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Abstract. These are the notes prepared for the course MTH 751 to
be offered to the PhD students at IIT Kanpur.
Contents
1. Rings
2. Quotient Rings
3. Hilbert Basis Theorem
4. Hilberts Nullstellensatz
References
1
4
7
8
11
1. Rings
A ring is a set with two binary structures, say, + and , which satisfy:
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group with identity 0.
(2) (R, ) is an associative binary structure with identity 1.
(3) For all a, b, c R,
(a + b) c = a c + b c, c (a + b) = c a + c b.
A subset S of R is a subring if S is closed under addition, subtraction and
multiplication, and contains 1.
Remark 1.1 : If 1 = 0 then R = {0} : Note first that 0 a = 0. Hence, if
a R then a = 1 a = 0 a = 0.
The set of integers Z is a ring with usual addition and multiplication.
Example 1.2 : Given a ring R, consider the set R[x1 , , xm ] of polynomials in the variables x1 , , xm with coefficients from R. Then R[x1 , , xm ]
is a ring with usual addition and multiplication of polynomials. The additive identity is the constant polynomial 0 and the multiplicative identity is
the constant polynomial 1.
A complex number is called algebraic if there exists a non-zero p Z[x]
such that p() = 0. A number is called transcendental if it is not algebraic.
Any rational number is algebraic: If = m/n for integer m and non-zero
integer n then p(x) = nx m satisfies p() = 0.
1
3 = 5 2 2 3 + 3 = 5 2 3 = 2 + 8 122 = (2 + 8)2 .
It follows that the polynomial p(x) = x4 + 4x2 + 64 satisfies p() = 0.
Exercise 1.4 : Show that the set of algebraic numbers is at most countable.
Let R and R0 denote two rings. A ring homomorphism or homomorphism
: R R0 is a map which preserves addition and multiplication, and sends
1 to 1. An isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism.
Remark 1.5 : If is an isomorphism then the group structures (R, +) and
(R0 , +) are isomorphic. In particular, (0) = 0.
Proposition 1.6. Let be a complex number. Define : Z[x] Z[] by
(p) = p(), where Z[] is the smallest subring of C that contains . Then
is a surjective homomorphism. Moreover, an isomorphism if and only
if is a transcendental number.
Proof. The first part is a routine verification. Thus it suffices to check that
is injective if and only if is not algebraic. If is algebraic then there
exists a non-zero p Z[x] such that (p) = 0. Also, being homomorphism,
maps the zero polynomial to 0. Hence is not injective. Conversely, if
is not injective then there exist p 6= q Z[x] such that (p) = (q), that
is, (p q) = 0 for the non-zero polynomial p q Z[x]. That is, is
algebraic.
Next we present a substitution principle.
Proposition 1.7. Let : R R0 be a ring homomorphism. Given elements
a1 , , an R0 , there is a unique homomorphism : R[x1 , , xn ] R0 ,
which agrees with on constant polynomials, and which sends xi to ai for
each i.
Proof. The desired homomorphism is given by
X
X
(
c x ) =
(c )a for c R.
||k
Clearly, is unique.
||k
defines a left ideal of R. We will refer to < a1 , , ak > as the left ideal
generated by a1 , , ak .
For example, if R := R[x1 , , xk ] and ai = xi for i = 1, , k then
< a1 , , ak > is the kernel of the homomorphism of the evaluation at 0.
The ideal I in R is principal if there exists a R such that I =< a > .
Every ideal in Z is of the form nZ for some integer n.
Proposition 1.12. If F is a field then every ideal in F[x] is principal.
Q[x]
<xa>
is isomorphic
Example 2.6 : Consider the quotient ring Q[x]/I, where I =< x2 + 1 > .
The mapping p p(i) is an isomorphism between Q[x]/I and C. In particular, Q[x]/I is a field. One can use this identification to find the inverse of a
given coset in Q[x]/I. For example, the inverse of (x4 x3 + x 5) + I is the
preimage of the inverse of i4 i3 + i 5 = 4 + 2i under this isomorphism.
. Hence the inverse of (x4 x3 + x 5) + I
Now the inverse of 4 + 2i is 2i
2 5
is the coset
2x
2 5
+ I.
The first isomorphism theorem for rings says that for a surjective ring
homomorphism : R R0 , the quotient ring R/ ker is isomorphic to R0 .
We skip its routine verification.
Example 2.7 : Consider the ring homomorphism : R[x, y] R[t] given
by (x) = t2 , (y) = t and (a) = a for a R. We claim that the quotient
ring R[x, y]/I is isomorphic to R[t], where I =< x y 2 > . By the first
isomorphism theorem, it suffices to check that ker = I. Clearly, x y 2
ker , and hence I ker . To see that ker I, let f ker . Consider the
quotient ring R[x, y]/I and the coset f +I. Since R[x, y] = R[x][y] (Corollary
P
i
1.8), f (x, y) = 2k
i=0 fi (x)y for f1 , , f2k R[x]. It follows that
f (x, y) =
2k
X
fi (x)y i
i=0
Example 2.8 : Consider the quotient ring Z[i]/I, where I =< 1 + 3i > .
In this quotient ring, 1 + 3i = 0, that is, i = 3 or 10 = 0. Indeed, Z[i]/I
is isomorphic to the quotient ring Z/10Z. To see this, define the ring homomorphism : Z Z[i]/I by (n) = n + I. By the first isomorphism
theorem, the image of is isomorphic to Z/ ker . We check that is surjective and ker = 10Z. Since a + bi and a + 3b belong to the same coset in
Z[i]/I, (a + 3b) = a + ib. Thus is surjective. Note further that if n 10Z
then n = 10m for some integer m, and hence (n) = 10m + I = I. Also, if
n ker then n I, that is, n = (a + ib)(1 + 3i) = (a 3b) + (3a + b)i for
some integers a, b, and hence 3a + b = 0 forcing n = a 3b = 10a 10Z.
Exercise 2.9 : Let I (resp. J) denote the ideal < x3 + x + 1, 5 > (resp.
< x3 + x + 1 >) in Z[x]. Verify:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The
The
The
The
4. Hilberts Nullstellensatz
We start with the easier half of Hilberts Nullstellensatz.
Lemma 4.1. For a = (a1 , , an ) Cn , consider the ideal Ia in C[z1 , , zn ]
generated by z1 z1 , , zn an . Then the ideal Ia is maximal.
Proof. Consider the evaluation ring homomorphism ea : C[z1 , , zn ]
C given by ea (f ) = f (a). Since ea is surjective, by the first isomorphism
theorem, C[z1 , , zn ]/ ker ea is isomorphic to the field C. In particular,
ker ea is a maximal ideal in C[z1 , , zn ]. To prove that Ia is a maximal
ideal in C[z1 , , zn ], it suffices to check that Ia = ker ea . We expand f
C[z1 , , zn ] about a as follows:
f (z) = f (a) +
n
X
i=1
i (zi ai ) +
n
X
ij=1
The right hand side of the last identity consists only finitely many terms as
f is a polynomial. It is now clear that f ker ea if and only if f Ia .
The other half of Hilberts Nullstellensatz is quite difficult and needs more
preparation. The following change of variable makes life easy.
Lemma 4.2. Suppose that f C[z1 , , zn ] is of total degree d. Then
one can find scalars 1 , , n1 C such that the coefficient of znd in
f (z1 + 1 zn , , zn1 + n1 zn , zn ) is non-zero. In particular, the mapping
f (z1 , , zn )
f (z1 + 1 zn , , zn1 + n1 zn , zn ) is a ring isomorphism
from C[z1 , , zn ] onto itself.
Proof. Let fd denote the homogeneous component of f = g + fd of degree
d. Since fd 6= 0, there exists w Cn such that fd (w) 6= 0. By the continuity
of fd , we may assume that wn 6= 0. Put i := wi /wn , i = 1, , n 1. Note
that the coefficient of znd in f (z1 + 1 zn , , zn1 + n1 zn , zn ) is
fd (1 , , n1 , 1) = fd (w1 /wn , , wn1 /wn , 1) =
1
fd (w),
wnd
(d + e) (d + e) matrix
f0 f1
0 f0
g0 g1
..
..
fd1 fd
fd
..
f0
ge1
f1
fd1
ge
0
..
g0
g1
ge1
fd
ge
< z1 a1 , , zn an > .
Proof. (E. Arrondo) In view of Lemma 4.1, it suffices to prove that every
maximal ideal I of C[z1 , , zn ] is of the form Ia :=< z1 a1 , , zn an >
for some a Cn . We prove this by induction on n. The case n = 1 is
already discussed in the discussion following Corollary 2.2. Suppose n > 1
and assume that the conclusion holds for n 1 variables. Let I be an ideal
in C[z1 , , zn ]. By Lemma 4.2, we may assume that I contains a monic
polynomial g in zn :
g(z 0 , zn ) = g0 (z 0 ) + g1 (z 0 )zn + + ge1 (z 0 )zne1 + znl , z 0 = (z1 , , zn1 ),
where g0 , , ge1 C[z1 , , zn1 ].
Consider the ideal
I 0 := {f I : f /zn = 0}
of the subring C[z1 , , zn1 ]. Since 1 I if and only if 1 I 0 , I 0 is a
proper ideal of C[z1 , , zn1 ]. By the induction hypothesis, there exists
a0 = (a1 , , an1 ) Cn1 such that I 0 =< z1 a1 , , zn1 an1 > .
10
11
pq + r(1 z0 f ) = 1.