor.
together called semiconductor

Semiconductors are solid materials with a level of electrical conductivity between that
of insulators and conductor

semi means half .that means a semiconductor is half conductor and half insulator .it
acts as a insulator at 0 deree celcius or -273k.and acts as a conductor at more than
0degree celcius

semi means half .that means a semiconductor is half conductor and half insulator .it
acts as a insulator at 0 deree celcius or -273k.and acts as a conductor at more than
0degree celcius

the material who electrical proporities lay's between conductor and insulater is known
semiconductor,,,,,?
as Question :
How does a mobile work?

When you talk into a mobile telephone it converts the sound of your voice to
radiofrequency energy (radio waves). The radio waves are transmitted through the air

to a nearby base station. The base station then sends the call through the telephone
network until it reaches the person you are calling. When you receive a call on your
mobile phone the message travels through the telephone network until it reaches a
base station near to you. The base station sends out radio waves, which are detected
by your telephone and converted back to speech. Depending on the equipment and the
operator, the frequency that each operator utilises is 900MHz, 1800MHz or
2100MHz. The mobile phone network operates on the basis of a series of cells. Each
cell requires a radio base station to enable it to function.
There are three types of base station and each has a particular purpose:
The Macrocell is the largest type and provides the main coverage for mobile phone
networks.
The Microcell is used to improve capacity in areas where demand to make calls is
high, such as shopping centres.
The Picocell only has a range of a few hundred metres and may be used to boost weak
signals within large buildings.
Each base station can only cope with a certain number of calls at any one time. So if
demand exceeds the capacity of a base station an additional base station is needed.
mobile phone is have transmitter and reciever both so when we call over voice is
analog and in mobile we use ADC to convert into digital signal so digital signal first
accepted the nearest base station and then it send to the desired mobile number and
vice versa process repeat.
When you talk into a mobile telephone it converts the sound of your voice to
radiofrequency energy (radio waves). The radio waves are transmitted through the air
to a nearby base station. The base station then sends the call to main station the call is
now send the main station of the receiver then call again come to base station near to
receiver then call is send on receiver mobile.
when we dial a number and make a call then msg will sent to near by base station and
then to MTSO(Mobile Telephone Switching Office) the whole operation will be
performed by this MTSO thats why we say MTSO as a heasrt of telephone system
.After receiving the info MTSO(moreover MTSO receives a unique ID regarding your
cell possess ) will sends this info to all base stations so based on this the required
number is detected by the base stations which is nearer to person who you
called...thats it now we can transmit our msg by converting voice to radio frequency
and freq range would be around 800MHZ.Asusual the techniques to overcome
dropped calls yep using handoff mechanism....
mobile is a device for 'transreceiver 'is a part in mobile very important part for
connecting about
mobile is the electronic devices. it is the heavy information collected.
When a cellular phone is switched on, but is not yet on call, it first scans the group of
forward control channels to determine the one with the powerful signal, and then
monitors that control channel until the signal drops below operable level. After this it
again scans channels to search the strongest base station signal. For each mobile
system, the control channels are defined over the entire geographic area covered and

typically make up about 5-6% of the total number of channels available in the
system(the remaining are dedicated to voice and data traffic for the end-users). When
a call is made to a mobile user, the MSC carry off the request to all base stations in the
system. The subscriber?s telephone number is then broadcast as a paging message
over all of the forward control channels through out the mobile system. The mobile
receives the paging message sent by the base station which it scans, and reacts by
identifying itself over the reverse control channel. The base station relays the
acknowledgment sent by the mobile and informs the MSC of the handshake. Then,
the MSC orders the base station to move the call to a vacant voice channel within the
cell. At this point, the base station signals the mobile to change frequencies to a
vacant forward/ reverse voice channel pair, at which point another data message is
transmitted over the forward voice channel to order the mobile telephone to beep,
thereby asking mobile user to answer the phone. Once a call is started, the MSC
adjusts the transmitted power of the mobile and varies the channel of the mobile
equipment and base stations in order to retain call quality as the user moves in and out
of the range of base station. This phenomenon is called as handoff. Special control
signaling is enforced to the voice channels so that the mobile unit may be managed by
the base station and the MSC while a call is ongoing.
When a mobile starts a call, a call startup request is sent on the reverse control
channel. With this request the mobile unit forwards its Mobile identification number
(MIN), ESN, and the phone number of the called party. The mobile also transfuses a
station class mark (SCM) which shows what the maximum transmitter power level is
for the particular subscriber. The cell base station acquires this data and sends it to the
MSC. The MSC authenticates the request, makes connection to the call party through
the PSTN, and orders the base station and mobile user to move to a vacant forward
and reverse voice channel pair to permit the conversation to begin.
All mobile systems give a service usually called as roaming. This permits users to
react in service areas other than the one from which service is undersigned. When a
mobile enters a city or area that is different from its home service area, it is registered
as a roamer in the new service area. This is executed over the FCC, since each roamer
is camped on to an FCC at all times. Every several minutes, the MSC prints a global
command over each FCC in the system, asking for all mobiles which are previously
not enrolled to report their MIN and ESN over the RCC. New unregistered mobiles in
the system regularly report back their user information upon receiving the registration
request, and the MSC than uses MIN/ESN information to request billing status from
home location register (HLR) for each roaming mobile equipment. If a specific
roamer has roaming permission for billing purposes, the MSC registers the user as a
valid roamer. Once enrolled, roaming mobiles are allowed to receive and make calls
from that location, and billing is routed automatically to the user?s home service
provide.
mobile is one which sends or receives a message,it is also called transpounder.mobile
converts voice siganal into radio signal this happens when the process is in between
sender and receiver ones the received call again the radio signal is converted into
voice signal
Question :
Example for negative feedback and positiv

Answers:

Example for ?ve feedback is ---Amplif

And for +ve feedback is ? Oscillators
Question :
Where do we use AM and FM?

Answers:
AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz.
FM is used for audio signals for example Radio. Ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz.
FM is used for audio signals for example Radio. Ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
AM used in tv.these signals range 565 hz to 1650hz..it covers low range
FM used in radio.these signals range 88 to 108mz.It covers large areas
AM IS USED IN T.V THESE SIGNALS RANGES FROM 565HZ TO 1650HZ.
FM USED IN RADIO SIGNALS RANGES FROM 88 TO 108MZ.
AM is used for motion picture (for video).(535 to 1705kHz)
FM is used for voice.(88 to 108MHz)

Question :
How many satellites are required to cover the earth

Answers:
3 satellites are required to cover the entire earth, which is placed at 120 degree to each
other. The life span of the satellite is about 15 years.
three satellite are required to cover the total earth surface.
actually there are maximum possible 3 satellites are required which are placed apart
from 120 degree to each other.
actully there are max 3 satellites th degreeat is rotate 120
Answers:
These are the two different means of mobile communication being presently used
worldwide. The basic difference lies in the Multiplexing method used in the aerial
communication i.e. from Mobile Tower to your mobile and vice versa.
CDMA uses Code Division Multiple Access as the name itself indicates, for example
you are in a hall occupied with number of people speaking different language. You

will find that the one language you know will be heard by you and the others will be
treated like noise. In the same manner each CDMA mobile communication takes
place with a "code" communicating between them and the other end if one is knowing
that code then only it can listen to the data being transmitted i.e. the communication is
in the coded form.
On the other hand GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) uses
narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio
frequency. TDMA works by dividing a radio frequency into time slots and then
allocating slots to multiple calls. In this way, a single frequency can support multiple,
simultaneous data channels.

GSM provide international roaming while CDMA does not.

GSM works on 900 and 1800 MHz while CDMA does only on 900 MHz.
Question :
What is an Integrated Circuit?

Answers:
An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched onto
a silicon chip. Their main advantages are low cost, low power, high performance, and
very small size
Different types(or)thousands electronic components(resistors,transistors,....) of of
electronic circuit components are integrated (or)fabricated on a single chip.
An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched onto
a silicon chip. Their main advantages are low cost, low power, high performance, and
very small size
ic(integrated circuit) are those circuits on which various electronics component
fabricated on a single chip. this chip have small size and we can replace when it get
damaged.using ic we can reduce the bulkyness n power of our device.
integration of electronic components in a single chip is called an IC.
electonic circuits r integrated in the silicon chip..for ex: we can connect wires from
one component to another. but it takes lots of time and space.but using this chip small
space is enough
An integrated circuit(IC) which is also calld as microchip is a electronic circuit which
has number of components fabricated on a single silicon chip. By this circuit is less
complexity, easy to understand less cost,etc.

IC(integrated circuit) is a miniature, low cost electronic circuit, consisting of active

and pasive component . both are unrepairable joint together on a single chip of
SILICON is called IC.
fabrication of complete electronic circuit on a small silicon wafer is called IC or
integrated circuit.
Question :
What is CDMA, TDMA, FDMA?

Answers:
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by various
radio communication technologies. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and
a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple
users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time division
multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division multiple
access (FDMA) divides it by frequency.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people
wish to communicate with each other. To avoid confusion, people could take turns
speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in
different directions (spatial division). In CDMA, they would speak different
languages. People speaking the same language can understand each other, but not
other people. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code.
Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code
can understand each other.
In FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access),the available bandwidth of the
common channel is divided into bands that are separated by guard bands(to prevent
station interferences).Each staion is allocated a band to send its data and also uses a
bandpass filter to confine the transmitter frequencies.
In TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access),the bandwidth is just one channel that is
timeshared between different stations.Each station is allocated a time slot during
which it can send data and each station transmits its data in is assigned time slot.
In CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access),one channel carries all transmissions
simultaneously and using a unique code for each transmitted signal,the mobile and
base station are able to distinguish between signals transmitted simultaneously over
the same freuqency allocation.
CDMA can also be combined with FDMA and TDMA technologies to increase
system capacity.
FDMA:-It is one of the multiple-access technique for cellular system.When continuous
tansmission is required.
-In this technique band width is divided into a no. of channels and distributed among
users with a finite portion of band width for permanent use.
-It does not required synchronization or timing control.
-In wireless communication,it achives simultaneous transmission and reception by
using FDD.

TDMA:-In TDMA,the entire band width

is available to the user but only for a finite period of time.
-It requires synchronization.
-It uses different time slots for transmission and reception.
CDMA:-In CDMA,all the users occupy the same band width,how ever they are all assinged
separate codes,which differentiates from each other.
-Each user has its own codeward which is orthogonal to the
codes of other users.
-Unlike TDMA,CDMA does not require time synchronization.

Question :
What is multiplexing?

Answers:
Multiplexing (known as muxing) is a term used to refer to a process where multiple
analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a
shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in
telecommunications, several phone calls may be transferred using one wire.
Multiplexer is nothing but many input signal and only one out put is produce
multiplexing is the process of sending two or more signals through a single
communication channel.
multiplexing is of two types.
1.frequency division multiplexing.(FDM)
2.time division multiplexing(TDM).
Multiplexing is a process in analog communication,where multiple message signals
are sent over a single communication channel.
multiplexing is the process ,where number of message signals are sent through a
common communication channel in such a way that one message signal do not
interfere with another message signal.
two or more input and only one output is known as multiplexing.
it is 2 type
(1)TDM
(2)FDM

Question :
Name the modulation technique

Answers:
For Analog modulation--AM, SSB, FM, PM and SM
Digital modulation--OOK, FSK, ASK, Psk, QAM, MSK, CPM, PPM, TCM, OFDM

Question :
1.what is the role of capacitors in the electronic circuits?
2.what is the purpose of npn and pnp transistors in the circuits?
3.for switching application can i use doide insted of transistor?

Answers:
Think of it as another voltage device in your circuit (similar to a battery). If you
connect it to a battery it will charge up to the voltage of the battery. Then, if you
remove it from the circuit it will still be charged to the voltage level of the battery!
A lot of answers by others to your question (so I won't repeat here, but they did miss a
Tesla coil) have given you applications for this tiny voltage source...however the
useful applications really would be unlimited (just like any voltage source is just
limited to the electronic designer's imagination).
The capacitor's greatest limitations are that it can only store a limited voltage (so
make sure when you use one the voltage rating is high enough for your circuit).
Arguably one of its benefits is it can release a whole lot of charge at a rapid rate. They
are made with a preferably thin non-conducting material (dielectric) between two
metal conductors (plates) which will fail under high voltage. This dielectric is where
the energy is actually stored (unlike batteries which typically use a chemical
reaction...and thus a more sustained voltage as current is drained).
4 years ago

capacitor blocks the direct current nd pas the alternative current.for exp:in fan,
capacitor helps tha fan to rotate in one direction due to direct current.fan cant move in
both direction as like clock bias nd anticlockbias.

capacitor is a device which is used in circuit for various purpose according to it

requirements.
example
1.C is used to stored charge and capacity of storage is depend on manufacturing
purpose.As c charge fully then it lose it charge slowly slowly and act as a battery.
2.C also used to attenuate the noise (ac) signal.eg when we connect two device
through wire then there must be some noise due to environment that why we used c
there and remove the noise.in RC filter.

3.some time we require only dc signal and we want to avoid ac due to that we use C
before the required point.

Question :
Difference between mobile and a cell phone.
There is no difference, just language use, which differs from country to country, so in
Britain it is called a mobile, and in USA and South Africa and other places a cell
phone. Even in Europe the name differs. The Germans call it a "handy", which in
English has completely another meaning as an adjective, meaning useful. In Italy it is
called a telofonino or "little phone". This difference in British and American English
is also evident in many other things we use every day, like lifts and elevators, nappies
and diapers, pickups and trucks. The list goes on and on, any student of English has to
decide which he or she will use, as the default setting.
mobile is a technology and cell phone is sub technology in it. to understand it clearly
consider a walkie talkie and cell phone. Both are different technologies but both are
mobile. The way they communicate is also different.
Question :
State sampling theorem.
It states that, while taking the samples of a continuous signal, it has to be taken care
that the sampling rate is equal to or greater than twice the cut off frequency and the
minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate.

A band limited signals of finite energy which has no frequency component higher than
fm Hz is uniquely determined by its value at uniform interval less than 1/2fm second
apart.
fs>=2fm
where fm=modulating frequency
fs=sampling frequency

Question :
What is modulation? And where it is utilized?

Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an

external signals. Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal
onto a carrier signal. These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the
air easily and are capable of travelling long distances. The characteristics (amplitude,

frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the
information bearing signal. Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing
signal over long distances.
Modulation is a process in which the baseband signal(original information signal is
reffered to as baseband signal such as voice,video etc) modifies the amplitude or
phase or frequency of the carrier.
Modulation is utilized to avoids mixing of signals,Increase the range of
communication and allow adjustment in the bandwidth.
Question :
What is demodulation?
Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the
original baseband signal back. Demodulating is necessary because the receiver system
receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it needs to turn it to baseband.
Question :
Explain the steps involved in demodulating a signal.
Once the signal is coded, modulated and then sent, the receiver must
demodulate the signal. This is usually done in two steps :
1. Spectrum spreading (e.g., direct sequence or frequency hopping)
modulation is removed.
2. The remaining information bearing signal is demodulated by multiplying
with a local reference identical in structure and synchronised with received
signal.

Demodulation is a technique of removing added carrier frequency to convert back the

broadband signal to base band signal
Question :
What is stop band?
A stopband is a band of frequencies, between specified limits, in which a circuit, such
as a filter or telephone circuit, does not let signals through, or the attenuation is above
the required stopband attenuation level.
Question :
What is cut-off frequency?
The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum response.

The cut-off frequency is defined as the frequency where the gain has changed by
some specified ammount relative to the mean midband gain.
It is the frequency at which the power is half of its max value.

Question :
Explain RF?
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3
Hz to 300 GHz. This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical
signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of this range is beyond the
vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to
oscillations in electrical circuits or electromagnetic radiation
Question :
What is an Integrated Circuit?
An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched onto
a silicon chip. Their main advantages are low cost, low power, high performance, and
very small size.
IC stands for INTEGRATED CIRCUIT in the name only itself that all the electronic
components are taking and putting at one place(integrated) on a single silicon chip
which reduces the size,cost and power usage......
Question :
Different types of communications? Explain.
Analog and digital communication.
As a technology, analog is the process of taking an audio or video signal (the human
voice) and translating it into electronic pulses. Digital on the other hand is breaking
the signal into a binary format where the audio or video data is represented by a series
of "1"s and "0"s.
Digital signals are immune to noise, quality of transmission and reception is good,
components used in digital communication can be produced with high precision and
power consumption is also very less when compared with analog signals.
There are two types of communication
* Analog Communication
* Digital Communication
Analog Communication: In analog communication system the information bearing
signal is continuously varying in both amplitude and time,and it is used directly to
modify some characteristics of a sinusoidal carrier wave such as amplitude,phase and
frequency.
Example: Amplitude Modulation,Frequency Modulation etc.

Digital Communication: In digital communication the information bearing signal is

processed so that it can be represented by a sequence of discrete message.
Example:Pulse Amplitue Modulation(PAM),Pulse Code
Modulation(PCM),Differential Pulse Code Modulation(DPCM),Delta
Modulation(DM),Adaptive Delta Modulation(ADM)

There are two types of communication

* Analog Communication
* Digital Communication
Analog Communication: In analog communication system the information bearing
signal is continuously varying in both amplitude and time,and it is used directly to
modify some characteristics of a sinusoidal carrier wave such as amplitude,phase and
frequency.
Example: Amplitude Modulation,Frequency Modulation etc.
Digital Communication: In digital communication the information bearing signal is
processed so that it can be represented by a sequence of discrete message.
Example:Pulse Amplitue Modulation(PAM),Pulse Code
Modulation(PCM),Differential Pulse Code Modulation(DPCM),Delta
Modulation(DM),Adaptive Delta Modulation(ADM)
Question :
What is a base station?
Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless
network, and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the wireless
network.
Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless
network, and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the wireless
network.
Question :
What are the functions of Base Station System ( BSS)?
Functions of BSS are as follows :
1. Radio path control.
2. BTS and TC control.
3. Connection establishment with MS-NSS.
4. Mobility management, speech transcoding.
5. Connection of statistical data.
Question :
What are different categories of antenna and give an example of each?
Different categories of antenna are as follows :
1. Wire Antennas - Short Dipole Antenna

2. Microstrip Antennas - Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antennas

3. Reflector Antennas - Corner Reflector
4. Travelling Wave Antennas - Helical Antennas
5. Aperture Antennas - Slot Antenna
6. Other Antennas - NFC Antennas
Question :
what is ups and inverters?
While both provide backup power during mains outage, with
the UPS the switch is instantaneous whereas with the
Inverter there is a gap of a second or two. This gap is OK
for household gadgets such as lights, fans, fridge, etc. but
not OK for computers.
In technical terms:
UPS: The mains power comes to the UPS. The AC is converted
to DC and this DC is constantly charging the battery. The
output of the battery is fed to the Sine wave inverter and
it converts DC to AC and this feeds the equipment. Since
power out is always drawn from the battery, there is no time
lag when mains swicthes off; it justs stops the battery from
being charged and the UPS continues to supply power till the
battery runs out.
Inverter: The mains power comes to the Inverter. This is
directly sent to the output but the AC is also converted to
DC and this DC is constantly charging the battery. A sensor
and relay mechanism checks whether the mains is ON or OFF.
When the main switches OFF, the relay actuator triggers to
switch from mains to inverter. Rest is same like the UPS.
Because of this sensor and relay, there is a gap between
triggering.
UPS involves more costly circuitary and is therefor more
expensive to make and sell.
Question :
What is analog-to-digital conversion of signals?
A discrete-time signal is defined by specifying its value only at discrete times, called
sampling instants. When the sampled values are quantised and encoded, a digital
signal is obtained. A digital signal is obtained from the analog signal by using an
analog-to-digital converter. This entire process is referred to as the conversion of
signals from analog to digital form.

Question :
What are GPRS services?
GPRS services are defined to fall in one of the two categories :
- PTP ( Point to point)
- PTM ( Point to Multipoint)
Some of the GPRS services are not likely to be provided by network operators during
early deployment of GPRS due in part to the phased development of standard. Market
demand is another factor affecting the decision of operators regarding which services
to offer first.
Question :
What are the advantages of spread spectrum?
SPread spectrum has the following advantages :
1. No crosstalk interference.
2. Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise.
3. Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading.
4. Inherent security.
5. Co-existence.
6. Longer operating distances.
7. Hard to detect.
8. Hard to intercept or demodulate.
9. Harder to jam than narrow bands.
10. Use of ranging and radar.

SPread spectrum has the following advantages :

1. No crosstalk interference.
2. Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise.
3. Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading.
4. Inherent security.
5. Co-existence.
6. Longer operating distances.
7. Hard to detect.
8. Hard to intercept or demodulate.
9. Harder to jam than narrow bands.
10. Use of ranging and radar.
Question :
What is operating ratio in railway?
Answers:
Operating Ratio = Total revenue / Total expenses