Generation and transmission cooperatives (G&Ts), like Great River Energy, operate power

generating facilities. At a steam generating plant, the fuel (coal, nuclear or biomass) heats water
to make steam and drive a turbine. In a combustion turbine, the fuel (gas or oil) is burned and
the hot gas drives a turbine. Wind hydro and solar are other forms of energy producers.

High-voltage
transmission lines
Transformers at the generating plant increase the voltage up to a transmission voltage (69 kV,
115 kV, 230 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV), so it can travel long distances over high-voltage transmission
lines. G&Ts operate these lines, which carry the electric energy from the generating stations to the
places where electricity is used.

TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION
Transformers reduce the electric energy

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

Transformers reduce the electric energy

down to a lower voltage (69 kV, 34 kV)

making it suitable for high-volume
delivery over short distances.

down to a lower voltage (69 kV, 34 kV)

making it suitable for high-volume
delivery over short distances.

Distribution lines
Lines belonging to local electric co-ops carry
Large industrial user
Most industries need 2,400 to 4,160 electricity to transformers that reduce power levels
to 120/240 or 120/208 volts for use in schools,
volts to run heavy machinery. They
farms, small businesses and homes.
usually have their own substation at
the facility.

Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although
single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. High-voltage directcurrent (HVDC) technology is used for greater efficiency at very long distances (typically
hundreds of miles (kilometers)), or in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles
(50 km)).[citation needed] HVDC links are also used to stabilize and control problems in large power
distribution networks where sudden new loads or blackouts in one part of a network can
otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures.

Diagram of an electric power system; transmission system is in blue

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (120 kV or above) to reduce the energy losses in
long-distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines.

Underground power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational
limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.[citation needed]
A key limitation of electric power is that, with minor exceptions, electrical energy cannot be
stored, and therefore must be generated as needed.[citation needed] A sophisticated control system is
required to ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand. If the demand for
power exceeds the supply, generation plant and transmission equipment can shut down,
which in the worst case may lead to a major regional blackout, such as occurred in the US
Northeast blackout of 1965, 1977, 2003, and other regional blackouts in 1996 and 2011. It is
to reduce the risk of such a failure that electric transmission networks are interconnected into
regional, national or continent wide networks thereby providing multiple redundant
alternative routes for power to flow should such equipment failures occur. Much analysis is
done by transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line
(ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure spare capacity is available should
there be any such failure in another part of the network.[citation needed]

Four-circuit, two-voltage power transmission line; "Bundled" 2-ways

Overhead transmission[edit]

3-phase high-voltage lines in Washington State

Cable sample: mid 7 conductors steel & the bulk being aluminum; This conductor is usually
referred to as ACSR (Aluminum conductor, steel reinforced)
Main article: Overhead power line
High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is
nearly always an aluminum alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel
strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter,
yields only marginally reduced performance and costs much less. Overhead conductors are a
commodity supplied by several companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and
shapes are regularly used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits.
Conductor sizes range from 12 mm2 (#6 American wire gauge) to 750 mm2 (1,590,000
circular mils area), with varying resistance and current-carrying capacity. Thicker wires
would lead to a relatively small increase in capacity due to the skin effect, that causes most of
the current to flow close to the surface of the wire. Because of this current limitation, multiple
parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used when higher capacity is needed. Bundle
conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by corona discharge.
Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower
voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered subtransmission voltages, but are
occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for
distribution. Voltages above 230 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different
designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.
Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, the design of these lines
requires minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions,
such as high wind and low temperatures, can lead to power outages. Wind speeds as low as
23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a
flashover and loss of supply.[2] Oscillatory motion of the physical line can be termed gallop or
flutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.

Underground transmission[edit]
Main article: Undergrounding
Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of overhead
power lines. Underground cables take up less right-of-way than overhead lines, have lower

visibility, and are less affected by bad weather. However, costs of insulated cable and
excavation are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines
take longer to locate and repair. Underground lines are strictly limited by their thermal
capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating than overhead lines. Long underground AC
cables have significant capacitance, which may reduce their ability to provide useful power to
loads beyond 50 miles. Long underground DC cables have no such issue and can run for
thousands of miles.