Volume 2

Number 2
2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Towards a Johannine Authorship of the Pericope Adulterae ............................................... 5
George Paki: Andrews University .................................................................................................. 5
Sabbath - Opportunity for Authentic Community ................................................................. 18
Dr Murray House & Linval H. London: ....................................................................................... 18
Traditional Foods, Nutrition and Disease................................................................................ 24
Dr Warren A. Shipton: Asia-Pacific International University & James Cook University ........... 24
Teaching Sociolinguistics at Universities ................................................................................. 36
Dr Jillian Thiele: Pacific Adventist University............................................................................. 36
Sylvia Botoa Hamanin: Silent Heroine.................................................................................. 48
Alice Hamanin Sareke .................................................................................................................. 48
Hugh Alfred Dickins .................................................................................................................. 56
Dr Jillian Thiele ............................................................................................................................ 56
Book Review ............................................................................................................................... 61
Danijela Schubert, Youth Ministry in Papua New Guinea. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock,
2013. 133pp.................................................................................................................................. 61
Abstracts from Pacific Adventist University: Masters Theses .............................................. 63
1. The role of the teacher in addressing Occult Sub-Cultures in a PNG Secondary
School: A Case Study: Unia Api, 2012 ........................................................................................ 63
2.

Genesis 3:15, The Seedbed Of The Theme Of Enmity In Genesis. ..................................... 64

A Historical Grammatical And Theological Study: Thomas Egei Davai Jr: 2011 .................... 64
3.

Influence of Tok Pisin on learning English: Sarah Keliwin, 2013 ....................................... 65

4. Customary Marriage versus Church Marriage in the Seventh-day Adventist Church:

Jeffrey Paul, 2012 ......................................................................................................................... 66
5. Pacific Trainee English Teachers Classroom Response to Critical Literature through
Process Drama: A Critical Sociocultural Analysis: Rebecca Thomas, 2012 ................................ 68

Editorial
This is the second issue of Davaria: Journal of Pacific Adventist University (PAU) for
2014. This has been a combined effort. I wish to thank my editorial team at PAU for their
contributions in editing the articles. I wish to thank guest editors, Bill Gammage and
Ceridwin Sparks from the Australian National University, Jonathon Richie from Deakin
University, and Jack Corbett from Griffith University, for assisting in editing the life
stories. The two life stories are just a taste of what will be in the next issue of Davaria.

The four articles, included in this issue, cover a range of topics. The first article by George
Paki, a Papua New Guinean currently studying at Andrews University in the States, argues
that John wrote the Pericope Adulterae in the Gospel of John.

The second article, written by Dr Murray House & Linval H. London, a lecturer and
student from Avondale, College of Higher Education, examines the relational aspect of the
Sabbath.

We are very privileged to have Associate Professor Warren A. Shipton write our third
article. Dr Shipton has worked in PNG on a food security project with the Australian
Centre for International Agricultural Research. He is currently associated with Asia-Pacific
International University and James Cook University.

Dr Jillian Thiele of Pacific Adventist University has written our fourth article. She has
taught a sociolinguistics subject at PAU and has seen the positive attitude change towards
language issues.

During December, 2013, PAU held a PNG Writers Workshop. Skills were provided in
how to write life stories. In this issue of Davaria, two life stories are published. The life
story of Sylvia Botoa Hamanin, by her daughter Alice Harmain, brings tears to our eyes as
we are reminded of the many struggles faced by Papua New Guineans in the past. The
second life story is about a SDA missionary, Hugh Dickins, who came to the South Pacific
just at the completion of World War Two. He, and his family, contributed to the
educational development of Fiji, Samoa and mainly Papua New Guinea for twenty-seven

years. His daughter, Dr Jillian Thiele, a missionary in her own right, documents his
struggles and his accomplishments.

It is great when one of our previous lecturer. Dr Danijela Schubert, formerly teaching in
the School of Theology wrote a book based on her research she conducted while at PAU.
Read Dr David Thieles book review and you will wish you could read the book, Youth
Ministry in Papua New Guinea, as well.

PAU has a vibrant post graduate program. Included in this issue of Davaria are samples of
abstracts of masters students theses. The full paper is available on line through the PAU
Library site.
1. Unia Api examines The role of the teacher in addressing Occult Sub-Cultures in a
PNG Secondary School: A Case Study.
2. Thomas Egei Davai Jr presents an excellent study of Genesis 3:15, The Seedbed
of the Theme of Enmity in Genesis, a Historical Grammatical and Theological
Study.
3. Sarah Keliwin documents the transfer issues of Tok Pisin on English.
4. Jeffrey Paul provides an insight into the reasons why so many Seventh-day
Adventist choose cultural weddings rather than church ceremonies.
5. Rebecca Thomas uses drama to illustrate Pacific Trainee English Teachers
Classroom Response to Critical Literature through Process Drama: A Critical
Sociocultural Analysis. All these theses abstracts are worth reading.

It is hoped that Davaria will continue to publish two issues during 2015. Already there are
more interesting life stories in the pipe line. The editorial team invites you submit an
article or a life story for the next issues planned for April, next year.

Dr Jillian Thiele
Editor of DAVARIA: JOURNAL OF PACIFIC ADVENTIST UNIVERSITY.
Coordinator of the Learning and Academic Support Centre

Towards a Johannine Authorship of the Pericope Adulterae

George Paki: Andrews University
Biographical note: George Paki, a Papua New Guinean, is currently Theology at Andrews
University, MI, in America.
Abstract
Since the earliest available manuscripts of the Gospel John do not include the Pericope
Adulterae (John 7:53-8:11), the general consensus amongst NT scholars is that this
passage was added by a latter scribe. Most scholars also agree that the passage in its
current location seriously interrupts the flow of the book. However, this paper argues for a
Johannine authorship of the passage. It particularly attempts to show: (1) The literary,
stylistic and contextual relationship between the pericope and the rest of John; (2) The
significance and the function of the Pericope Adulterae in the text; (3) The possibility of
the pericope being excised before the second century.
Problem
Although the Pericope Adulterae 1 (John 7:53-8:11) has often been described as one of
the jewels of the Gospel,2 it is not free from textual problems. The problem surrounding
this account has to do with its authorship whether this passage is Johannine or an
authentic piece of Jesus-narrative that was inserted by a later scribe. This study reexamines both the internal and the external evidences to determine if this passage was part
of the original Fourth Gospel.
The external evidences which are usually cited in support of either view will be
considered first.
Manuscripts that omit the Pericope Adulterae
DAT
E

I
(ALEX)

2C
P66
3C
P75
4C
N 01, B
5C6C
8C
9-13C

II
(EGYPT)

III
(MIXED
)

Cvid, T

L, y
Q//33

D/565/01

IV
V
(WEST) (BYZ)

Avid

VERSIONS/FATHERS

Lect/
ita/syr/cop/slav
Diatessaron(2C), Origen,
Chrystosom(4C), Cyril(4C),
Tertullian(253),Cyprian mss

1424*

Allan F. Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel in the Pericope Adulterae, Bulletin of the Evangelical
Theological Society 9, no. 2 (1966): 91. The same passage is also referred to as the Pericope de Adultera. It simply
means the passage of the adulteress.
2
J. E. Carpenter, The Johannine Writings: A Study of the Apocalypse and the Fourth Gospel, (Boston; Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1927), 219.

41,157/12
41
Manuscripts that include the Pericope Adulterae
DAT
E
5C

I
(ALEX)

9C

1011C

1215C

II
(EGYPT)

III
(MIXED)

IV
(WEST)

V
(BYZ)
D

892

1243

579,
1292,1342

700

1006,15
05

1071

180/101
0,597,
205 Byz
[FGHM]

VERSIONS/FATHERS
ita, vg(4/5C), syr,
cop(3C), slav,
Apostolic
constitutions4vid(380),
mss
Ambrosiaster(384),
Ambrose(397),
Pacian(392),
Rufinus(410), Greek &
Latin mss
Jerome(419), FaustusMilevis(4C),
Augustine(430)

Several things emerge when the above data is analyzed. First, the oldest and the best
manuscripts (P66, 75, N and B) omit this passage.3 Next, according to Metzger, no Greek
Church Fathers commented on the passage until the twelfth century.4 This implies that the
pericope was a later insertion. Third, most NT scholars observe that, the style and
vocabulary [of this pericope]differ noticeably from the rest of the Fourth Gospel.5
Therefore, if and when included, they think it interrupts the sequence.6 Perhaps this
explains why this passage has been treated as a, mobile unit of material that shifted
aboutat the whim of the scribes.7 Metzger then concludes, that the pericope of the
adulterae being against Johannine authorship is, overwhelming[and] conclusive.8
Despite these alleged conclusive evidences, the UBS4 renders an {A} rating, because the
editors considered the incident to be an authentic historical account, but not as an integral
part of the Gospel of John.9 Therefore, UBS4 printed it,10 enclosed within double square

The weight of the external evidence largely depends on the date of the witness (earlier the better), geographical
distribution, and the quality of the manuscripts.
4
Bruce M Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (New York: United Bible Societies, 1971),
219-220.
5
Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 219-220.
6
Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 219-220.
7
Zane Clark Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, Bibliotheca Sacra 136, no. 544
(1979): 325.
8
Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 219-220.
9
Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel , 94. See also Metzger, A Textual Commentary.
10
The Greek New Testament, 4th ed. (Stuttgart: United Bible Societies, 1993).

brackets,11 NRSV also in brackets, and most modern commentators have attached this
account in the appendix,12 while some totally ignore it.13
However, the internal evidences14 seriously conflict with this weighty external evidence. In
this paper I will demonstrate this tension and argue for the pericope being an integral part
of the Gospel of John. Since the external evidences seem to speak against such a thesis, I
will begin with the internal evidences and then theorize on the external evidences.
Analysis and Discussion: Internal Evidences
Vocabulary and Style
Most scholars find that the vocabulary of this passage is dissimilar to that of the rest of the
Gospel of John. Metzger and more recently Kstenberger, for instance, reached their
conclusions based on linguistic statistics, claiming that the vocabulary is totally foreign to
the rest of the Gospel.15 However, Johnson convincingly demonstrates that the entire
process of mathematical word counts is grossly a flawed criterion. Because when the
same criterions are applied to other passages (e.g. water into wine of John 2) that are
considered Johannine, they do far worse than the Pericope Adulterae. Therefore, it is
insufficient to discredit the Johannine authorship of 7:53-8:11 based purely on linguistic
considerations.16 Others rightly see that the vocabulary of the pericope is highly reflective
of the first twelve chapters of the Gospel. Allison Trites surveys the vocabulary and the
controversies from chapters 1-12 and correctly identifies the themes of witness, testimony,
stoning, judgment and the tone of the entire controversy has essentially identical to the
section considered.17 She then concludes, there is no overriding contextual problem. The
story of the adulterous woman fits admirably into the controversy developed in John 112.18

Second, Johnson reaches a similar conclusion by analyzing the explanatory interjection,

tou/to de. e;legon peira,zontej auvto,n([na e;cwsin kathgorei/n auvtou/ [They were using
this question as a trap, in order to have a basis for accusing him.] of verse 6. The phrase
11

Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 221.

Andrew T. Lincoln, The Gospel According to Saint John, Blacks New Testament Commentary (New York:
Hendrickson Publishers, 2005), 524-536.
13
Andreas J. Kstenberger, John, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker
Academic, 2004). He only commits only five pages arguing why it shouldnt be included, 245-249.
14
Internal evidences includes the linguistic, literary, stylistic, structural, contextual, thematic, and theological
considerations of the text itself in relation to the overall pattern of the book(s). But of these two, scholars naturally see
the external evidences as more objective than the internal ones.
15
Kstenberger, John, 245.
16
See Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 94-96.
17
Allison A. Trites, Woman Taken in Adultery, Bibliotheca Sacra 131, no. 522 (Ap-Je 1974): 144-145.
18
Trites, Woman Taken in Adultery, 146.
12

not only appears ten times (6:6,71, 7 :39, 11:13, 11:51, 12:6, 12:33, 13:11, 13:28, 21:19),
but more so this is a literary style found only in the Gospel of John. He observes that this is
a distinctive literary trait of the Fourth Gospel.19 Therefore, it seems more reasonable to
assume that this interjectory statement is an integral part of the whole narrative and thus,
that the passage also is an integral part of the whole Gospel.20 Scott, however, contends
that linguistic and stylistic similarities could also reflect a good redactorial skills on the
part of the scribes who edited the story into the manuscript, rather than an original
Johannine provenance for the account.21 If Scott is correct, one must admit that such
skilled scribe(s) he refers to must be as good as the author himself; to perfectly weave
such a non-canonical story into the overall pattern of the Fourth Gospel!22
Structure and Context
Keener argues that this passage, seriously interrupts the flow of thought in Johns
narrative.23 However, there are equally sufficient indications to show that this account
smoothly fits into the book. Anyone reading the Gospel of John will notice that the book is
written in a seamless manner. Unlike the other Synoptic gospels, there are temporal or
chronological indicators that join the entire Gospel together.24 In the first 12 chapters,
for instance, the author connects the passages with phrases like, the next day, on the
third day, after this, some time later, as he went along, (1:29,35,43; 2:1,12; 3:22;
5:1; 6:1; 7:1; 9:1; etc). The Pericope Adulterae in its present location naturally blends into
the flow of the narrative.

First, note the phrase, Orqrou de. pa,lin parege,neto eivj to. i`ero.n [he appeared again in
the temple courts] (8:2). The word pa,lin [again] makes perfect sense, seeing that he had
previously taught at the same place in 7:14, 28.25

19

Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 96.

Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 96.
21
J. Martin C. Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story: John 7.53-8.11, in Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations of the
Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11) ed. Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W. Rooke, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press), 73.
22
Also note the manner in which the author concludes this pericope with the one in John. 5:1-15. The Pericope
Adulterae concludes with the words; Go and sin no more (Jn. 8:11), while the other ends with sin no more (Jn. 5:14).
Not only the two accounts conclude the same way, but also the exact same Greek is used in both scenarios.
23
Craig S. Keener, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, vol. 1 (Boston: Hendrickson Publishers, 2003), 736.
24
Keener, The Gospel of John, 113.
25
Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story. Scott correctly notes, it is to the environs of the Temple that he once more
comes, alerting the reader to the potential for entrapment, given the immediately preceding plotting of his opponents and
the role of the Temple police in it. 57.
20

Next, the phrase each went to his own home, is appropriately used here as the previous
day had been the last and the greatest day of the feast during which they had been living
in tents (7:37). If, as seems likely, this last "great day" was after all the eighth day referred
to in Leviticus 23:39, there is an almost unique appropriateness to the mention of each
person going to his "house." For on the previous seven days observant Jewish worshipers
would have followed Old Testament prescription and would have lived in "booths." But
with the feast now over everyone returned home! This delicate point, so sensitive to the
festal setting of the preceding material, is an obviously authentic touch. That an
interpolator should show such contextual sensitivity or conversely should be so
unwittingly fortunate as to tie the narrative thus deftly to the custom of the feast,
stretches credulity to an unbearable degree.26

Third, most textual critics claim this account interrupts the flow of the narrative, because
they think the people of vs. 12 as those Jesus addressed earlier in chapter 7:25,31. While
this is true, it could also refer the the people of 8:2. Because following Jesus invitation
to those without sin to cast the first stone, the story says that all left leaving only Jesus
and the woman standing there. If those who left refer to the teachers of the law and the
Pharisees who brought in the woman, then it is probable that Jesus initial audience [and
his disciples] remained.27 In that sense, the people of vs. 12 could also refer to the people
of 8:2.

Further, in the previous conversation (chapter 7), the audience vehemently disputed
amongst themselves and with Jesus concerning the identity of the latter. The leaders
charged Jesus, soldiers were sent to capture him, two unsuccessful attempts were made to
seize him (7:30, 44) and such situations necessitated Jesus to stand and teach (7:37).
But early the next day, he sat down to teach as peoplegathered around him (8:2). In
this way, the people of vs. 12 is more reflective of John 8:2, than the hostile audience of
chapter 7. Jesus sitting surrounded by an eager audience, implies that this audience is
different or at least on a different day as the narrative suggests, than that of the seventh
chapter.
26

Zane Clark Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, Bibliotheca Sacra 137, no. 545
(1980): 42.
27
Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story, also observes this when he writes two distinct groupings are present: scribes
and Pharisees who have dragged the woman in, and the crowd who were listening and learning before the others arrived.
The narrator has thus left open the possibility that the accusers, those morally responsible, have departed the scene, while
the seekers after the truth, the crowd, remain as witnesses to the entire event. 69.

Finally, the narrative continues in vs. 12, Jesus spoke again to the people saying, I am
the light of the world. Some commentators think that verse 12 picks up the dialogue of
chapter 7, because the imagery of light was an integral part of the weeklong celebration.28
Although that is reasonable, one must admit that chapter 7 is not intended as a theology or
an exposition on the Jewish festivities. The author had a totally different purpose in mind,
and that is why he selected his material and chose not to include the imagery of light in
chapter 7. And it would be a mistake for anyone to supply that which the author did not
include. Therefore, this imagery seen as a continuation of 8:2 makes a compelling case.
Moreover, it appears that after bidding the woman, go and sin no more, he again turns to
his initial audience, as indicated by the preposition again (vs 12). Also, if Jesus was
teaching in the morning as the story indicates, then as the sun begins to rise on the horizon,
and him declaring himself as the, light of the world makes a lot of sense.29

These structural and contextual evidences mean that this account blends more smoothly
into the entire narrative than is claimed by most NT scholars.

Signs, Themes, Theology and the Intent

Although there are about seven miraculous signs in the Gospel of John, the book is also
impregnated with figures of speech. Not only did Jesus teach using figures of
speech/parables, but the author of John intentionally presents these as a structural theme.
The signs fall into one of three categories:30 Firstly, those miracles done having come
from Judea to Galilee (Chapters 1-4); secondly, those miracles done in or within the
vicinity of Jerusalem (chapters 5, 9, 11), and, thirdly, the rest of the signs which are
illustrative in nature (chapters 6-7). The author also appears to make this distinction. When
making reference to the sign of chapter 5, the author quotes Jesus as saying, I did only
one miracle and you are all astonished (7:21 italics supplied). Ten verses later, the people
acknowledge this, when they said, When the Christ comes, he will do more signs than
this man does (7:31 italics supplied). By stating this, the author ignores the other four
miraculous signs Jesus did prior to chapter 7. This indicates that each sign was intended to
serve a different purpose.
28

Gail R. ODay and Susan E. Hylen, John, ed. Patrick D. Miller and David L. Bartlett, Westminister Bible Companion
(Louisville: Westminister John Knox Press, 2006), 91.
29
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 43.
30
This is my own observation.

10

The one miracle (chapter 5) and the two more signs (chapters 9 & 11) Jesus does in
Jerusalem are combative in nature. They are presented in an intensifying manner (chapter
5 leads to enquiry and warning, chapter 9 interrogation and excommunication, chapter 11
the authorities resolved to exterminate both the Christ and the evidence/Lazarus)
culminating in the crucifixion of Jesus.31 The miracles of chapter six, especially the
feeding of the five thousand and Jesus walking on water are illustrative in nature, as they
begin with Jesus rebuking the people for not believing in Moses who wrote about him, for
if you believed Moses, you would believe me, because he wrote about me (5:45-47). The
two miracles (the feeding of the five thousand and Jesus walking on the water of John 6)
that follow this rebuke are presented to illustrate that Jesus is the prophet whom Moses
wrote about. However, by walking on the water, the author presents Jesus as even greater
than Moses.32 Now, why is this important to our current study? Two things; First, just like
the miraculous signs of John 6, the Pericope Adulterae is also deployed here as an
illustrative sign. Second, it plays an important role in shifting the discussion going
from Jesus being like Moses/One greater than Moses to One like the God of Moses or the
God Himself.
First, the authors presentation of Jesus as the Mosaic God is not a peripheral teaching, but
is one of the two cardinal themes presented in the Gospel (John 5:16-18). In the prologue,
the author identifies Jesus as the only begotten God, who is in the bosom of the Father
(John 1:18). This theme is reiterated only in the fifth chapter of John but this time as the
reason for His rejection and crucifixion; For this reason the Jews tried all the harder to
kill him; not only was He breaking the Sabbath, but he was even calling God his own
Father, making himself equal with God (Jn. 15:18). However, the discussion and
controversy concerning Jesus Sonship and divinity is fully developed only after the
Pericope Adulterae (Jn. 7:53-8:11). If this was intentional on the part of the author, the
Pericope Adulterae may have been crafted in its present location to serve as a prelude to
the discourses that follow.33

31

C. S. Keener, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, 6.

See Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story, 62.
33
The book is in fact arranged in a similar manner a series of discourses follows a sign . The rest of the 6th and the 7th
chapters follows the feeding of the 5,000 of chapter 6. The same is also true for chapters 9 and 11.
32

11

Second, the discussion following this account concludes with Jesus declaration that
before Abraham was, I am (8:58). The Jews who understood the significance of this
statement began to pick up stones. Perhaps the Pericope Adulterae was employed to
illustrate this very point; that the Jesus of Nazareth was indeed the Mosaic God. The Jews
picked up stones as they considered this declaration to be a blasphemy against God.
Third, scholars have speculated regarding the content of what Jesus actually wrote on the
ground (8:6). Many have attempted to supply the words that Jesus wrote.34 Trites and
Derett think Jesus wrote Exodus 23:1,35 Jerome suggested that Jesus wrote the sins of the
accusers, but recently others have argued that Jesus wrote the Ten Commandments.36
ODay, however, thinks that Jesus gesture indicates his unwillingness to spring the trap
that has been set for him. Jesus writes on the ground to indicate his refusal to play the
game according to the scribes and Pharisees rules.37 Although these suggestions are
undoubtedly insightful, I think Hodges is accurate when he says;
Certainly, had the content of Jesus writing been a crucial element in this
narrative, John would naturally have specified what it was. That he has not
done so is the clearest evidence that the act of writing not what was
written is the really important consideration.38
Then he appropriately sees a parallel between God stooping down and writing the Ten
Commandments with his own finger twice at Mt Sinai, with the act of the pericope
adulterae account. He writes, As the broken tablets of Old Testament times were replaced
by new ones, so the Law she had shattered by her sin must again be rewritten with the
words, "go . . . and sin no more" (John 8:11).39 Although, Hodges makes an important
contribution when he highlights Jesus act of writing as the essence of this account, he
nonetheless, fails to elaborate on the significance of that act as far as Jesus identity is
concerned.

There are few things that need to be stressed here. First, note that the emphasis is not only
on the act of writing, but also on the instrument of writing with his own finger. This
34

Gail R. O Day, John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading, Journal of Biblical Literature 111, no. 4 (1992): 632.
Trites, Woman Taken in Adultery, 145.
36
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 45. See Hodges for a lengthy discussion on
this. Here Hodges quotes Jerome (Contra Pelagium 2.17) and James Sanders. Also see Scott, On the Trail of a Good
Story, 63-65.
37
ODay, John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading, 632. See also Lincoln, The Gospel According to Saint John, 531533.
38
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 45-46.
39
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 47.
35

12

account also illustrates40 what the apostle wrote in the prologue; For the law was given
through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ (1:17). Thus this story
illustrates the fact that the very same finger that stooped low and wrote the Ten
Commandments twice on the rock, now writes grace and truth on the sand!
Next, the issue concerning Moses versus Jesus, which is punctuated from chapters 1-7
(John 1:17; 3:14; 5:47-47; 6; 7:19-24, 50-51), is heightened in this passage when the
Jewish aristocrats hauled in the woman and demanded In the Law Moses commanded
us to stone such women. Now what do you say?" (8:5). When the Jews who prided
themselves as disciples of Moses (John 9:28) pointed to the writings of their master;
Jesus simple gesture (act of writing twice with his finger) was intended to show that He
was the God of Moses. In other words, while the professed disciples of Moses pointed to
the laws of Moses, Jesus pointed to himself as the compassionate and gracious God
whom Moses actually saw and worshipped (Ex. 34:35-38; Jn. 1:18).41

Finally, in an interesting article, Poytheress uses the conjunctions de, oun, kai to test the
authorship of this passage. Calling the author a pattern-producer, Poythress describes
him as one who has digested his sources thoroughly. He digested them grammatically,
rhetorically, thematically, theologically.42 Strangely, the application of his devise on this
passage found that the absence of the test pattern from John 7:53-8:11, taken together
with the external manuscript evidence, shows that 7:53-8:11 was added after the
autographic stage.43 Although this passage may have failed Poytheress conjunctiontests, it does however, convincingly qualifies the author of the Gospel of John as the
Pattern-producer. The grammar, rhetoric, themes, theology, and the intent of this pericope,
favor the author of the Gospel of John as the Pattern-producer, also of the Pericope
Adulterae.

Therefore, contrary to what most NT scholars suggest, this pericope is not just an integral
part of the Gospel of John, but according to the weight of internal evidence, this account
40

Hylen. Hylen and O Day also think this story enacts the themes of the proper interpretation of the Law (chapter 7) and
sin (chapter 8). But they fail to demonstrate their claims. 89.
41
When the Jews attempted to use Moses against Jesus, Jesus turns this around and uses Moses against them. He does
the same when they tried to use Abraham against him in the same chapter (Jn. 8:31-41). If the older ones left the scene
first they perhaps came to the conclusion that they were not acting like Moses.
42
Vern S. Poythress, Testing for Johannine Authorship by Examining the Use of Conjunctions, Westminster
Theological Journal 46, no. 2 (1984): 356.
43
Poythress, Testing for Johannine Authorship, 355.

13

could indeed be the jewel of the Fourth Gospel. For this reason, I agree with Johnson who
says, if internal evidence is highly determinativeperhaps a re-interpretation of the
external evidence of John 7:53-8:11 is in order.44

External Evidences
As noted above, we must acknowledge that the earliest and the best manuscripts do not
include John 7:53-8:11. However, it would be wrong for anyone not to re-examine those
manuscripts especially when the internal evidences compels us to. We will, therefore,
consider several scenarios which may help us shed light on this passage.

First, the general consensus among scholars concerning this pericope being an authentic
historical account (but not Johannine), implies that this pericope existed (either in oral or
in written form) scores of years before our oldest and best (available) manuscripts ever
came into existence. Simply put, this account is as old as the Gospel of John.

Second, some scholars rightly think, this passage could have been one of those many signs
Jesus did, but by the authors own admission, was not recorded in this book (20:30)
and added by a later scribe, or as Carpenter so eloquently puts it the most conspicuous
illustration of this process [later addition].45 However, it could also have been part of the
Gospel, but removed by a later scribe. Both of these scenarios are possible, because
scribal tampering was already evident when the book of Revelation was written (Rev.
21:18-19). But, for this pericopes insertion to occur, one condition must exist. The scribe
responsible for it must be both, a close associate and a contemporary of the PatternProducer (author). In other words, the scribe responsible must be thoroughly immersed in
the authors grammar, rhetoric, themes, theology and the intent. However, if the contents
of the Gospels and the Epistles still baffle the scholarly world from the period of those
unknown scribes up until now, then such a scribal precision from a later scribe is highly
unlikely. The chances are almost improbable, if by later, scholars mean after 200 AD.46

Hodges, on the other hand, makes an interesting case on the warning of the same issues in
Revelation 21:18-19. He wonders if such a warning is an early indication of, addition to
44

Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 96.

Carpenter, The Johannine Writings 219.
46
Most scholars think this pericope was inserted two centuries or more after the Gospel was written. See Carpenter,
The Johannine Writings 220.
45

14

the text or an early excision from the books which were later to be canonized.47 This
coupled with Eusebuis admission that Papias knew of such a story contained in the
Gospel according to the Hebrews,48 makes such early excision more probable. To this,
some would point out the unavailability of a specific gospel for the Hebrews. Such
arguments are not only superficial, but they also imply ignorance on the part of those
making it. We all know that the titles of most, if not all, NT books were later insertions.
This is more true when it comes to the writings of John and the book of Hebrews, as they
lack both the author(s) and the addressee(s) identity. The titles of the NT books, as we
know today, were not the same names they had in the times of Papias. The close
resemblance between the book of Hebrews and the Fourth Gospel may have evoked such a
title as, Gospel according to the Hebrews during the early times. Therefore, it is not
impossible to suppose that our Fourth Gospel could have been Papias Gospel according
to the Hebrew.
Fourth, if Hodges is correct in suggesting that the above earliest witnesses (P66, 75, N and
B) are all from an Egyptian origin, then it also leaves the door open for one to wonder if
they share a common (tampered) genealogy.49 For in regard to all four of these oldest
Greek witnesses, there is a serious question whether or not they have any significant
textual independence at all. That P75 and are close relatives is well known, and the
affinity between and has long been commonplace knowledge in text critical
handbooks. P66 as well shows many significant agreements with the other three. It is
therefore not at all out of the question to suggest that all four may ultimately be derived
from a single parental exemplar which lies far back in the stream of
transmission.50Accordingly, the concurrence of four early Egyptian manuscripts in
deleting the pericope has no decisive weight whatsoever, so long as their textual
independence cannot be demonstrated.51

47

Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery, 321.

See Lincoln, The Gospel According to Saint John, 526.
49
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 323. Do note that we do not have any book by
the name of The Gospel of Hebrews today. However, just what name was accorded to the books which we refer to as
the Gospel of John and Hebrew then is not clear. These, together with 1 John are some of the few book in the NT
that do not have the authors name.
50
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 323.
51
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 324.
48

15

Therefore, it is probable that the Pericope Adulterae was omitted as early as first or before
the second century, and the above four evidences could have flown out from that tampered
one.

Possible Reasons for Early Tampering

Such speculation leaves out more questions than it attempts to answer. Chief amongst this
is, If such a lengthy account was omitted, then why? Third and fourth century church
fathers shed light on this question. Augustine used the text as a mirror to the society as to
how it should behave towards women, in contrast to how it actually behaves.52 In this
sense, the passage was viewed as a threat to the Patriarchal Society.
Patriarchal prejudices thus contributed to, perhaps caused, the canonical
marginality of John 7:53-8:11. Within the story, the scribes and Pharisees
attempted to marginalize the woman. The early church and the interpretive
community then attempted to marginalize not only the woman but her story
as well.53
Also, some early church fathers felt that the pericope showed Jesus leniency towards
adultery and feared that it might somehow translate into a license for wives to engage in
adulterous acts.54 To this, some critics would argue that such suggestion is unlikely, as the
passage under scrutiny does not say go and sin more. This is of course reasonable, but at
a time when such sins were punishable by death, just saying go and sin no more does
seem to show leniency and wink at adultery.
Finally, a word on Metzegers claim that the text did not receive any mention amongst the
Greek Church fathers, until the 12th century. While this appears convincing, Metzeger
deliberately avoids Jeromes testimony, that he found the story in the gospel of John in
many Greek and Latin codices (contra Pelag. 2.17).55 Thus, such intentional oversight is
an impressive tribute to the lack of scientific objectivity.56

52

Thomas OLoughlin, A Womans Plight and the Western Fathers, in Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations of the
Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11) ed. Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W. Rooke, (England: Sheffield Academic
Press, 2000), 99. For a detailed discussion on the use of the pericope by the early church fathers, see O Loughlin, A
Womans Plight and the Western Fathers, 88-103
53
ODay, John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading, 640.
54
Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story. 74. Here Scott quotes Riesenfeld. For a lengthy discussion on this see Hodges
The Text, 318-332.
55
Gary M. Burge, A Specific Problem in the New Testament Text and Canon: The Woman Caught in Adultery,
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27, no. 2 (1984): 143.
56
Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 332.

16

Conclusion
In conclusion, it is imperative to point out three things. First, if the internal evidences show
the Pericope Adulterae as being a core part of Johannine Gospel and the scenarios
surrounding the external evidences could allow for such a view then the passage being
excised before the 2nd century is a highly probable thesis. Second, if those who argue for a
non-Johannine authorship of this passage cannot prove against a common genealogy of the
above four 3rd and 4th century manuscripts (P66, 75, N and B) considering the fact that
there was early tampering then this passage being Johannine still remains the most likely
view.

Bibliography
Burge, Gary M. A Specific Problem in the New Testament Text and Canon: The Woman Caught in
Adultery. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27, no. 2 (1984): 141-148.
Carpenter, J. E., The Johannine Writngs: A Study of the Apocalypse and the Fourth Gospel, Boston;
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927.
Hodges, Zane Clark. The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): The Text. Bibliotheca Sacra 136,
no. 544 (1979): 318-332.
________. The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition. Bibliotheca Sacra 137, no. 545
(1980): 41-53.
Hylen, Gail R. ODay and Susan E. John Westminister Bible Companion, Edited by Patrick D. Miller and
David L. Bartlett. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminister John Knox Press, 2006.
Johnson, Allan F. A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel in the Pericope Adulterae. Bulletin of the
Evangelical Theological Society 9, no. 2 (1966): 91-96.
Keener, Craig S. The Gospel of John: A Commentary. Vol. 1. Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2003.
Kstenberger, Andreas J. John Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Baker Academic, 2004.
Lincoln, Andrew T. The Gospel According to Saint John Blacks New Testament Commentary. New York:
Hendrickson Publishers, 2005.
Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. New York: United Bible Societies,
1971.
ODay, Gail R. John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading. Journal of Biblical Literature 111, no. 4 (Wint
1992): 631-640.
OLoughlin, Thomas. A Woman's Plight and the Western Fathers. In Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations
of the Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11), Edited by Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W.
Rooke. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.
Poythress, Vern S. Testing for Johannine Authorship by Examining the Use of Conjunctions. Westminster
Theological Journal 46, no. 2 (1984): 350-369.
Scott, J. Martin C. On the Trail of a Good Story: John 7.53-8.1. In Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations of
the Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11). Edited by Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W. Rooke.
Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Trites, Allison A. Woman Taken in Adultery. Bibliotheca Sacra 131, no. 522 (1974): 137-146.

17

Sabbath - Opportunity for Authentic Community

Dr Murray House & Linval H. London:
Biographical note: Dr Murray House lectures in the School of Arts and Theology at
Avondale, College of Higher Education, NSW. Linval London is a student studying
theology at Avondale
From the beginning, God set the Sabbath aside and founded it on the basis of community
with Himself and with others. It contained the seeds for interpersonal relationships;
between one person and another, between man and woman, and between the human being
and the environment. In honouring the Sabbath, we experience community through
genuine fellowship, mutual inclusivity, and unified purpose. The often-neglected relational
aspects of the Sabbath are foundational for authentic community.57

The Creation of Community

In the creation week God created community from chaos. As God spoke into the void, the
light was gathered with light, the waters were coalesced into their groups, and all manner
of flora and fauna were arranged in societies after their kind (Gen 1; 12, 25). Challies
states:
Seven times in the story of creation (Genesis 1) God looked at what He had
created and saw that it was good. What follows in Genesis 2 stands out in
contrast. In a perfect and sinless world, where man enjoyed perfect
community with his Creator, God, looking at His creation, said, It is not
good for the man to be alone.58
As part of the Creators perfect plan for humanity to exist in community, the
Sabbath was fashioned and made holy (Gen 2:3) in order for the isolation of
humankind to be removed from creation. The sanctification of the day did not
preclude the need for relationships, but encouraged them. The rest provided on
the day was not of a slothful type, but refreshing and renewing to both body and
spirit, a time to bond with the entirety of Gods family, both the terrestrial and the
divine.

57

Sigve K. Tonstad, The Lost Meaning of the Seventh Day, (Berrien Springs, MI, Andrews University Press,
2009) 33.
58
T. Challies, "One Another - The Bible and Community" www.Challies.com document:
<http://www.challies.com/archives/articles/one-another-the.php> July 10, 2004.

18

Although the Sabbath is referred to as the day God ceased from creating (Gen 2:2) at its
core it was formed out of Gods overwhelming desire for intimate union with His creation.
God ceased from His consecutive days of creativity, stopped setting up the various ecosystems, and started fashioning a time-period of communion. Humanity is not just invited
to witness Gods presence but to participate together in the celebration of Gods completed
community. The Sabbath was carved out of time, and because God ceased from His other
duties on that day it was hallowed and blessed (Exod 20:11). The blessing of the presence
of the Creator was an example to humankind that, once a week, relationships needed to
come first. Every six days it was necessary for the working to stop and fellowship to begin
(Lev 23:2-3).

The Sabbath after the Exodus was a sign (Exod 31:17) to all who witnessed it that
community was important and that refreshing fellowship was beneficial for the growth and
well being of Gods earthly people. Gods presence provided the day with safety,
security, and equilibrium59 - a balance of freedom and boundaries - creating a space
where humanity could feel secure in a loving relationship. Sabbath enhances the
connection, with each other and with God, through the bond of the Sabbath meeting (Isa
58:13).

The Benefits of Community

Keeping the Sabbath holy brings closeness to community through the honouring and
sharing of Sabbath celebration. Moltmann states:
For the sake of this celebration, everything, which exists, was created. In
order not to celebrate alone, God created the heavens and the earth, the
dancing stars and the swaying seas, the fields and the woods, the animals,
the plants, and last of all, human beings. They are all invited to God's
Sabbath celebration. They are all - each in its own way - God's
companions in celebration.60
The celebration of the Sabbath provides a stable foundation for community building as we
experience worship together and live with authenticity before our Lord. The Sabbath has
the potential to address any inadequacies in the relationship God desires with and for His
people. Feelings of pride, superiority, and selfishness poison the Sabbath community and
only seek to interfere with our fellowship on this day of holy convocation (Lev 23:3).
59
60

J.H. Walton, The NIV Application Commentary: Genesis. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 146.
J. Moltmann, "The Sabbath: the feast of creation." Journal of Family Ministry 14, no. 4 (2000): 38.

19

Stanley Grenz states, sins such as these lead to a disruption of community61 and only
highlight our human failure to live in community with God, each other and the natural
environment.62

The Process of Building Community

For fellowship to be other than a ruse, persons need to be willing to lower their defences
and share what they are truly feeling. This can be a risky endeavour, as ridicule or
indifference may greet them, but risk is necessary for authentic community to form and for
honest fellowship to exist. God took a risk when creating man in giving him free choice,
but that is what correct community demands (Joshua 24:15). Hybels states,
Its a great temptation for small groups of people to slide into a state where they
are not quite telling each other the truth and they are not quite celebrating each
other. Instead they tolerate each other, they accommodate each other, and they
settle for sitting on unspoken matters that separate them. "63
Without vulnerability authentic community fails. Persons must know they are valued by
others to feel part of a community. Sabbath is about coming together, putting aside
divisive variances and, instead, celebrating the distinctive differences God has created (Isa
56:7). In it various races, genders, ages and characters all finding unity in the love and
adoration of God (Exod 20:8-11). True Sabbath fellowship breaks through the falsehood of
individualism, reassembles the atomized64 society and opens a door to a wonderful
mosaic of community. Unity is possible within the divine fellowship of love and
acceptance.
The Sabbath is also a time of emptying - not of the day, but of the believers heart. True
openness between individuals is vital for community development. It is a time of reflection
on the personal journey of the individual and a moment of communal reflection of what
has happened during the interval to bring the community together. Sabbath time, as shown
in the ancient world, was a time of putting aside your personal pride and humbling
yourself before God. This was vividly symbolized by the action of bringing a sacrifice to
the temple as a sign of personal sin (Lev 4:27-29) and the admission of personal
responsibility for breaking fellowship with God during the week. The admission of sin
61

J. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 187.
Ibid.
63
Hybels, Bill. Axiom: Powerful Leadership Proverbs. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008.
64
D. Elazar, "Why Public Standards of Sabbath Observance" www.jcpa.org document: <
http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles/sabbobs.htm>1992.
62

20

facilitated the emptying of pride and self importance. In todays society we do not have a
visible sacrifice on the Sabbath day, but instead we offer the sacrifice of our lives to God
(Rom 12:1). The solution to the problems we face as individuals is often found when we
cease trying to fix ourselves and start taking a look at the world around us and noticing
what we can do. In 2004 Lee Levett-Olson quoted from renowned social psychologist
Erich Fromm concerning the vision of a Sabbath community that provides:
Security in the sense that the basic material conditions for a dignified life are not
threatened; Justice in the sense that nobody can be an end for the purpose of
another, and freedom in the sense that each [person] has the possibility to be an
active and responsible member of society.65
Authentic community, as experienced through the Sabbath, encourages a focus upon others
to discover the true condition of those who associate with us. Just as God ceased from His
activity to enjoy fellowship with His creation, we then should follow the pattern set by
the Creator66 and enter into a closer relationship with Him67 through the door to
community opened by Him. God exists at the centre of the relational sphere of the
Sabbath. As worshippers come closer to Him they also come in contact with one another,
facilitating opportunities to share and support each other in the unified goal of oneness
with God.

The Return to Community

The result of living the Sabbath is authentic community. Authentic community exists when
members of the community are in complete empathy with one another, are sincere in their
joint desires, and are seeking after the good of the whole. The church in Acts was just such
a community, as they shared a single-minded devotion68 and an openhearted attitude,
where no pretence and performance in the way the believers behaved.69 This was a
community which could share freely, encourage consistently, and love unconditionally.
The early church met daily (Acts 2:46) to foster this fellowship, but then came together on
the Sabbath in unified worship to God and continued edification of each other in the house
of the Lord (Acts 13:42-44).

65

Levett-Olson, Lee, Building a Sabbath Community

<http://www.alphasys.com.au/uca2/trunk/images/pdfs/issues/living-sustainably/resources/building.pdf.>
October 2009.
66
J. McKeown, The Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary: Genesis. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
2008), 28.
67
Ibid.
68
A. Fernando, The NIV Application Commentary: Acts. (Grand Rapids, MI : Zondervan, 1998), 123.
69
Ibid.

21

Since we are living, free-thinking organisms there is certain to be some differences of

opinion, but true community welcomes these discussions, is not afraid of new ideas, and
respects others with differing viewpoints. Brueggemann states, The trick of community is
to hold together real differences of interest in the midst of treasuring a passionate
commitment to belong faithfully to one another.70 The harmony found in Sabbath
community is not in the sameness of the members ideas, but in the unified ideals of the
community. The sense of a unified purpose and goal brings people together in the worship
of God and the encouragement of each other. A Sabbath community could then be defined
as a group of people, depending on each other and on God, sharing the same sanctified
time as the creator of the universe, and interacting with God, and each other, through
various means.

Thus, the Sabbath reveals itself as not just a time of holy living, but also a weekly season
of growth in the field of fellowship and community. The day is not exclusive to the
hallowed, but rather, provides a mutually inclusive realm where worship of the of the
divine can co-exist beside the enrichment of humankinds greatest need; the need to belong,
to rest in the comfort of acceptance. On the Sabbath, the society of man and the sacred
communion with God come together and each realm is enriched and emboldened by the
experience.

The Sabbath is a day of relational development, providing a time of free flowing

communication without distractions to hinder understanding. It is a time of reflection on
the relationship choices you have made and rejoicing in the community you have achieved.
The Sabbath enhances our community, unites us in a common goal, and brings us closer to
each other in a way that no other time period is able to do.

In these times when true community has been replaced by social networking sites and
acceptance comes packaged with conformity, the Sabbath stands as a reminder that we all
do belong, despite our differences. The day God set aside as a monument of creation is
also a day to throw off the shackles of sameness, and unify in the worship of our God who
fashioned variety. It is an experience which houses blessings for the participant, and for
the One on the throne of the universe. The Sabbath requires us to be honest with each other
70

W. Brueggemann, Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes.

(Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), 37.

22

and to share of ourselves with our fellow humanity. Finally, it enables us to honour the
Lord in a spirit of authentic community. We have opportunity to experience community as
it was intended by the Godhead from the beginning.

23

Traditional Foods, Nutrition and Disease

Dr Warren A. Shipton: Asia-Pacific International University & James
Cook University
Biographical note: Associate Professor Warren A. Shipton has worked in PNG on a food
security project with the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. He is
currently associated with Asia-Pacific International University and James Cook University
(adjunct). He has published extensively in agriculture and biomedical science.
Abstract: Non-communicable diseases are increasing worldwide. Adoption of
Western-style foods and eating habits primarily are responsible for this upsurge. In
this environment, interest in traditional food systems and the nutritional value of
components are being explored. Avoidance of protein-energy, vitamin and
micronutrient malnutrition are the principal health concerns. The area invites
detailed documentation and research in Papua New Guinea to reduce infant deaths
and stunting of children in particular. Indigenous groups have generated food
systems, safe methods of food preservation and preparation. Failure to follow these
or understand the basis for their success may increase health risks. This does not
imply that traditional methods are risk-free as has been demonstrated with sago
haemolytic disease. Cooperative efforts to improve community health have given
positive results elsewhere and there is every reason to think that similar results might
be achieved in Papua New Guinea by understanding and fine-tuning traditional food
systems.
Introduction
In recent years there has been considerable interest in Mediterranean and Asian diets in
Western countries. This is on account of the massive increase in life-style diseases such as
heart-associated disease, cancer and diabetes. These diets are characterised by the
consumption of vegetables, fruit, moderate to sparse use of meat, and limited intake of
refined foods and the use of other specialized components. This ensures that the foods
consumed are high in dietary fibre, relatively low in rapidly accessible energy sources
(simple sugars), low in protein and saturated fats, and high in antioxidants. These are not
the only dietary schemes that will deliver good health outcomes. For example, those
people groups taking in high levels of saturated plant or animal fats, such as those living in
the Pacific Islands and Alaska, respectively, still retain healthy outcomes, as long as they
remain physically active and do not take on Western eating habits of consuming highly
refined foods, large portion size, and high levels of meat and milk.

Studies sponsored by the Food and Agricultural Organization and carried out among
indigenous groups at locations around the world have highlighted the wisdom of retaining
knowledge and practice of utilizing traditional foods. This is not to give carte blanche
24

approval to traditional food systems. For example, the Karen people of Thailand have a
repertoire of 387 traditional food species/varieties and 66 animal species/varieties that they
use. Some of these are cultivated, but many are gathered in the wild. The children in the
villages showed significant chronic and acute malnutrition problems (20% stunted, 14%
underweight). There were dietary deficiencies in vitamins A and C and fat and low iron
intake. It was found that the available food resources would satisfy most of their needs if
utilized sensibly. Most issues could be remedied by education and working on cultural
understandings through the village leaders. 71

In addition to information contained in the cultural-influenced dietary system adopted,

additional sources of wisdom have been accumulated. The first is the method of treating
food so as to deliver a safe product, the second relates to food storage and finally a method
of preparing food for consumption so as to minimise illness. In order to illustrate these
sources of wisdom, I will mention cassava (Manihot esculenta) preparation. Cassava
contains two toxic cyanogenic glycosides, which must be removed. Different ethnic groups
follow their preferred methods of detoxification. For example, in Nigeria some people
groups place the roots in running streams for 35 days and subsequent wash and sieve
tissues. This largely removes toxins from the bitter varieties. Other groups slice, grate or
pound the roots so that cell rupture occurs leading to the hydrolysis of the toxic glycosides.
The grated cassava then is allowed to ferment for some days, which further detoxifies it.
These methods are effective in reducing hydrogen cyanide content but do not eliminate it.
The cassava is subsequently heated until it reaches the desired consistency to become gari.
This is thoroughly sundried before storage. All the steps in the process function to reduce
cyanogens, but some steps such as boiling, blanching and drying allow up to 50 percent of
cyogens to be retained.72 Most instances of cassava poisoning occur when there is
inadequate water or intensive commercialization leads to insufficient processing of bitter
cassava. A condition known as konzo is associated with such food, which is manifest as a

71

Sinee Chotiboriboon, Sopa Tamachotipong, Solot Sirisai et al. 2009. Thailand: food system and nutritional
status of indigenous children in a Karen community, pp. 159183. In: Indigenous Peoples Food Systems:
The Many Dimensions of Culture, Diversity and Environment for Nutrition and Health, eds Harriet V.
Kuhnlein, Bill Erasmus & Dina Spigelski. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
72
Emmanuel, O. Etejere & Ramakrishna B. Bhat. 1985. Traditional preparation and uses of cassava in
Nigeria. Economic Botany 39(2):157164; T. Agbor-Egbe & I. Lape Mbome. 2006. The effects of
processing techniques in reducing cyanogens levels during the production of some Cameroonian cassava
foods. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19:354363; Bala Nambisan. 2011. Strategies for
elimination of cyanogens from cassava for reducing toxicity and improving food safety. Food and Chemical
Toxicology 49(3):590693.

25

motor-neuron disorder and in impaired visual acuity. 73 When sweat cassava is grown, it
may be necessary only to roast or boil the roots to render it safe for use. Different ethnic
groups have devised various ways of preparing cassava safely. The material may be
utilized immediately or after storage of the sun-dried product. In some of the South Pacific
islands cassava is grated, wrapped in leaves and baked in an oven. It may be eaten
immediately and is safe.74

Market outlets of dried cassava may be sources of additional hazards, as illustrated by

work in southern Nigeria. Market surveys indicated that samples had unacceptable levels
(up to 5.7 g/kg) and prevalence of aflatoxins generated by contaminating fungi and could
carry food-borne disease pathogens such of Staphylococcus aureus (35 cfu/g) and
coliforms.75 While the numbers of pathogens encountered in this study were not significant
microbiologically, they indicate the potential for contamination. Aflatoxins (B and G) are
the most potent group of fungal-generated toxins (generally associated with species of
Aspergillus) formed generally in food post-harvest as a consequence of poor storage
conditions. They are category I carcinogens. The highest levels of toxins detected in
Nigeria would be of regulatory significance in some countries. Prolonged exposure to
these toxins predisposes to cancer development.76 Further studies in Nigeria have shown
that other foodstuffs can carry damaging levels of aflatoxins.77

Food-borne disease organisms are a major problem world-wide. These organisms are more
significant in the developing in contrast to the developed world. The number of annual
diarrhoeal episodes is staggering and over three million deaths are estimated to occur
globally. The combined effects of malnutrition and diarrhoeal disease deliver an estimated

73

Donald G. Barceloux. 2012. Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs,
Plants, and Venomous Animals. United States: Wiley Publishers.
74
P. A. Lancaster, J. S. Ingram, M. Y. Lim et al. 1982. Traditional cassava-based foods: survey of processing
techniques. Economic Botany 36(1):1245.
75
I. S. Ogiebor, M. J. Ikenebomeh & A. O. Ekundayo. 2007. The bioload and aflatoxins content of market
garri from some selected states in southern Nigeria: public health significance. African Health Science
7(4):223227.
76
W. A. Shipton. 2014. The Biology of Fungi Impacting Human Health. Singapore: Partridge, pp. 27, 45.
77
Olusegun Atanda, Hussaini A. Makun, Isaac M. Ogara, Mojisola Edema et al. 2013. Fungal and
mycotoxin contamination of Nigerian foods and feeds. In: Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing
Countries, ed. Hussaini Anthony Makun. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech, pp. 338. Online:
http://www.ngmycotoxin.org/Sci%20Papers/Makuns%20Book.pdf

26

15 million deaths in children under five every year. Contamination of food is a major
cause of such diseases.78

Disease expression and nutrition

Receiving a balanced nutrition is one of the important factors to consider in any population
attempting to achieve and maintain good health. Proteins are one of the key nutrients
requiring attention as nine amino acids essential for the optimal functioning of the human
body cannot be manufactured by it. The necessary amino acids can be supplied from either
plant or animal sources.79

The incidence of selected diseases is influenced by dietary status. This has been illustrated
among children with intake of high levels of dietary cyanide in Mozambique. The
incidence of paralysis (indicated by the onset of konzo) among them was associated with
high cyanide exposure at the same time as dietary sulphur intake was low. Cassava is
energy rich, and protein and sulphur poor. The relationship between sulphur intake and
disease is not entirely surprising as the detoxification of cyanide after ingestion is
dependent on a biochemical pathway that include a sulphur-containing enzyme, which
necessitate the presence of sulphur containing amino acids in the diet. The cassava roots
implicated in the Mozambique episodes were consumed without the usual post-harvest
processing detoxification steps being implemented during a period of drought and when
protein rich foods (beans and fish) were in short supply.80 Similar observations have been
made in Zaire where inhabitants made a shortcut (one day soaking in water compared to
the usual three) to the traditional preparation method to facilitate rapid sales of the finished
product. This resulted in high cyanide levels in the product and the subsequent onset of
motor-neuron disease in consumers. Affected populations also displayed low sulphur
intake levels.81 Protein deficiency (particularly methionine) and intake of selected vitamins
may predispose to the development of these disease symptoms.82

78

WHO food safety. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/fermentation.pdf

Warren A. Shipton. 2009. Health IQ. Muak Lek, Thailand: Institute Press, pp. 1520.
80
Julie Cliff, Johannes Mrtensson, Per Lundqvist et al. 1985. Association of high cyanide and low sulphur
intake in cassava-induced spastic paraparesis. Lancet 326(8466):12112013.
81
Thorkild Tylleskr, Mayambu Banea, Nkiabungu Bikangi et al. 1992. Cassava cyanogens and konzo, an
upper motoneuron disease found in Africa. Lancet 339(8787):2082011.
82
G. Speijers. Cyanogenic glycosides. IPCS Inchem. Online:
http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v30je18.htm; Hiplito Nzwalo & Julie Cliff. 2011. Konzo:
from poverty, cassava, and cyanogens intake to toxico-nutritional neurological disease. PloS Neglected
Tropical Diseases 5(6): e1051. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000105
79

27

Nutritional excess may predispose to disease

I will take an example dealing with the predisposing effect of protein excess on liver
cancer following exposure to fungal toxins (aflatoxins). This example will serve
additionally to show some of the ill effects of altering traditional food intake patterns
without informed understanding.
In an early attempts to bridge the protein deficit in childrens diets in developing countries,
a group working in the Philippines targeted peanuts as a readily available source rich in
protein that might be popularized. An initial emphasis was to identify safe sources of
peanuts with acceptable low levels of aflatoxins. This research was carried out in the early
days of aflatoxin investigations. It soon was discovered that children were more
susceptible than adults to aflatoxins in that they developed liver cancer more readily.
Children were dying before their tenth birthday from liver cancer, but the most puzzling
aspect of the investigations was that those children from families with the richest protein
diets were the most likely to develop liver cancer.83 It was shown experimentally in rats
that a low protein diet decreased the binding of aflatoxin metabolites to DNA. When
protein levels in a diet were reduced, the number of cancer foci capable of developing was
reduced substantially. However, subsequent elevation of protein intake led to a remarkable
increase in the development of cancer foci. Further work established that dietary protein up
to about 10 percent did not increase foci development in rats, which was the level of
protein necessary to satisfy the protein requirements for body growth. When, however,
high protein levels (20%) were fed, there was a clear dose response in cancer development
to increased aflatoxin dose.84

In animal experiments, it was established that not all dietary protein was equally effective
in promoting cancer formation. Animal-based protein was more tumour-generating than
plant-based proteins, with casein protein being the most deleterious. A wide ranging study
of human health in China showed that the diseases of affluence (some types of cancer,

83

T. Colin Campbell & Thomas M. Campbell. 2006. The China Study. Dallas, Texas: Benbella Books, pp.
3438.
84
G. E. Dunaif & T. C. Campbell. 1987. Dietary protein level and aflatoxin B1induced preneoplastic
hepatic lesions in the rat. Journal of Nutrition 117(7):12981302.

28

diabetes, coronary heart disease) have associated dietary risk factors. In fact, there were
compelling links between dietary practice and disease incidence.85
Sago consumption and disease in Papua New Guinea (PNG)
Sago consumption is well established in the lowlands of PNG. Sago starch is extracted
from the pith of the palm (Metroxylon sagu) using traditional methods, which involve
fragmenting the pith, then washing the starch out with water. The starch is stored wet
(commonly in palm-leaf bundles or in clay pots filled with water) where it ferments. The
fermented product is prepared for eating using simple methods. Sago starch is often the
staple carbohydrate. It is low in protein. Sago haemolytic disease has been associated with
eating stale sago starch. It is manifestation within 1224 hours of consumption as fever,
vomiting, jaundice and haematuria (blood in the urine), with death following quickly in
some individuals.86 The disease is most frequently encountered in the Western Province
with cases occasionally observed in the East Sepik and Madang Provinces. People from
Irian Jaya also are known to seek medical aid in the Western Province for the disease.
Cultural practices differed remarkably between the Sepik and the Western Provinces. In
the former the usual practice is to store sago under water in unglazed clay pots whereas in
the Western Province the practice is to store sago in palm leaf bundles in contact with the
air. This means that fungi can colonize such leaf-encased bundles. Early studies pointed to
fungal contamination as a possible cause of the condition. Exploration along these lines
was encouraged by the knowledge that some mycotoxins do possess haemolytic activity. 87

During preparation there is ample opportunity for sago starch to become contaminated
with microorganisms from the soil, vegetation and air; some human pathogens also find
their way into the product.88 Fungal threads (hyphae) grow through sago stored in leafencased bundles so that in month-old sago the outer layers are heavily colonized. In sago
preserved in jars filled with water (Sepik region) fungal growth essentially does not occur.

85

Campbell & Campbell, 2006, op. cit., pp. 5462, 109182.

T. Taufa, 1974. Sago haemolytic disease. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal 17:227228.
87
Andrew R. Greenhill, 2006. Food safety and security of sago starch in rural Papua New Guinea. PhD
thesis, James Cook University, Townsville.
88
A. R. Greenhill, W. A. Shipton, B. J. Blaney et al. 2010. Hazards and critical control points for traditional
sago starch production in Papua New Guinea: implications for food safety education. Food Control
21(5):657662.
86

29

Extensive analysis of sago samples by the author and his colleagues for well recognized
fungal toxins (mycotoxins) failed to show systemic contamination, but there was a
demonstrated potential for the production of toxins. However, further investigation showed
that 55 percent of filamentous fungi from sago starch possessed haemolytic activity.
Potentially incriminating haemolytic components were isolated but these did not resemble
agents found by others.89 Further work completed by Professor Ng and associates showed
that the most likely cause of the disease is the release of quantities of long chain fatty acids
(C16C18) from digested fungal hyphae. These fatty acids when released into the blood
stream under low albumin conditions lead to rapid haemolysis of red blood cells.90 These
acids are normal constituents of the diet or are essential fatty acids (linoleic) and do not
normally exert ill effects as nutritional elements.91 This means that the disease is likely to
be seen only among individuals with sub-optimal protein intake. In this respect the disease
shows similarities to that caused by some other microorganisms (e.g., Schistosoma).92

Free fatty acids are known to cause detergent-like haemolysis of red blood cells if not
bound to albumin.93 It is hypothesised that sago haemolytic disease may result from red
cell breakdown under conditions where the free fatty acids/albumin ratio temporarily
exceeds a critical threshold when protein intake is very low. The fatty acids are postulated
to come from the breakdown in the body of abundant fungal elements found in mouldy
sago.

Low albumin serum levels (hypoalbuminemia) are caused by certain disease states (e.g.,
kidney disease, liver disease), excessive bowel loss of proteins and infections to name
several. It is also well known that low protein calorie malnutrition leads to low albumin
levels, which is an imperfect indicator of nutritional status.94
89

Warren A. Shipton. 2014. The Biology of Fungi Impacting Human Health. Singapore: Partridge.
A. R. Greenhill, A. Pue, W. A. Shipton et al. 2011. Sago haemolytic disease: a foodborne toxicoses with
complex aetiology in Papua New Guinea. Australian Society for Microbiology Conference, Hobart,
Australia, July 48, 2011. Online: http://www.asm2011.org/abstract/25.asp (02/08/2012).
91
T. K. Ng, K. C. Hayes, G. F. DeWitt et al. 1992. Dietary palmitic and oleic acids exert similar effects on
serum cholesterol and lipoprotein profiles in normocholesterolemic men and women. Journal of the
American College of Nutrition 11(4):383390.
92
H. Asahi, A. Moribayashi, F. Sendo et al. 1984. Hemolytic factors in Schistosoma japonicum eggs.
Infection and Immunity 46(2):514518.
93
I. Tizard, K. H. Nielsen, J. R. Seed et al. 1978. Biologically active products from African trypanosomes.
Microbiological Reviews 42(4):661681.
94
C. W. Bales, & C. S. Ritchie, Eds. 2004. Handbook of Clinical Nutrition and Aging. Totowa, New Jersey:
Humana Press; E. Slattery, & S. Patchett, 2011. Albumin as a marker of nutrition: a common pitfall. Annals
of Surgery 254(4):667678.
90

30

The studies illustrated further that sago starch could carry high loads of bacteria, some of
which are capable of causing food-poisoning and diarrhoeal disease. The traditional
method of harvesting ensured a heavy load of microbial contamination, particularly where
wash water comes from contaminated sources containing animal and human faeces.95
These findings illustrated the need to supplement traditional knowledge with scientific
information so that optimal health outcomes might be achieved.

Traditional and introduced food resources in Papua New Guinea

A recent (20052010) PNG government initiative has been to encourage traditional
agricultural enterprises. Rural people (85% of population) continue to rely heavily on such
crops to supply their dietary needs. There was an expressed need to substitute some of the
imported foods (rice, wheat, maize, sorghum and temperate fruit, vegetables and meats)
with those capable of being produced locally. Nutritional problems highlighted were
protein malnutrition and deficiencies in iron and iodine, but on the other hand over
nutrition and poor food choices were noted with other groups leading to the emergence of
non-communicable, preventable diseases. The need to popularize high protein crops was
mentioned but was not specifically addressed, although some indigenous under-utilized
sources were noted.96

When speaking of traditional crops, we can perhaps include those introduced into PNG
several centuries to several thousand years ago, such as the sweet potato, yam, winged
bean, cucumber and pao nut. Others such as citrus, pawpaw, pumpkin, peanut and maize
have been present for over a hundred years in some areas. An extensive list of plants has
been introduced and has adapted successfully to local conditions.97

There is an enormous range of edible plant species available in PNG (around 400). The
most significant staple is sweet potato, with sago, cassava, banana, yam and taro being the
other common energy foods. Their significance varies across provinces and over time. The

95

Greenhill, 2006, op. cit.

Alan Quartermain. 2006. Underutilised Species: Policies and Strategies. Information Bulletin No. 15. Lae,
Papua New Guinea: National Agricultural Research Institute.
97
R. Michael.Bourke. 2009. History of agriculture in Papua New Guinea, pp. 1026. In: Food and
Agriculture in Papua New Guinea, eds R. Michael Bourke and Tracy Harwood. Canberra: Australian
National University Press.
96

31

most important animal foods are fish, shellfish, pigs, chickens and cattle, with other
animals contributing variously in different locations.98
Populations that depend heavily on carbohydrate staples risk protein deficiency. This has
been shown among Kenyan and Nigerian children consuming cassava and in PNG among
sago eaters. Such populations tend to have higher numbers of children with stunted growth
than populations with dietary protein adequacy.99 Similarly, a 2005 national survey
showed that around a third of children in PNG were stunted and some 17 percent of these
severely stunted. Anaemia was an issue in just under 50 percent of all children measured
and vitamin A deficiency was shown to be moderately evident.100 The incidence of child
deaths and stunting in PNG is high by world standards and is associated with inadequate
protein and often energy intake too.101
The prevention of infant mortality and stunting in children involves a multipronged
approach. Increasing either animal and/or plant protein is just one avenue for advance.
There are over 40 species of plants in PNG yielding edible nuts and thirteen of these
species are significant.102 Increasing their availability and popularizing their use would
help overcome the general problem of protein insufficiency, as would the stimulation of
animal husbandry. There is a role for academic institutions in the country to undertake the
appropriate experimental work and provide information in a popular, usable form.
Significance of nutritional adequacy for the developing child
The early, balanced development of the body is significant to later health outcomes and
performance. Food quantity and quality are both important to physical growth and mental
development. The relationship between physical growth and mental development is
complex as a variety of socioeconomic factors operate to confound nutritional
inadequacies. Irrespective of these complex interactions, one outcome is certain and that is
98

R. Michael Bourke, John Gibson, Alan Quartermain et al. 2009. Food production, consumption and
imports, pp. 130192. In: Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea, op. cit.
99
Kevin Stephenson, Rachel Amthor, Sally Mallowa et al. 2010. Consuming cassava as a staple food places
children 25 years old at risk for inadequate protein intake, an observational study in Kenya and Nigeria.
Nutrition Journal 2010 9:9. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-9-9
100
Bryant Allen. 2009. Nutritional surveys, pp. 463468. In: Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea,
op. cit.
101
Handan Wand, Namarola Lote, Irene Semos et al. 2012. Investigating the spatial variations of high
prevalences of severe malnutrition among children in Papua New Guinea: results from geoadditive models.
BMC Research Notes 2012, May 11. doi: 10.1186/1756-0500-5-228.
102
R. Michael Bourke & Bryant Allen. Village food production systems, 193269. In: Food and Agriculture
in Papua New Guinea, op. cit.

32

that the effects of reduced growth and intellectual development are long lasting. Growth
retardation predisposes infants to higher levels of mortality and morbidity and to reduced
cognitive development and neurologic deficits. They are more susceptible to infectious
diseases, particularly acute diarrhoeal diseases and pneumonia. In adult life they have an
increased risk of a variety of diseasese.g., cardiovascular, renal and lung diseases.103
Satisfactory brain development early in life is vitally important to subsequent well-being
and performance. It is influenced by both sociological and biological factors. The
biological factors of most significance for optimum performance include adequate
nutrition, iron sufficiency, absence of environmental toxins and avoidance of infections.
Ensuring that children have the best opportunities for realizing their potential is no easy
task for it involves the elimination of poverty, which is inextricably involved with
improvement to the educational level attained by parents and the subsequent employment
opportunities available to them.104

Promoting healthy outcomes

While improving pre- and post-natal growth outcomes must be addressed on a national
level, there is a role that non-government agencies and individuals can play. There is a
particularly significant role for all individuals enlightened on the topic of wholistic
healthful living. Care commences during pregnancy. Informed advice involves avoiding
smoking, limiting maternal infections (including the control of malaria infections) and
giving attention to sound nutritional information (particularly adequate protein-energy,
vitamin, mineral and fatty acid supplementation).105 The significance of breast feeding
infants cannot be over-emphasised when it comes to prevention of diarrhoeal disease and
lessening its impact.106 As the child develops, maintaining adequate nutrition will give
greater protection against diarrhoeal disease and damaging malarial episodes or the
morbidity associated with such episodes. Protection against other diseases is also offered
by adequate nutrition. Vitamin A and zinc adequacy in the diet has been emphasized
103

Mercedes de Onis. Child growth and development, pp. 113137. In: Nutrition and Health: Nutrition and
Health in Developing Countries, eds R. D. Semba & M. W. Bloem. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press;
United Nations Administrative Committee on Coordination. 1999. Nutrition Policy Paper No. 18Low
Birthweight. Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1417 June.
104
Sally Grantham-McGregor, Yin Bun Cheung, Santiago Cueto et al. 2007. Developmental potential in the
first 5 years for children in developing countries. Lancet January 6: 369(9555):6070. doi: 10.1016/S01406736(07)60032-4
105
de Onis, op. cit., p. 131.
106
Claudio F. Lanata & Robert E. Black. Diarrheal diseases, pp. 139178. In: Nutrition and Health:
Nutrition and Health in Developing Countries, eds R. D. Semba & M. W. Bloem. Totowa, New Jersey:
Humana Press.

33

particularly as ensuring an optimum immune response.107 When speaking of this system,

there is no better way in which to protect individuals than to accept immunization as it is
available. The debate about vaccination being associated with sudden death in infancy is
not founded on scientific evidence.108 This is not to assert that there are never any adverse
reactions to vaccination. There is overwhelming evidence for the general safety and
effectiveness of vaccines in current use.109
Concluding remarks
The value of traditional food systems is widely recognized as often they are capable of
supplying adequate levels of macro- and micro-nutrients. The additional advantage is that
food items essentially are not highly-processed and are thus high in fibre and low in
readily available sugars. At the time when sections of the world population are struggling
with the problems of under-nutrition, their more wealthy counterparts are suffering from
the effects of over-nutrition and the cumulative outcomes that constant use of processed
foods bring. One strategy that has been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization
is to study traditional food systems systematically so as to be informed on their strengths
and weaknesses. This has allowed sound advice to be given to communities by their
leaders or those accepted by them and can function to go a long way in addressing
nutritional inadequacies and improving community health. Perhaps this is an area of
potential research for a university, such as Pacific Adventist University, which could build
on the health-emphasis adopted by our faith.

The advantage of adhering to traditional methods of food processing also has been
highlighted. This is not to assert that no improvements can be made to traditional practices,
but it does credit the knowledge acquired over generations as being a sound commencing
point for any advancements. Storage methods also need to be understood and improved
upon. In tropical environments this is especially significant due to the toxins regularly
produced by fungi (mycotoxins) growing on food products held in humid conditions.
Thorough and rapid drying of food products is vital making them suitable for prolonged
107

Richard D. Semba. 2005. Nutrition and infection, pp. 14011413. In: Modern Nutrition in Health and
Disease, eds Maurice Edward Shils, Moshe Shike, A. Catherine Ross et al., tenth edition. Philadelphia,
Pennyslvannia: LippincottWilliams & Wilkins.
108
Kathleen Stratton, Donna A. Almario, Theresa M. Wizemann et al. Eds. 2003. Immunization Safety
Review: Vaccinations and Sudden Unexpected Death in Infancy. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press, pp. 6571.
109
Kathleen Stratton, Andrew Ford, Erin Rusch et al. Eds. 2012. Adverse Effects of Vaccines: Evidence and
Causality. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, pp. 1830.

34

storage. This may be achieved through sun-drying, drying above fires, or other methods. It
is useful to highlight for readers that any food product that has evidence of mould growth
or is dark and discoloured (or even brightly coloured) is unsuitable for consumption. For
example, in the consumption of peanuts when cracked or discoloured nuts are discarded,
their safety improves markedly. The latter example highlights the inherent dangers about
taking on new food items that are grown locally but which are not underpinned by
traditional knowledge. This means that the traditional knowledge held by other people
groups should be accessed too in order to promote safe usage.

35

Teaching Sociolinguistics at Universities

Dr Jillian Thiele: Pacific Adventist University
Biographical note: Jillian Thiele have been lecturing at PAU for the last 15 years. With
her background in linguistics, education and library skills, she is the ideal person to
coordinate the Learning and Academic Support Centre at PAU.
Abstract
Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of society and how language makes connections
within a society. At Pacific Adventist University, the study of sociolinguistics is like a
light switch. The students understand their own difficulties in pronunciation, semantics
and syntax. Incorporating socio-linguistic insights with prescriptive language teaching is a
successful method of teaching English in the pacific countries. First, students discover
language learning is set in a complex social context. Secondly, language learning involves
the learning of a new phonetic language and how the mother tongue phonetic language can
create confusion with the phonetic sounds of English. Thirdly, learning English is affected
by the ability of the teacher to understand the students language hurdles, the motivation to
learn the new language, and the countrys language policies. It is important that English
teachers are aware of the socio linguistic factors that affect the learning and acquisition of
English.
Reasons for Languages
Language is the means which humans have to express aspects of their life (Tisdell, 1998)
and their culture (Shirbagi, 2010). In Papua New Guinea (PNG), there are tiers of
languages. The bottom tier, the village situation, is where most of the 836 Tok Ples
languages emerge. The middle tier relates to two official national languages, Tok Pisin
and Hiri Motu. Tok Pisin, an English-based trade language serves as the country's lingua
franca. Tok Pisin has become very popular and spread from the New Guinea islands, to the
highlands and now to the coastal areas, where Hiri Motu was the traditional lingua franca
(McArthur, 1992, p, 471). Hiri Motu originated around the Port Moresby district and
expanded along the Papuan Coast through the hiri trading expeditions. The top tier is
English. This is the official international language of government, overseas politics,
education, business and the legal system, but it is not widely spoken by the general
populous. English is not the medium of communication in the community but it is the
medium of education. Arriving at most schools, children are confronted with a new totally
unfamiliar language.

Language Education Methods

Tracing language teaching in PNG reflects the changes of teaching methods used around
the world. The quest for improving teaching methods has preoccupied many teachers. The
36

grammar translation method instructs students in grammar and provides vocabulary that
needs memorising. Students are taught rules of language with the tools of correct
vocabulary, grammar and orthography. Many times the students were asked to translate
material into their mother tongue. The audio-lingual method was developed in the United
States of America for soldiers and interpreters. The focus is on oral language focusing on
mimicry, imitation and drill. This method gradually lost favour as written language skills
were not cultivated. The Direct Method, also known as the Natural Approach, only uses
the target language. The instructors attempt to imitate first language acquisition. This
method advocated oral skills, and the printed language is only introduced when the learner
is competent in the spoken language. A core vocabulary of 2,000 words and common
sentence patterns were taught to aid written and spoken comprehension by a pre-set
learning sequence (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). This method evolved into the Immersion
Approaches to language learning. There are various forms of Immersion programs. The
first is foreign language immersion for migrants where part of the school curriculum was
taught in the childs mother tongue and part in the new target language, often English.

Language Education in PNG

From 1960s to the 1990s, language teaching and the related language policies in PNG have
experienced change. The colonial government of the 1960s believed that English was the
means to making PNG into a nation (Litteral, 1999a, p. 1). As a result, many mission
schools abandoned Tok Ples language instruction in favour to English. The 1970s saw the
introduction of A schools for expatriates and T schools for PNG children, where
English was strongly encouraged. By the 1980s education gradually became decentralised
to each of the provinces. Some provinces believed the introduction of Tok Ples education
would provide two major benefits for their provinces. It was believed by some that the
introduction of a childs mother tongue assists in the learning English. Secondly,
knowledge of Tok Ples languages would assist in cultivating a strong connection to the
area. These ideas led the North Solomons, East New Britain and Enga provinces to
introduce vernacular preschools. This concept of vernacular schools was rejected by
Parliament in 1986, but by 1989, Parliament funds were allocated for vernacular language
and literacy programs. By 1990, Parliament recommendation the introduction of village
based three year vernacular elementary education. This was perceived as a win by many,
especially the linguistics of SIL. By 2013, this was all reversed by the ONeil government.
It is recommended that English is taught from the first year of school, even though SIL
37

statistics demonstrate this is not an effective way of teaching languages (Litteral, 1999b, p.
6). Recent reforms to education in Papua New Guinea have encouraged the development
of Elementary Village Schools. These schools have been mandated to teach in the medium
of the local village language, the Tok Ples of the surrounding area. Children from ages
five to seven are encouraged to attend these schools before attending Primary schools
where instruction is first in Tok Pisin before English is introduced as a language and then
the medium of instruction (Owens & Matang, 2013).

The problem is that many

people in PNG are still illiterate.

The author perceives that one of the many reasons why citizens of PNG are still illiterate is
that they do not understand the link between all the tiers of languages in the country and
how each language influences the other. This connection is made with the study of
sociolinguistics. If trainee teachers can make the connections, then they can inform their
students when they graduate as educators.

Purpose of Language Teaching Methods

Most methods of teaching a second language concentrate on teaching rules and linguistic
processes but many methods fail to describe how different languages exist in different
societies and how new language rules, pronunciation and process differ from one language
to the next. Very little consideration is given to how the phonetic language of the mother
tongue can affect pronunciation of the new language. Very little consideration is given to
code switching and semantic transfers. The study of sociolinguistics provides this for gap
in knowledge.

Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of society and how language makes connections
within a society. It is the study of the context in which language is used; cultural norms
and social expectations, and how the context can produce language varieties that differ
between groups separated by political factors, ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of
education, age, geographical location and socioeconomic classes. Sociolinguists are
concerned with identifying, analysing and describing grammatical, phonological and
semantic features and language patterns that set one speech community apart from another
group. These variations are not described as wrong or right, but how they are differ from
each other.
38

Pacific Adventist University

Pacific Adventist University (PAU) is a tertiary institution located 21 kilometres (30
minutes) outside of the countrys capital, Port Moresby. This university is operated by the
South Pacific Division of the Seventh-day Adventist church catering for international
students from various countries across the pacific and beyond. While most students come
from Papua New Guinea and other Pacific island nations such as Tonga, Fiji, Samoa,
Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands, others in the past have come from Africa, Australia,
Pakistan, China, the Philippines, and the United States.
For many years, English as a Second Language was taught by the prescriptive method.
Many students felt threatened, confused and demoralised because they had difficulty in
accomplishing good levels of English. It was when students enrolled in a sociolinguistic
class that attitudes changed. Instead of being confused and feeling totally inadequate, the
reasons for language issues enable the students to understand their own language journey.
This increase of awareness creates an environment where learning English a second
language was a thrilling and exciting journey. Awareness led to enabling!

Students, who study sociolinguistics at Pacific Adventist University, have expressed that at
the end of a course of study they discovered many benefits to learning how language and
society interact.

First, they discover language learning is set in a social context.

Understanding this social context is complicated. Secondly, language learning involves the
learning of a new phonetic language. Confusion with the mother tongue phonetic language
can create confusion with learning English. With the rise of nationalism, and therefore, a
rise of new Papua New Guinea English, there is a tendency in Papua New Guinea, to
accept the deviant pronunciation and language construction. This complicates the learning
of English as a second language. Thirdly, understanding the connection between society
and linguistic issues creates a framework for teachers and students to discuss their
motivation, hurdles and frustrations in learning a new language, English.
Sociolinguistic focuses on describing the linguistic situation in a supportive environment
rather than prescribing the rules of English. It is descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is
not the teaching of language skills but explaining the reasons why certain languages

39

constructions and issues occur. Studying sociolinguistic is not just a skills class; it is an
awareness exercise.

1.

Language is influenced by the social context

Students understand that language is communication for mutual intelligibility. This

interactional social phenomenon is so people can converse fluently with each other, even if
they recognise they are speaking a different variety of the same language. The context of
the interactional discourse demonstrates how language changes. For example, language
use and speech patterns adopted by a speaker may change in urban versus rural areas; in
bilingual versus monolingual areas; within different socio-economic groups; among
various occupations; and, influenced by the looseness or tightness of a social network.

Most people living in rural areas of PNG tend to lack facilities that promote correct forms
of English. They may not have access to a nurse who speaks English; well-equipped
schools that use English as a medium of education; professionally trained teachers who can
speak the English; or even access to international and national form of the media,
television, radio or even newspapers. The rural person is isolated from the developing
world of ideas, technology and education due to their physical isolation.

Many factors influence how a person learns to be competent in English. Social aspirations
influence speech patterns. People who want to move in a new socio-economic direction
will adjust their speech patterns to sound like them. Sounding educated may be prime
indicator to the change of language use. This is illustrated with the example below.
Non Standard form (partly educated)
I ain't done nothing
I done it yesterday
It weren't me that done it

Standard English (secondary education)

... I haven't done anything
... I did it yesterday
... I didn't do it
40

Any native speaker of English would immediately be able to guess that speaker 1 was
likely to have a different level of education to speaker 2.
2.

Pronunciation is influenced by the phonetic language of the mother tongue

The mother tongue, and its matching phonetic language and its related vocabulary, can
create interference with a new language. The most common feature of this interference is
with code switching. Nouns, rather than function words, are more easily transferred from
one language to another (Baeten Beardsmore, 1986: 57), especially if the speaker and
listener are familiar with both languages. Borrowing from one language, into the new
form of English, usually demonstrates connection with a local language. The pronunciation
of this borrowed word then has a flow-on effect by changing the pronunciation of the
whole sentence. This borrowing is evident with the issue of word stress. For example:
The word research is acceptable while many others say research.
This is also true with distribute and distribute.
In the pacific islands, research and distribute are the common forms, where the first
syllable is stressed. This is very different from the pronunciation of Great Britain,
Australia, New Zealand or America.

Many students in the Pacific are aware of phoneme shifts that occur from the mother
tongue but are not aware of how this process changes their pronunciation patterns. For
example, many students at Pacific Adventist University need to taught to be aware of the
common phonetic changes; for example,
the shift from s to sh as in sip instead of sheep or ship;
the f to p shift as in pater instead of father;
l to r shift as in culliculum instead of curriculum
ee to i shift as with sheep instead of ship.
Many times the final <ed> is not pronounced or is substituted with a <t. In many local
languages in PNG, there is a process of sound shifts. Even in English, there has been a
shift from a strong <r> sound after a vowel. Students need to be made aware that each
student has their own phonetic alphabet and that language does not always correlate with
the English equivalent. Being aware of the differences is the first step in making the
correct pronunciation changes.

41

It is estimated that more than a billion people speak a form of English. The large majority
of this group are non-native speakers (Morley, 1991: 481). Teachers need to make their
students aware that pronunciation is not uniform throughout the world. The accepted
pronunciation depends on the language community that the student wishes to be identified
with. Identification with a language group sometimes is more important than the use of
correct pronunciation. There are many reasons why a person may choose to use the
deviant pronunciation: personal and group identity; a sense of disorientation, anxiety and
social isolation; conflict of loyalties; and aspirations generated from the home language
and culture.

The issue of teaching pronunciation is far more complicated than just deciding on the
correct form. To be a teacher of English pronunciation involves questions of content,
pedagogical issues, models of dialect and accent, context of use, transfer of mother tongue
issues, and the ability of the instructor to cover these issues (McDonough, 1999: 265). Not
one of these aspects can be taken in isolation.

3.

The spoken form of a language is influenced by code switching

Geographic isolation from standard forms of English and the sense of a cultural language
identity is shown with the prevalence of code switching and word borrowing between one
language code and another. This code switching is for the purpose of social, political,
economic purposes and demonstrates loyalty to the local context with speakers of these
languages (Baker, 1992: 77). In situations where the language groups are unfamiliar with
the different languages, code switching can cause confusion. There needs to be a similar
language matrix for code-switching to be effective (Myers-Scotton, 2003: 189). Borrowing
occurs when a speaker uses a word from another language to use in another language. This
may be because the speaker cannot remember the correct word in the language that is
being used, and since, the listeners are also familiar with another language, the speaker
borrows the word from a familiar language to keep the conversation progressing.
Borrowing occurs often when the speaker and the listener have the same languages at their
disposal.

4.

Language learning is influence by mother tongue language constructions

In many languages in PNG, the sentence is constructed: Object, Verb, Subject. In English,
the active voice, the main form of the English sentence is constructed as subject, verb,
42

object. If the construction of the mother tongue is different from the construction of
English, adult learners in advanced study programs are usually expected to write in
English. This change of sentence structure can cause confusion and also slows the writers
ability to construct the sentence. Being aware of this sentence construction change is vital.
Awareness is the first step in how to make the appropriate changes in constructing the new
language.

5.

Learning a new language is influenced by incorrect modelling

As with many developing countries, encouraging their citizens to learn English, there are
hundreds of examples of incorrect forms of English usage. This is the same in Papua New
Guinea. Many times the incorrect form becomes accepted as the norm and is fossilized into
common language usage. These word and expressions are not regarded as wrong by the
majority of the population.
John is aftering you.
The replyment for the invitation is on your desk.
For example, many Papua New Guineans pluralise non-count collective nouns, as is
common in many of the local indigenous languages. This phenomenon is also reflected in
language use of other developing countries.
Advices
Stationeries furnitures
My pastor gave me many advices.
The stationeries are in the vehicle.
Please pack up all the furnitures.
All the staffs wish you a happy Christmas.

staffs

In most multilingual societies, communication is embedded within a sociolinguistic

environment (Fondacaro & Higgins, 1985: 77). Written communication, with its emphasis
on correct construction, influences the social cognitive environment (Fondacaro &
Higgins, 1985: 95). The written form of a language is often regarded as standard, as the
ideas are clearly stated (Chafe, 1985: 107). The continual exposure to an incorrect form of
a language will gradually become embedded in the subconscious, as correct and gradually
become part of the written form of the language. In places, such as PNG, where English is
one of the many languages, billboards, the media and correspondence offer display
messages using incorrect forms of English. Usually an English syntax has been simplified
and applied generally. These incorrect forms are often accepted as the correct form, as the
uneducated majority are unfamiliar with the proper forms of grammar. In a sense, these
incorrect forms become entrenched and fossilised into the linguistic framework. There is a
43

sense that the general population are partly incipient bilinguals, with a partial knowledge
of English, rather than balanced bilinguals, knowing languages at their disposal equally
(Baker, 19923: 7 9).

6.

Language usage in influenced by cultural expectations

Students have often informed the writer that one of the most common linguistic obstacles
was what is appropriate linguistically in different social situations. Students often did not
know when to speak, when to remain silent and when to ask questions of the lecturer. One
student told the writer that he did not know how to talk to a woman, as in his culture, you
could only talk to a female with a male relative near-by. This student was experiencing
confusion with the ethnography of communication (Wardhaugh, 1998:243), cultural
know-how, a common problem for people moving from one linguistic group to another.
Discussing this confusion is very important in a sociolinguistic class.

7.

Language learning is influenced by linguistic needs of a country

During the 1940s to the 1960s, pronunciation was an important component to learning
English. Contrastive practice was used between the target language and the original mother
tongue (Baker, 1982) to discover the areas of difference. This error analysis did tend to
reveal interference between two languages (Baetens Beardsmore, 1986: 71) but it did little
in understanding why there were differences. During the seventies and eighties, the
emphasis changed to consider culturally relevant forms of pronunciation that was
acceptable in individual societies. It was believed that intelligible pronunciation was the
essence of good communication rather than a correct form of pronunciation. The
communicative paradigm became the goal of effective communication.

With a strong emphasis on nativization, society has agreed that a new language has to
readjust and approximate to the linguistic and discoursal characteristics of the local
languages. As these processes intensified and with lexical diffusion (Aitchison, 1991: 81),
local varieties of English emerged. In PNG, this new form is called PNG English; one of
the many new Englishes that have emerged in countries desperately needing English as a
means for political and economic stability. These new Englishes have their own
individual characteristic features and communicative styles (Romaine, 1992: 254) which
reflect and express local identity (Crystal, 2006: 101). Comparing the forms of English is a
great revealing exercise in a sociolinguistic class.
44

8.

Language learning is influenced by the learning process

Linguistic competence and communication is a mixture of factors; situational issues,

language input, learner differences, learner learning processes and opportunities for
linguistic output (Ellis,1985). The lack of any one of these factors can lead to language
confusion and a consequence of a delay in learning. Linguistic variability between the
student, the peers and the teacher can lead to miscomprehension and language confusion
(Wardhaugh, 1998: 204). If the teacher is not aware of this context and is not aware of
linguistic hurdles faced by the students, the education process is distorted (Jones,
2003:118).

Motivation is a strong indicator of the effectiveness of learning a new language.

Motivation related to language learning is a complex set of variables including effort;
desire to achieve goals, as well as attitudes toward the learning of the language. In
addition, he remarked that individuals' motivation for second language learning also
includes their motivation orientations, interest, attitudes toward second language group or
learning situations and anxiety.

9.

Language learning is influenced by language policies and curriculum

documents

Language policies are generally formulated in order to establish the language needs of a
society. They also articulate the educational, social and economic expectations associated
with the establishment of a pool of target language speakers. Language policies identify
priority, majority and minority languages and nominate target situations for which
second/foreign language learners need to be prepared. In addition, language policies define
desirable proficiency levels to be achieved in the target language and they state how the
needs of learners can best be met through appropriate teaching methods and models (Lo
Bianco, 1987).

With more than 800 different languages in Papua New Guinea, speakers are drawn
together through the learning and use of English. (English: Lower Secondary Syllabus,
2007: iv, 3). The aim of the English syllabus is for all students to be functionally literate,
while cultivating skills in reading, viewing, speaking, listening and writing various forms
of texts and at the same time cultivating an appreciation for local cultures and language
45

use. In reality, when applied to pronunciation, these aims are mutually incomprehensible.
Appreciating ones own cultural language and transferring elements from that language
will be in stark contrast to Received Pronunciation, the model of most English
pronunciation exercises. Students need to be aware of the reality of language use in PNG,
and the confusion that arises when policy, curriculum documents and language reality
collide.

Conclusion
It would be very easy to produce a new form of colonial English teachers, if only
prescriptive language teaching was practiced. Rules are taught and compliance is expected
without comparison to what is practiced in the linguistic environment. Insisting on one
form of language without reference to other varieties is colonialism in a different form.

It is important that English teachers are aware of the socio linguistic factors that affect the
evolution of English. Being able to describe the language and have an awareness of what
factors influence change, provides trainee English teachers with the skills and knowledge
to demonstrate what language is used in a particular society and what language codes
should be used in a formal English situation.

Teachers need to understand that language is a means to understand social networks in

which the language is embedded. Informal English and the rise of new Englishes are just
examples how language changes to suit the linguistic situation. Teachers need to be aware
that formal rules and correct Standard English pronunciation is needed in some situations
but in others, the local version of English is more appropriate for communication.

At Pacific Adventist University, a socio-linguistic study is the beginning of a linguistic

journey in which the students are totally involved. Their journey continues long after the
students study is completed. The students understand their own difficulties in
pronunciation, semantics and syntax. This experience gives them insight into the
experiences of their own students. The students value their own language journey and
appreciate their own mother tongue. Without incorporating socio-linguistic insights with
prescriptive language teaching, English teaching just becomes another form of colonialism
and dictatorship!
REFERENCE LIST
46

Aitchison, J. (1991). Language Change: Progress or Decay? 2edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Beaten Beardsmore, H. (1986). Bilingualism: Basic Principles. 2edn. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual
Matters.
Baker, C. (1982). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon, Avon, UK: Multilingual
Matters.
Chafe, W. L. (1985). Linguistic differences produced by differences between speaking and writing. Literacy,
language, and learning. David R. Olson, Nancy Torrance & Angela Hildyard (Eds). Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press: 105 123.
Crystal, D. (2006). The Fight for English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
English: Lower Secondary Syllabus. (2007). Port Moresby, PNG Department of Education.
Fondacaro, R. & Higgins, E. T. (1985). Cognitive consequences of communication mode: a social
psychological perceptive. In Literacy, language, and learning. David R.Olson, Nancy Torrance &
Angela Hildyard (Eds). Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press: 73 104.
Jones, G. M. (2003). Accepting Bilingualism as a Language Policy: an Unfolding Southeast Asian
Story. Bilingualism Beyond Basic Principles. Jean-marc Dewaele, Alex Housen & Li Wei (eds).
Cleverdon: Multilingual Matters: 112 127.
Litteral, R. (1999a). Four Decades of Language Policy in Papua New Guinea: The move towards the
vernacular. SIL Electronic Working Papers.
Litteral, R. (1999b). Language Development in Papua New Guinea. SIL Electronic Working Papers.
Lo Bianco, J. (1987). National Policy on Languages. Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Services.
McDonough, J. (1999). Pronunciation Teaching. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. K.
Johnson & H. Johnson. (Eds). Oxford: Blackwell: 265-267.
McArthur, T. (Ed.) (1992). The Oxford Campion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morley, J. (1991). The pronunciation component in teaching English to speakers of other languages.
TESOL Quarterly.25(3): 481- 520.
Myers-Scotton, C. (2003). Code-Switching: Evidence of both flexibility and rigidity in language.
Bilingualism:
Beyond Basic Principles. Jean-marc Dewaele, Alex Housen & Li Wei (eds). Cleverdon:
Multilingual
Matters: 189- 203.
Owens, K. & Matang, R. (2013). Multilingual Elementary School Teaching in Papua New Guinea. Retrieved
November 2, 2013 from http://www.uog.ac.pg/glec/Key/Kay/Multilingual%20conference.htm
Romaine, S. (1992). English: From village to global village. In T. W. Machan & C. Scott (Eds). English in
its social contexts: Essays in historical sociolinguistics. New York: Oxford University Press: 250255.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Shirbagi, N. (2010). An Exploration of Undergraduate Students' Motivation and Attitudes towards English
Language Acquisition. Journal of Behavioural Sciences. 20(2): 1-14.
Tisdell, M. (1998). Socio-economic aspects of language policies: An Australian perspective. International
Journal of Social Economics. 25(2/3/4): 134-145.
Wardhaugh, R. (1998). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell.

47

Sylvia Botoa Hamanin: Silent Heroine

Alice Hamanin Sareke
Biographical note: Alice Sarake teaches English at Port Moresby International Secondary
School.

Many times we tip our hats to salute someone who has made achievements that are
tangible, visible and recorded. We ignore the great achievements of some people who to
many may seem insignificant but are undoubtedly honourable, like a simple housewife.
Such peoples significant achievements can only be measured and appreciated by people
who came into their circle of life; whose lives bear a mark of their influence.

She sat on her bed, head bent and very silent. She seemed so small in build now, with dry
skin that was all wrinkled and very weak. Her gaunt and beautiful old face, so intricately
lined and marked by the hands of time, with eighty odd years of love and laughter and
pain. I pondered life and how it seemed unfair at reducing a once strong, vibrant and
energetic woman like her to a weak and helpless person who is now prone to disease.
Nevertheless she had been a tower of strength and a wealth of knowledge in everything
one should possess to live life to satisfaction.

Sylvia Botoa Hamanin, my dear mother and heroine, was a unique and silent achiever.

Sylvia was born September 23, 1932, in a small hamlet of Topu Village in Buka, Province
of Bougainville. Mum lived an amazing life through some of the great historical events of
48

the Pacific; World War Two, the coming of the missionaries, early education, urbanisation
and the Bougainville Crisis. All of these events brought about major changes in the lives of
the people.
**************
The roosters began to crow and willy wagtail birds began chirping as dawn broke on that
particular morning and as usual we woke up. Somehow I was overwhelmed with a strange
uneasy feeling, the atmosphere felt really strange and made me curious about the reason
for this discomforting feeling. Amazingly nature responds simultaneously when something
bad is imminent. The birds had stopped singing and dogs started barking towards the sea.
I realized that everyone was standing and looking out to the sea, I curiously looked across
also when suddenly, I heard my mother and dad calling out to me to quickly run back to
the house. I ran as fast as my little feet could carry me, right behind my heels was Magara,
my brother. I ran straight into the arms of my father.
Shssh! he said. There are strange things out there at sea and we dont know who is in
them but I fear they are strangers and there is danger in the air. You and Magara stay
close to me and dont go out. We peered out of the windows of our sago thatched hut
observing what was eventuating in front of our eyes. It was terrifying for all of us in the
entire village. We had never seen such a sight in our lives. The seas suddenly filled up
with many strange looking ships which landed at Kuhi beach. We trembled and were so
terrified that some of us pissed ourselves, the ships looked like black monsters as they
berthed on the beach, their mouths opened and many many strange looking men with
slanted eyes carrying guns on their sides jumped out all in unison and ran straight into the
limestone caves where they hid. Next, one of them ran to our houses and using signs and
speaking in his strange language ushered us to move out of our houses and run into the
bushes. I did not have the slightest clue why we had to leave the comfort of our houses to
end up in the bushes like this but that did not matter at that very moment. I almost choked
with fear, I was crying and hot tears rolled down my eyes, I was hot and trembling, I felt
my blood rising in my body.

Without warning the sky was filled with the blaring sound of the American fighter planes
that sprayed the forest undergrowth with machine gun fire. I was hysterical as I clung
tightly to my fathers hand as we ran holding our hands over our heads and groping our
way to safety in the nearby limestone cave. Stop! Stop! My heart was pleading. Never did I
49

realize that it was only the beginning of the bloody World War 2 that had come to disturb
the serenity and tranquillity of our lovely home, Topu village in Buka on Bougainville
Island in 1942. I was only 10 years old then.

The next day, we were briefed about how we should act under Japanese control. We were
not allowed to light any fires in the open or communicate with the American soldiers. My
father Kira was a very handsome muscular and high spirited person. He was also very
hardworking. The Japanese admiration of his physical strength earned him the job of cook
so every day he would cook food for the Japanese soldiers. Our gardens became a
fountain of vegetables and the jungle and the sea were abundant stores of protein that
supplemented the Japanese menu.
There was no event more devastating than that of my brothers death. The memories still
linger painfully in my mind when I recall what happened on this terrible day.

We all got up very early on this fateful day. My father Kira had woken before all of us and
smoke was already coming out of the fire which was already lit and on it was some fish
that he was trying to smoke for our breakfast. Amidst the dangers of war our cultural
feasts and rituals, the daily routines of the village still had to be observed. The Japanese
told us to get ready for a big tsigul (please translate) that was going to be held at
Tandeki a village about 15 minutes walk from our village.

Kira told my two brothers Subin and Magara to quickly bathe in the sea so we could
attend this very special occasion. All the village boys had gone for about 15 minutes. Solly,
Subin and Magara were so excited at what they saw that morning. The tide was low, and
in the small pools of water were many fish.
Look! Subin exclaimed. The sea is literally filled with dead fish and some are still
struggling for their lives but die within minutes.

It was bombs that the planes had been dropping which had killed the fish. They started
collecting the fish that were abundant and more children joined in the fun to collect their
share. Magara, Father would be really excited to see all these fish! shouted Subin.
Unaware of what was looming in the horizon, they continued to collect as many fish as
50

possible and filled their ri (fishing baskets) to the brim until they were almost bursting at
their bases.

Their excitement was suddenly interrupted by the sound of an American fighter plane
which was approaching in the distance. A balus Magara, peta, Solly shouted in Haku,
A plane, run! Magara. Magara was younger than Subin and Solly, he was about four
years old at that time.They dropped their ris and ran as fast as they could towards the
beach to take cover behind the sandalwood trees that lined the coastline. Ear splitting
machine gun fire filled the atmosphere, Magara was hit by a bullet and he cried in pain.

Solly hoisted Magara up and ran but the plane kept on coming back and continued firing
at them. As Solly struggled to run carrying Magara, Magara told him Solly, leave me and
run or else that plane will shoot you too! but Solly, being so sad for Magara, carried him
and ran until he reached the beach. Kira was standing there and he took Magara from
Solly and they ran as fast as they could to the cave.

Everything happened so fast, and within minutes everything was quiet and you could only
hear the sea waves lapping on the beach.Magara! Magara! Magara! Kira shook him
but no answer came out of him. The plane had already gone, leaving behind a big mess.
Magaras lips half opened and his eyes opened wide, Magara was dead.His life was taken
away in the most merciless manner. Everyone cried bitterly for Magara. Kira was cursing
the Americans and crying over Magaras body at the same time. He held him in his arms,
drenched in Magaras blood and wept bitterly for his son, other members of our extended
family also moaned for him. I was shocked into disbelief that my only biological brother
had been killed by the American Soldiers. I cried and cried until I could not cry any
longer. Magara was my full biological brother, we shared one mother. Subin was our
eldest brother but he was from Kiras first wife. When Kiras first wife died he married my
mother Kahoa, who bore me and Magara.
Paying respect for ones death is the most honourable thing to do in our society. The
physical and spiritual world were equally important. I know from what I have gleaned
from my father and mother that Magara will go to join my step mother, Sogen, Sumau,
Kahoa, Hevalla, Kal and my grandmothers and grandfathers and our forefathers and
mothers who had died and that they are in a beautiful land of plenty. Magara was quickly
51

buried and we all went into the cave and hid in case the plane returned and killed all of us.
The loss of Magara gripped my heart like a hand squeezing it and leaving a huge vacuum
in my life.

The bombing, the killings and the atrocities became part of our life everyday throughout
the four years of the war. We continued to live in fear but somehow the trait for
compassion and sorrow to share for those who died from the bombing left our whole
beings (not sure what you mean here?). The war numbed our senses because we had
concluded that we were doomed; we could be dead anytime.
**************
My mother attended Skotolan School after the war. It was a Methodist school established
by the Methodist missionaries. She did her primary schooling from standard 1 4. School
life was a whole new experience for all of them who attended. Most of the students came
from areas that had newly established Methodist missions. Since she was living at
Tanamalo with Hamanins family, it was then compulsory that they enrolled at Skotolan
Methodist School. In the Haku area of Buka, Tanamalo was where the first Methodist
church was built and only children of Methodist families enrolled at this Methodist run
school.
**************
From the Haku area, there were many of us. I was nervous coming at times, being away
from our village so I always stayed very close to Kolu my cousin sister. Kolu was more or
less like me, we kept each other company and comforted each other when we felt homesick.
I enjoyed everything we did at school. The teachers were amazing, they wore clothes that
were white and clean and taught us the letters of the alphabet and numbers, we learnt how
to read and write and also learnt the church hymns. On Sunday in church, we sang hymns
in the Petats language because that was the first local hymn book translated. I loved
singing hymns which always gave me a sense of a heavenly atmosphere and harmonising
the hymns was paramount. I always imagined us to be angels singing on top of our hearts.

Our teachers were very strict and they instilled in us the Christian principles like paying
great respect to others and ourselves. It was compulsory that we dressed in our clean and
white dresses to attend church service every Sunday. Someone unforgettable was Mr Joe
Dovoloctho who was a big tall Fijian minister. He spoke in a very authoritative thundering

52

voice. Sitting in his classes was like torture. We sat upright and stiff, we were expected to
learn fast and smart, anyone who misbehaved was whipped and punished.
**************
Mum was still very active and strong after Dad died in 1982 and for a good ten years or so
she worked hard in the village. For about twenty years she had lived away from her village
in Buka. She now caught up with the village life, spent her time in the village tending her
kaukau (sweet potato) and taro gardens. Living a life without a husband makes you even
stronger, because most of the time you find yourself doing mens chores. as she would
say.
The Bougainville Crisis of 1989 1998 brought to mother the last big challenge of her life.
********************
Karen, check the money that I put in one of my bags in the room and bring it along.
Forget about the money mum, our lives are more important than money! replied Karen.
Hoisting her suitcase onto her shoulders she ran with it to the cliff to hide it in the
undergrowth. Mum lets run down the cliff and hide! A group of BRA militants are
moving towards our village.
The six beats of the garamut could be heard coming from the Tsuhana (mens meeting
house) at Tanahu village heralding imminent danger. This was the signal given to
everyone by our community leaders. We were told that 6 beats meant danger and 3 beats
meant everything was safe. We dreaded hearing the 6 beats and it had just been sent off.
This was it.

This sent everyone panicking everywhere. Janet, my niece, shouted across from her house
that at the checkpoint at Eltupan a group of BRA militants were marching our way with
guns. News about atrocities and killings by the BRA haunted everyone every day. Loved
ones and friends died almost every week so there seemed to be no sense of sorrow left in
all of us. Death was just like an everyday thing and the value of life seem to have been
reduced.

We ran to pack things into our bags. I packed my billum., Next door I saw Alice who was
pregnant gathering her two children Jason and June and with her big stomach and
carrying about 4 bilums full of stuff, running down the cliff.
53

Despite the fears and terrible experience of the crisis I thanked God that he made us
survive it.
**************
I went home for Christmas in 2013. Mum sat on her bed, head bent and very silent. I
pondered life and thought how unfair it was, reducing a once strong, vibrant and energetic
woman like her to a weak and helpless person. She was a tower of strength, a wealth of
knowledge in everything one should possess to live life to satisfaction (this is a repetition
of the intro-remove).
She could faintly hear me whisper into her ears I am here. She was too weak to respond
to my presence. Normally she would shed tears of joy every time any of her children
arrived at the village during Christmas holidays but this time she was just too sick to greet
me. She just nodded her head. She was now over 80 years old, and had shrunk into a small
woman.

Loud banging and singing and chanting started at midnight to welcome the New Year of
2014. The whole village burst into life, the main road was filled with people marching to
and fro and chanting Happy New Year! Happy New Year!
My daughter June and son Danny came into mums bedroom to wish me Happy Birthday
because it was my birthday. After hugging me, June started to cry and exclaimed how she
was so sorry for her grandmother who for the first time in her life was very quiet for New
Years and seemed unwell. I told her to wake mum and wish her Happy New Year
Danny and June tried to wake her up, but she did not open her eyes, so I told them to go
quietly outside of the room. I realised that mum was at her final stage of life, she was now
going on a new journey. I quietly called my sisters Karen and Elizabeth and told them that
Mum was not okay. I felt so sorry to see mum in her state and went out to heat up some
hot water. As I was boiling the water I said a prayer to the Lord.
Dear Lord, you have kept my mum living for over 80 years and she has accomplished her
duty as our mother very well. If this is the moment for us to say good bye to her. Please
dont let her suffer anymore, take her peacefully to her new home. Thank you Lord for
mum. Amen.

54

As I ended my prayer the Lord took mama away. She had fulfilled the scriptures about
living a life obedient to God. As the scriptures says, because of this he will grant you a
good long life. (1 Kings 3:14)

55

Hugh Alfred Dickins

Dr Jillian Thiele
Biographical note: Dr Jillian Thiele coordinates the Learning and Academic Support
Centre at PAU; teaches in the School of Arts and Humanities and the School of Theology;
and researches issues relating to education, linguistics, history and culture.

My father was Pr Hugh Alfred Dickins, an educator and administrator for the Seventh-day
Adventist church in the south pacific islands. Hugh re-energised the education work after
the war. Schools had to reopened, teachers found and most importantly, teachers trained.
He often gathered his teachers together for workshops to prepare resources to restart their
schools.

He spent much of his time travelling around the islands checking on schools, conducting
in-service courses, boosting the morale of the isolated teachers, bringing supplies of food,
books and recently translated simple-English Sabbath School lesson pamphlets, as well as
Junior Missionary Volunteer (JMV) material and even building supplies. While visiting
the island schools, he also took time to visit the Pastors, had combined church meeting,
distributed the new church and schools lessons and gave sermon outlines to the Pastors and
elders. When possible, he conducted a JMV camps with all the young people in the
district. He produced a standard education syllabus for the whole region with teaching
aids, programs and textbooks. Every quarter he translated the adult lesson pamphlets sent
from the General Conference of the Seventh-day Adventist church in America into simple
English. These lessons were used by the most educated person, usually the village Pastor
or teacher, to read in morning and evening village worships. He collected stories, sermon
outlines and prepared programs for the Adventist Youth. These papers were printed, and
packed away for the next visit to the islands.

56

Hugh Dickins was a passionate missionary but he would not have been able to achieve his
many goals without the support of his family, especially his wife, Royce. Their missionary
work started in Fiji at Fulton College, then Vailioa Training School in Samoa and finally
in Papua New Guinea, first in Rabaul, then Lae and finally in Goroka. In total my parents
spent 27 years in the South Pacific as missionaries for the Seventh-day Adventist church.

From his base in Rabaul, Hugh visited the Solomon Island schools at least twice a year.
This included the flourishing Batuna School, the centre point of the Adventist mission in
the Solomon Islands with its education, medical and building training work. He also
visited the schools on Choiseul, Malaita, Ysabel. He enjoyed visiting Rennell and Bellona
Islands are two small Polynesian islands south east of Guadalcanal, the main island of the
Solomons.

He attempted to visit the Admiralty Islands every six weeks. It was these islands that
produced many of the future church workers. On the island of Lou in the Manus group is
Pisik Central School. Thanks to the generosity of the church members overseas, through
the Mission Extension Fund offerings, a new school is erected. A large ex-army Saar hut
with a floor space of 4,000 square feet was divided into classrooms. The school curriculum
also included JMV honours. In 1959, the district Commissioner of the Admiralty Islands
awarded students who had successfully passed the Royal Life-saving Society Bronze
medallions and other certificates.

As with all mission stations, the Boliua School was started in Mussau; primitive with a
several blackboards, several desks, chalk, pencils and slates. There were not pictures,
charts, textbooks. Teachers with their very basic knowledge did their best.
Hugh Dickins also travelled to Bougainville to support the education work at Rumba. He
always said the Bougainville people had great potential if only they had access to
education. He did his best to support the school at Rumba.
One of Hugh Dickins favourite places was Jones Missionary College, formally Coral Sea
Union College, and commonly known as Kambubu. This college situated at Put Put was
35 miles down the coast from Rabaul. Kambubu has produced a large number of workers
for the church. It had started small but over the years made a great impact on the work of
the church in the Pacific. In 1954, Coral Sea Union College was officially called Jones
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Missionary College as a tribute to Pr Griffith F. Jones, the first expatriate missionary to

begin the work in the islands. Due to the many graduates, numerous schools sprung up
throughout the region.
The family moved from Lae and then Goroka in the Highlands of New Guinea as president
of the Eastern Highlands Mission. His work was diverse and very exciting. He would
leave home for weeks at a time to visit some isolated village, high in the mountains. Many
times, the churchs aeroplane would drop him and his national workers off in some
isolated airstrip and he would spend the next week or so walking the valley, visiting each
village, preaching each night, conducting worships, maybe dedicating a baby, burying a
church member or conducting some type of workshop. The area was very mountainous
and walking, hard. The numerous creeks were crossed on rickety sticks and planks place
over rocks. Some areas had swing bridges between valleys; most of the bridges were made
from bark twine and materials found in the forests. Not only did he visit the isolated
church areas, but he also continued to visit the schools and support their work.

Bena Bena was one of the first schools to be established by the Seventh-day Adventist
church in the highlands. It was located an hour or so south of Goroka and we often visited
school. All the teachers and head masters of the school attempted to link the education
program was JMV work.

Kabiufa High School was eight miles from our home in Goroka. Hugh took a personal
interest in the management of the school. Many discussions with the teachers and
principals took place on Sunday afternoon between tennis matches. Pr Bert Cousins,
principal in the mid 1960s says that these discussions were useful and that the school staff
felt that the mission administration was supporting them.

On one walkabout, in 1966, Hugh took his son Don, to check the progress of the work in
the Kukukuku region while Don was on holidays from boarding school. On one of the
isolated ridges, they were surprised and delighted to find a chief of a local village
welcoming them. He was wearing a blazer with the logo North Fitzroy Get Together
Club. North Fitzroy was Hughs original home suburb in Melbourne. This was a club that
his father used to frequent. The group approved of the blazer with the full grass skirt and
nose bone.

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In 1969, Hugh Dickins took his second daughter, Jillian, on a walkabout. She was allowed
to accompany her father with the first student missionaries, Mr and Mrs William Cochran,
from Pacific Union College, in the United States. The church plane dropped the
passengers off at Usarumpa, an isolated airstrip in the Land of the little people and
promised to pick them up in a weeks time. Jillian soon discovered her father had been
offered 14 pigs for his daughter to be the seventh wife of one of the local chiefs.

Hughs life wish to become a missionary had begun many years before arriving in the
Pacific. His mother, Charlotte Dickins was a formidable character. As a committed
Christian, she believed that the world would be a better place, now, and in the future, if the
people in foreign lands were converted to Christianity. Hugh, her oldest son, was destined
to fulfil her wish. He would be a missionary.

In 1937, he left his Melbourne home to attend Avondale College to train as a missionary.
With ten bob in his pocket he arrived at the college ready to start his training as a
missionary. To his disappointment he found he had to complete leaving first. He was
further disappointed to discover that there was no missionary training course. He would
have to train as a minister, nurse, builder or teacher. He quickly chose to train as a teacher.
Hugh worked twelve hours most nights in the local Sanitarium Health Food factory to earn
his college fees and he studied during the day, completing his teacher training course in
1940.

Hugh knew all missionaries needed to have a wife. While he was teaching at Preston,
Melbourne, Victoria, waiting for the war to end, he attended the local Preston Seventh-day
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Adventist Church. Gradually, Hugh became aware of a beautiful young lady in the group,
Royce Stockton. She dressed like a model, walked with confidence and most importantly,
enjoyed teaching the young children at church. Tentatively a relationship blossomed. She
was not at all sure of this confident young man whose greatest goal was to become a
missionary.

Hugh finally received his call to be a missionary in Fiji. But there was a problem: he was
still a single man! He had six weeks before departure. He was definitely going but he
wanted to take a wife with him so he asked Royce to marry him. She took the greatest
gamble in her life, and said yes. With a borrowed wedding dress, and a quickly sewn
bridesmaid dress, she married Hugh on Wednesday afternoon, 12 January, 1944, just three
days before the ship left for New Zealand en route to Fiji.

Arrival in New Zealand brought disappointment. Because of the war there were no ships
sailing on to Fiji. Royce and Hugh were stranded in New Zealand for nine months. Hugh
occupied that time initially caring for the garden at the churchs headquarters in Auckland
and later spent some time teaching at Wanganui. A message came one night that a ship
was available for the husbands, but there was no room for the wives. Royce and Hugh
packed all their bags and waited on the wharf. Miracles do happen! When two army
personnel did not arrive, so Royce was allowed on board. The couple was on different
decks, but they were still on the same ship.

Hugh had achieved his goal. He was a missionary. Royce and Hugh spent 27 years in the
Pacific contributing to the churchs work. His mother was so proud. His daughter, Jillian,
has followed her fathers footsteps have been an educational missionary in Papua New
Guinea for the last twenty-three year. She has a sense of responsibility to continue his
legacy.

60

Book Review
Danijela Schubert, Youth Ministry in Papua New Guinea. Eugene, OR:
Wipf and Stock, 2013. 133pp.
Based on her doctorate at Fuller Theological Seminary, Danijela Schubert has produced a
serviceable introduction to Youth Ministry in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Researched
while Schubert was a lecturer in the School of Theology at Pacific Adventist University
(PNG) the focus of this book is Seventh-day Adventist youth ministry but that does not
detract from its usefulness to a much wider audience.

Schubert first briefly sets out the background of incredibly rapid cultural change in Papua
New Guineafrom cannibalism to mobile phone technology in less than 200 years!
Against that she then outlines the contextual challenges to youth ministry: geographical,
linguistic, and ethnic fragmentation; and, the radical urban/rural divide with its concurrent
educational inequalities. Next Schubert exams youth in terms of psychosocial
development, looking both at traditional Melanesian views and the views of western
theorists. Here she engages with the word of Margaret Mead, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung,
Erik Erkison and others.
A key chapter of the book discusses the influences and ecology of youth in PNG.
Foremost among these is the media (especially electronic media); familya sociological
unit profoundly affected by the general cultural changes being seen in the country; the
wantok system; and, the traditional animistic religious systems which continue to have
widespread impact despite a century of highly successful mission work in the country.

Having discussed the context in which ministry is engaged in PNG, Schubert moves to a
discussion of the biblical understanding of youth and family and then to a discussion of
specifically Adventist issues relating to Youth ministry, in particular the role of Seventhday Adventist eschatology. The fifth chapter of the book is dedicated to a history of Youth
Ministry in the Adventist Church in general and in Papua New Guinea in particular. The
middle section of the book is rounded off with a discussion of anticipated trends within the
church generally and for PNG specifically

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Schuberts work builds on early discussions of youth in Papua New Guinea, such as Fanco
Zocca and Nicholas de Grouts Young Melanesian Project. Where it goes beyond these
earlier works is in not simply describing the situation of young people in Papua New
Guinea but attempting to provide some guidance for actual ministry to them in this
context. The last two chapters of the book as well as two appendices outline the
curriculum for an MA-level subject in Youth ministry. The target audience for this subject
would be men and women already trained to Bachelors level and working in ministry in
Papua New Guinea.
Given the scope of material covered, some sections of Schuberts book are less complete
then could be desired. However, the overall result is a highly serviceable, very readable
introduction of Papua New Guinea; the needs of that nations youth; and Christian ministry
to them. Her work actually provides valuable insights in a much broader sphere. Anyone
interested in the broader issues of social change; youth ministry; and, the ministry
challenges of the developing world could read this book to great profit.

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Abstracts from Pacific Adventist University: Masters Theses

1. The role of the teacher in addressing Occult Sub-Cultures in a
PNG Secondary School: A Case Study: Unia Api, 2012
Occult phenomenon continues to thrive in PNG Secondary and National High Schools
despite remedial measures applied by authorities concerned. The focus of this study was
to rethink the role of teachers as missionaries entering into the world of students in occult
sub-cultures in order to meaningfully assimilate them into their fellowship. This is
achieved by answering three fundamental questions:

What is the worldview system of occult practice?

What impact does occultism have on students engaged in occultism?
What roles should teachers play in addressing the issue of occultism in PNG
Secondary and National High Schools?

In order to answer the three questions, I opted to obtain the view of staff and grades 11 and
12 of X Secondary School as a case study in line with this topic. The selected
participants answered a survey questionnaire and tool part in an in-depth interview. Data
gathered from this research instrument were then computed for interpretations. The actual
field research was conducted in July 2008 when I spent two weeks at the school to conduct
the research.

The main findings to emerge from the data were as follows. First, the findings confirm that
occulr is a current practice in X Secondary School where its worldview can be described
as an integrated whole involving spirits and kakasy (individuals) or generation group.
Secondly, the findings indicate that occult has affected students academic performance,
spiritual involvement, behaviour, and interpersonal relationship with teachers and other
students. Finally, the study confirms that teachers who develop positive relationships with
students, where they share their pain and anxiety and even moments of joy, are best able to
help students change negative behaviours and activities related to occult.

This thesis demonstrated that the occult/cult sub-cultures with its different patterns of
living, values, and behaviour norms must be seen as a mission field. There are some
positive elements in occult/cult sub-cultures in schools that teachers need to help students
cultivate. Therefore, a missional approach is imperative in order to reach the students with
the gospel of Christ in their sub-cultures and settings.
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2. Genesis 3:15, The Seedbed Of The Theme Of Enmity In Genesis.

A Historical Grammatical And Theological Study: Thomas Egei
Davai Jr: 2011
One of the features of the Genesis narrative is the recurring theme of enmity and rivalry.
This thesis (1) argues that the enmity narratives in Genesis are reflections or echoes of
the enmity God put between the serpent and the woman in Gen. 3:15; (2) proposes that
the historical development of enmity in Genesis is the progressive fulfillment or the
extension of the enmity in Gen. 3:15; and (3) identifies and discusses enmity of Cain
towards Abel; between Noah and Ham; Abraham and Lot; Jacob and Esau; Jacobs sons
and Shechem; and between Joseph and his brothers.

This thesis argues that the enmity between the woman and the serpent initiated into effect
in Gen. 3:15 had an historical development. The enmity in Gen. 3:15 sets in motion a
series of events in the activity of Eden: God establishing enmity between the serpent and
the woman and between their seeds. The same dual emphasis of enmity continues
throughout Genesis. The spread of enmity is described in the stories of Cain and Abel,
Noah and Ham, Abrams herdsmen and Lots herdsmen, Jacob and Esau, Jacobs sons and
Shechem, and Joseph and his brothers. This far from exhaustive list of enmities in Genesis
demonstrates that Gen. 3:15 is indeed the seedbed of enmity in the book of Genesis.

This thesis does not allow Christian, cultural, confessional, or canonical approaches to
impose meanings that are foreign to the discussion of the historical development of enmity
in Genesis, nor influenced by it. Of the various approaches used in the interpretation of
Genesis, this thesis takes the Historical-grammatical approach to trace the development of
the theme of enmity throughout Genesis. It needs to be clearly understood that this thesis
does
not ignore other approaches totally. It agrees with the position that there is enough room
to use various approaches if the nature of the text requires it.
The understanding of enmity in this thesis is influenced by ( enmity) but allows
(enmity) where possible. This thesis surveys the wider use of the word enmity
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throughout the scripture to gain a larger picture but the discussing is mainly focused in the
OT use of . The OT enmity denotes both personal and national enemies, and the word
used in the LXX () is for enemies in war among gentiles and personal enemies in
daily life. In the NT, enmity has more of the sense of personal hostility. The word study
helps prove the hypothesis that personal enmity between family members develops into a
national enmity between Israel and other Canaanite nations.

There are three parts to the discussion of enmity of Gen. 3:15 in its immediate context.
Firstly, the serpents attempt to establish a relationship with the woman results in never
ending enmity. Secondly, the hostility that commences with the woman and the serpent is
to be continued by their descendants. Lastly, this confrontation needs to be seen in a
progressive way, from individual enmities to national enmities.

3. Influence of Tok Pisin on learning English: Sarah Keliwin, 2013

Tok Pisin is now the most widely spoken lingua franca in PNG. It is also, by policy, a
language of instruction in the classroom and for many schools, a language of
communication as well. Many have attributed the decline in the standard of English in
PNG schools to its use in the classroom. Using a triangulation, mixed-method approach,
this study set out to investigate the influence of Tok Pisin on the written English of PNG
secondary school students. The sample population for the survey consisted of 28 teachers
of English from 5 secondary schools within the National Capital District and the Central
Province. Four schools representing each of the 4 regions of PNG provided 173 mock
Examination scripts foe this study. The student sentence examples from these scripts
supported the teachers views; 90% of the teachers attributed the decline in the standard of
English to the widespread use of Tok Pisin in schools. Inevitably 93% expressed a desire
for the reversal of the 1994 language of instruction policy. This research concluded that
the influence of the lexifier English -on its lexified-Tok Pisin- and vice versa is inevitable
when in constant contact with each other and that the progeny of such a prolonged coexistence in the classroom is an unintelligible language to first language speakers of
English who have no exposure to Tok Pisin. It is hoped that this study will help curtail the
obvious decline in the learning of English in PNG schools and help contribute to language

65

policy change and to further research.

4. Customary Marriage versus Church Marriage in the Seventhday Adventist Church: Jeffrey Paul, 2012
Over the last twenty years, so much change has occurred in Papua New Guinea (PNG) that
has affected the church. One area affected by these changes is customary marriage. The
Seventh-day Adventist church believes that Christ and the Bible are the only guide book
for day-to-day living. This research looks at customary marriage and the Seventh-day
Adventist (SDA) church in PNG.

The purpose of this research is to probe into the findings of Heannette Conway and Ennio
Mantovanni who researched in PNG on the topic of Marriage in Melanesia (1990). They
reported on the type of marriages being practiced by the church members of the Anglican,
Catholic, Lutheran, United and SDA church. Customary marriages were high in SDA
church with 60.3% and low with Anglican Church with 36.5%.

This research attempted to address the major concern why young people are not marrying
in the SDA church. Typical questions asked were: Why is there a decline in church
weddings in the SDA church? What issues relating to marriage are facing SDA young
people? How do you get married? All these questions prompted the research to do this
research.
Marriage has a long history and goes back to God when He first created the heaven and
the earth, (Genesis 1:1). There in the garden home, God himself conducted the first
weeding (Genesis 2:18). Since came into this world and as a result, men continued to
disobey God and follow their own sinful nature. In due course of time polygamy was
introduced (Genesis 4:19) and marriage principles continued to be dishonoured. After the
Tower of Babel, men began to spread all over the earth, forming diverse cultural groups,
with differing marriage practices and rituals.

When the Christian church was established and missionaries entered different parts of the
world they were confronted by diversity of practice. As a result, many church introduced
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policies, especially in reference to marriage, to reprove, to instruct, and to attempt to

contextualise Gods word into the local cultural setting. This research is therefore, a tool
to enhance the effectiveness of integrating culture with Biblical principles.

The collecting of data was done in three ways: (1) Questionnaires (2) Interviews and the
(3) Focus groups. The aim of using a variety of methods was to ensure the data was
blanced and reflected the views of all the church members of the Seventh-day Adventist
Church in PNG. The data selected was then coded in themes to help in the analysis
process. Pseudonyms were sued for the four churches (urban and rural) and the forty-nine
people who participated in the various means of data collection.
The findings revealed several insights to the question of why the church wedding is low
and customary marriage is high. They were (1) Church meddings are expensice and only a
few people can afford them; (2) Customary marriages are not so expensive because of their
communal nature; and, (3) Urbanisation and modernisation had brough another marriage
trend and that is just living together.

The main reason as to why cultural marriages was so high wad because of the high
conversion and baptism rate in the SDA church within the last twenty years. This
confirmed the research of Jennette Conway and Ennio Mantovani (1990).

The final part of this paper attempts to amalgamate the principles of church and cultural
marriage together as a form that which would be acceptable to the church members. Even
though there are no directives from the scripture on the procedure of conducting a wedding
ceremony, there principles: (1) Gods presence was there (Genesis 2: 18-24); there were
witnesses; and, (3) Gods blessing was pronounced on the couple.
This research concluded with samples of Christianized cultural marriages, illustrating
methods of integrating cultural marriage and church weddings into a form appropriate for
the SDAs participating in a PNG church wedding.

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5. Pacific Trainee English Teachers Classroom Response to

Critical Literature through Process Drama: A Critical
Sociocultural Analysis: Rebecca Thomas, 2012
This study was for the benefit of the participants who experienced deep literacy learning
and for the researcher who was able to observe and appreciate their embodied learning.
The case study utilized complementary methods to achieve a multi-layered analysis with a
broad focus on the research questions. The inquiry was into the response of Pacific trainee
English teachers to critical literature (a short story), a response in which they performed
identities and realities arising from the text. The performance employed critical literature
and process drama strategies as a catalyst for the participants to create a fantasy world
which was an interpretative site. In terms of critical performative pedagogy the process
drama was a border space in which the participants were impelled to explore the critical
issues arising from the text and their negotiations with the other participants/characters.
The critical reading of their embodied responses aimed to reveal moments of agency,
discourses and identity enactments in the classroom activity within larger activity systems.
Power was theorized as unpredictable, flowing through personal interactions rather than
located in specific structures. The critical paradigm prompted questions regarding the
nature of the local and global dynamics in the participants literacy learning experience.
The central question focused on the participants construction of identity in their creative
literary response and this was linked to the emerging educator identities revealed in the
drama engagements highlighting the development of social justice and equity concerns
related to their future teaching roles.

68