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MECH 360
Principles of Manufacturing
Lecture 9: CNC technology
Economics of machining processes

February 3rd , 2015

Outline
2
1.

Introduction

2.

NC coordinate and motion control systems

3.

NC interpolation methods and positioning system

4.

NC programming

5.

Tolerance and surface finish

6.

Selection of cutting parameters

7.

Product design considerations in machining

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Introduction
3

Numerical Control (NC) Defined

Form of programmable automation in which the
mechanical actions of a machine tool or other
equipment are controlled by a program containing
coded alphanumeric data
The alphanumeric data represent relative positions
between a workhead (e.g., cutting tool) and a
workpart
When the current job is completed, a new program
can be entered for the next job

Introduction
4

Basic components of an NC system

1.

Program of instructions part program in machining

2.

Machine control unit (MCU) controls the process

3.

detailed set of commands to be followed by the

processing equipment
microcomputer that stores and executes the program by
converting each command into actions by the
processing equipment, one command at a time

Processing equipment performs the process

accomplishes the sequence of processing steps to

transform the starting workpart into completed part

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NC Coordinate System

Consists of three linear axes (x, y, z) of Cartesian

coordinate system, plus three rotational axes (a, b, c)
Rotational

axes are used to orient workpart or workhead

to access different surfaces for machining
Most NC systems do not require all six axes

(a) for flat and prismatic work

(b) for rotational work

NC Motion Control Systems

Two types:
Point-to-point

1.

Also called position systems

System moves to a location and performs an operation at that
location (e.g., drilling)
Also applicable in
robotics

Drilling of Three Holes in

Flat Plate

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NC Motion Control Systems

Two types:
2.

Continuous path
Also

called contouring systems in machining

System performs an operation during movement (e.g., milling
and turning)

Profile Milling of Part Outline

NC Interpolation Methods
1.

Linear interpolation

2.

Circular interpolation

3.

Circular arc defined by starting point, end point,

center or radius, and direction

Helical interpolation

4.

Straight line between two points in space

Circular plus linear motion

Parabolic and cubic interpolation

Free form curves using higher order equations

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NC Interpolation Methods
Circular Interpolation

Approximation of a curved
path in NC by a series of
straight line segments, where
tolerance is defined on

inside,

outside, or

inside and outside

of the nominal curve

NC Positioning System

Motor and leadscrew arrangement in a numerical control positioning

system

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NC Positioning System
Absolute and Incremental Positioning
Absolute positioning
Locations

defined relative to origin of axis system

Incremental positioning
Locations

defined relative to previous position

Example: drilling

NC Positioning System

Converts the coordinates specified in the NC part

program into relative positions and velocities between
tool and workpiece
Leadscrew pitch p - table is moved a distance equal to the pitch
for each revolution
Table velocity (e.g., feed rate in machining) is set by the RPM
of leadscrew

To provide x-y capability, a single-axis system is

piggybacked on top of a second perpendicular axis

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NC Positioning System
Two Basic Types of Control in Numerical Control

Open loop system

Operates without verifying that the actual position is equal to

the specified position

Closed loop control system

Uses feedback measurement
to verify that the actual position
is equal to the specified location

NC Positioning System
Open loop system

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NC Positioning System
Open loop system

NC Positioning System
EXAMPLE
Open loop positioning
A stepping motor has 48 step angles. Its output shaft is coupled to a
leadscrew with a 4:1 gear reduction (four turns of the motor shaft
for each turn of the leadscrew). The leadscrew pitch = 5.0mm.
The worktable of a positioning system is driven by the
leadscrew. The table must move a distance of 75.0mm from its
current position at a travel speed of 400mm/min. Determine: a)
how many pulses are required to move the table the specified
distance, b) motor speed, and c) pulse frequency required to
achieve the desired table speed.

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NC Positioning System

NC Positioning System
Operation of an Optical Encoder in closed loop
control system

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NC Positioning System
Precision in NC Positioning
Three measures of precision:
1. Control resolution - distance separating two adjacent
addressable points in the axis movement
2. Accuracy - maximum possible error that can occur
between the desired target point and the actual
position taken by the system
3. Repeatability - defined as 3 of the mechanical
error distribution associated with the axis

NC Positioning System
Control Resolution (CR)

Defined as the distance between two adjacent control

points in the axis movement
Control

points are locations along the axis to which the

worktable can be directed to go
CR depends on:
Electromechanical components

of positioning system
Number of bits used by controller to define axis coordinate
location

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NC Positioning System
Control Resolution (CR)

Control resolution in a open loop system

Control

resolution of the electromechanical

p
components:
CR1
ns rg

Control

resolution of the computer control system:

CR2

L
2 1
B

The

control resolution of the positioning system is

maximum of the two values: CR MaxCR1 ,CR2
Its generally desirable for CR2 CR1

NC Positioning System
Accuracy of NC positioning system

When a positioning system is directed to move to a

given control point, the movement to that point is
limited by mechanical errors

Maximum possible error that can occur between desired

target point and actual position taken by system
For one axis:
Accuracy = 0.5 CR + 3
where CR = control resolution; and = standard
deviation of the error distribution

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NC Positioning System
Repeatability

Capability of a positioning system to return to a given

control point that has been previously programmed
Repeatability of any given axis of a positioning system
can be defined as the range of mechanical errors
associated with the axis
Repeatability = 3

CNC Part Programming Techniques

1.
2.
3.
4.

Manual part programming

Computer-assisted part programming
CAD/CAM-assisted part programming
Manual data input
Common features:

Points, lines, and surfaces of workpart must be defined

relative to NC axis system
Movement of cutting tool must be defined relative to
these part features

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CNC Part Programming Techniques

Manual Part Programming

Uses basic numerical data and special alphanumeric

codes to define the steps in the process
Suited

to simple point-to-point machining jobs, such as

drilling operations

Example command for drilling operation:

n010 x70.0 y85.5 f175 s500
Complete part program consists of a sequence of
commands

CNC Part Programming Techniques

Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Uses high-level programming language

Suited to programming of more complex parts

First NC part programming language was APT =
Automatically Programmed Tooling
In APT, part programming is divided into two basic
steps:
1.
2.

Definition of part geometry

Specification of tool path and operation sequence

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CNC Part Programming Techniques

APT Geometry Statements

Part programmer defines geometry of workpart by

constructing it of basic geometric elements such as
points, lines, planes, and circles
Examples:

P1 = POINT/25.0, 150.0
L1 = LINE/P1, P2

Similar statements are used to define circles,

cylinders, and other geometry elements

CNC Part Programming Techniques

APT Motion Statements: Point-To-Point

Specification of tool path accomplished with APT

motion statements
Example

for point-to-point operation:

GOTO/P1

Moves

from current location to location P1

P1 has been defined by a previous APT geometry
statement

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CNC Part Programming Techniques

APT Motion Statements: Continuous Path

Previously defined geometry elements such as lines,

circles, and planes are used to direct tool
Example

for contouring operation:

GORGT/L3, PAST, L4

Directs tool to go right (GORGT) along line L3 until

it is positioned just past line L4
L4

must be a line that intersects L3

CNC Part Programming Techniques

CAD/CAM-Assisted Part Programming

In computer-assisted part programming, the part

program is entered into the computer for processing
Programming

errors may not be detected until computer

processing

Using CAD/CAM, programmer receives visual

verification as each statement is entered
If part design is prepared on CAD, then the CAD
model can be used in part programming, so that
geometric definition is unnecessary

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Tolerances and surface finish

31

Tolerances

Machining provides high accuracy relative to most

other shape-making processes
Closer tolerances usually mean higher costs

Surface roughness in machining is determined by:

1.
2.
3.

Geometric factors of the operation

Work material factors
Vibration and machine tool factors

Tolerances and surface finish

32

Geometric factors

Machining parameters that determine surface

geometry:
Type

of machining operation, e.g., milling vs. turning

Tool geometry, especially nose radius
Feed

Surface geometry that results from only these factors

is the "ideal" or "theoretical" surface roughness

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Tolerances and surface finish

33

Geometric factors

Effect of (a) nose radius, (b) feed, and (c) ECEA

Tool geometry and tool-path combine to form the surface

geometry

Tolerances and surface finish

34

Ideal surface roughness

32fNR
2

Ri

where Ri = theoretical arithmetic average surface

roughness;
f = feed;
NR = nose radius

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Tolerances and surface finish

35

Work material factors

Built-up edge effects
Damage to surface caused by chip
Tearing of surface when machining
ductile materials
Cracks in surface when machining
brittle materials

Friction between tool flank and new work surface

(commonly due to tool flank wear)

Tolerances and surface finish

36

Effect of work material factors

Ra rai Ri

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Tolerances and surface finish

37

EXAMPLE
Actual and ideal surface roughness
A turning operation is performed on C1008 steel (a ductile steel)
using a tool with a nose radius = 1.2mm. Cutting speed = 100
m/min and feed 0.25 mm/rev.
Compute an estimate of the surface roughness in this operation.

Tolerances and surface finish

38

Solution:

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Tolerances and surface finish

39

Vibration and machine tool factors

Related to machine tool, tooling, and setup:

Chatter

(vibration) in machine tool or cutting tool

Deflections of fixtures
Backlash in feed mechanism

If chatter can be eliminated, then surface roughness

is determined by geometric and work material
factors

Tolerances and surface finish

40

How to avoid chatter

Add stiffness and/or damping to setup

Operate at speeds that avoid cyclical forces with
frequencies close to natural frequency of machine tool
system
Reduce feeds and depths to reduce forces
Change cutter design to reduce forces
Use a cutting fluid

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Selection of cutting parameters

41

One of the tasks in process planning

For each operation, decisions must be made about
machine tool, cutting tool(s), and cutting conditions
Cutting

conditions: depth of cut, feed, speed, and

cutting fluid

These decisions must give due consideration to

workpiece machinability, part geometry, surface
finish, and so forth

Selection of cutting parameters

42

Selecting depth of cut

Depth of cut is often predetermined by workpiece

geometry and operation sequence
In

roughing, depth is made as large as possible to

maximize material removal rate, subject to limitations of
horsepower, machine tool and setup rigidity, and strength
of cutting tool
In finishing, depth is set to achieve final part dimensions
and surface finish

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Selection of cutting parameters

43

Determining feed

Select feed first, speed second

Determining feed rate depends on:
harder tool materials require lower feeds
Roughing or finishing?
Tooling

roughing high feeds, limits on feed are imposed by

forces, setup rigidity, and maybe horsepower maximize
MRR
In finishing low feeds, select feed to achieve desired
finish
In

Selection of cutting parameters

44

Optimizing cutting speed

Select cutting speed to achieve a balance between

high metal removal rate and suitably long tool life
Mathematical formulas available to determine
optimal speed

Two alternative objectives in these formulas:

Maximum production rate

Minimum unit cost

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Selection of cutting parameters

45

Optimizing cutting speed for maximum production rate

Maximizing production rate is equivalent to minimizing

cutting time per unit
In turning, total production cycle time for one part
consists of:
Part handling time per part = Th
2. Machining time per part = Tm
3. Tool change time per part = Tt/np,
where np = number of pieces cut in one tool life
1.

Total time per unit product for operation:

Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np
Cycle time Tc is a function of cutting speed V

Selection of cutting parameters

46

Optimizing cutting speed for maximum production rate

Cycle Time vs. Cutting Speed

where n and C are the parameters in Taylor tool life equation

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Selection of cutting parameters

47

Optimizing cutting speed for minimum unit cost

In turning, total production cycle cost for one part
consists of:
1.

1.
2.
3.

Cost of part handling time = CoTh ,

where Co = cost rate for operator and machine
Cost of machining time = CoTm
Cost of tool change time = CoTt/np
Tooling cost = Ct/np , where Ct = cost per cutting edge

Total cost per unit product for operation:

Cc = CoTh + CoTm + CoTt/np + Ct/np

Again, unit cost is a function of cutting speed, just as Tc

is a function of V

Selection of cutting parameters

48

Optimizing cutting speed for minimum cost per unit

Unit Cost vs. Cutting Speed

where n and C are the parameters in Taylor tool life equation

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Selection of cutting parameters

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EXAMPLE
Determining cutting speeds in machining economics
A turning operation is to be performed with HSS tooling on mile steel
with Taylor tool life parameters n=0.125, C=70m/min. Workpiece
length of 500mm and diameter of 100mm. Feed is 0.25 mm/rev.
Handling time per piece is 5.0min and tool change time is 2.0
min. Cost of machine and operator is $30/hr and tooling cost is $3
per cutting edge.
Calculate cutting speed for maximum production rate and for
minimum cost, respectively.

Selection of cutting parameters

50

Solution:

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Selection of cutting parameters

51

EXAMPLE (continued)
Production rate and cost in machining economics
Determine the hourly production rate and cost per piece for the two
cutting speeds computed in the previous example.
Solution:

Selection of cutting parameters

52

Solution:

Cc

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Comments on machining economics

53

As C and n increase in Taylor tool life equation,

optimum cutting speed increases
The

harder the cutting tool is, the higher cutting speed

can be applied.

Vmax is always greater than Vmin

As tool change time Tt and/or tooling cost Ct

increase, cutting speed should be reduced
Tools

should not be changed too often if either tool cost

or tool change time is high
Disposable inserts have an advantage over regrindable
tools because tool change time is lower

Product Design Guidelines for

Machining

Reasons why machining may be required:

Close tolerances
Good surface finish
Special geometric features:

Threads
Accurate holes
Accurate cylindrical sections
Flat and/or straight surfaces

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Product Design Guidelines for

Machining

Tolerances should be specified to satisfy functional

requirements, but process capabilities should also be
considered
Very close tolerances add cost but may not add value to part
As tolerances become tighter, costs generally increase due to
additional processing, fixturing, inspection, sortation, rework,
and scrap

Surface finish should be specified to meet functional

and/or aesthetic requirements

However, better surface finish generally increases processing

cost by requiring additional operations such as grinding or
lapping

Product Design Guidelines for

Machining

Machined features such as sharp corners, edges, and

points should be avoided
They are difficult to machine
Sharp internal corners require pointed cutting tools that tend to
break during machining
Sharp corners and edges tend to create burrs and are dangerous
to handle

Machined parts should be designed so they can be

produced from standard stock sizes
Example: rotational parts with outside diameters equal
to standard bar stock diameter

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Product Design Guidelines for

Machining

Avoid undercuts as in (a)

Additional setups, operations, and

often special tooling are required
for undercuts as in (b)

Design parts with features that can

be produced in a minimum
number of setups

Machined parts should be

designed with features that can
be achieved with standard
cutting tools

Applications of
Computer Numerical Control

Operating principle of NC applies to many processes

Many industrial operations require the position of a

workhead to be controlled relative to the part or product
being processed

Two categories of NC applications:

1.
2.

Machine tool applications

Non-machine tool applications

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Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Additional Features

Storage of more than one part program

Various forms of program input
Program editing at the machine tool
Fixed cycles and programming subroutines
Interpolation
Acceleration and deceleration computations
Communications interface
Diagnostics

Configuration of
CNC Machine Control Unit

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DNC

Direct numerical control (DNC) control of multiple

machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer
through direct connection and in real time
1960s

technology
Two way communication

Distributed numerical control (DNC) network

consisting of central computer connected to machine
tool MCUs, which are CNC
Present

technology
Two way communication

General Configuration of a
Direct Numerical Control System

Connection to MCU is behind the tape reader (BTR). In distributed NC, entire
programs are downloaded to each MCU, which is CNC rather than
conventional NC

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Distributed Numerical Control

Configurations

Local area network (LAN)

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