Theories of Second Language Learning

1- Behaviorist view of SLA

1. Learning happens through habit formation
2. Learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment and
positive reinforcement for their correct repetitions and
imitations(encouraging/discouraging/SLA setting)
3. When there are differences between the two languages, errors are likely
to occur e.g. the effect of LI (Arabic) on L2 (English) in syntax and
phonology .
4. Researchers criticize that not all errors can be predicted by (CAH) as
supposed by behaviorism (Krashen,.1990).
5. There are unexpected errors in L 2 that cannot be explained in terms of
'fossilization or negative influence of L1 on L2.
6. Fossilization: when errors are repeated. Fossilization is wrong habits.
7. When Arab speakers of English translate idioms, they do not translate it
word by word, why? As NNS have intuitive capabilities that certain
features of their first language are less likely to be transferable to second
language. Even though EFL, learners ability to use and produce idioms
does not go near that of native speakers (Baker, 1992; James, 1998.)
8. Practice is useful for beginning L2 learners who are able to utilize input
from surroundings.
9. Practice for a behaviorist is seen as a process of habit formation by
reinforcing 'right' answers.
10. SLA is a matter of practice 'operant conditioning.
11. Universal Grammar dealt with acquisition of first language, so their
stand is 'environmental input' is crucial to L2 learning.

Cognitive theory view of SLA

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Understanding of rules plays critical role

Learning a language is similar to any other kind of learning
Focal attention; when it becomes. Automatic we use peripheral attention.
The more attentive you are, the better.
SLA is based on transfer, simplification, generalization, restructuring.
Direct opposition to Behaviorist , since learning is a result from internal
mental activity
7. Knowing is different from responding.
8. learning is a process of organizing an individual network .
9. .Learner is the subject of learning not object, so SLA must consider
understanding, thinking, remembering and producing language
10. SLA = building a system of cognitive skills
11. Knowledge base is constantly changing as proficiency goes up and sub
skills develop.
12. Automatization - skill becomes routine via practice.
13. The more we use our cognitive (mental abilities)in ESL ,the better
thinking habits we have.
14. Controlled processing ( stage before automatic processing) needs full
attention
15. Language styles: vernacular (in F, little attention to form),careful style
(under heavy monitoring)
16. Variables have impact on the accuracy of the language output
17. Anderson's declarative (explicit, conscious) and procedural knowledge
(knowhow)
18. Anderson's skill acquisition model: cognitive stage 2)the associative
stage 3)the autonomous stage
19. Automization and structuring arekey concepts(organized cognitive
structure)
20. Ausubel puts emphasis on active participation in meaningful tasks:
rote (isn't integrated) vs. meaningful learning (integrated into existing
cognitive structures)
21. Building ties in between new and learned is essential for meaningful
learning (schema)

Conversation Analytic Approach to SLA ICA] (Atkinson, 2011)

1. Speaking is learned through participating in L2 speaking event verbally
or non-verbally
2. Good scaffolding is a strong learning tool and helps learner to take part
in conversation.
3. Scaffolding serves a similar purpose. . Scaffolding is additional
information or assistance that aids the learner in internalizing
information and is removed when the learner has acquired the target
material.
4. With ESL students, scaffolding is of great use since the language
barrier can hinder learning content material that the student might
easily learn in his first language.
5. If you are teaching ESL students, there is no need to be intimidated by
the term. You can still assist your students through the learning
process with these suggestions.
6. Example: One of the easiest ways to use scaffolding in a content area
is to get your students thinking about what they already know about a
given topic.
7. Another example is that when teaching a listening about studying
abroad ,ss can be given a discussion about the advantages and
disadvantages of studying abroad as scaffolding.
8. When a student has previous knowledge in mind, it is easier for him or
her to build on that knowledge.
9. Simply asking some questions about the topic on which you will teach
can be enough to get your students' minds in the right place
10.
. By giving your students some discussion questions about your
topic, you not only activate their prior knowledge about the subject
(also known as schemata) but you also give them an opportunity to
practice their listening and speaking skills.
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Discussion questions take minimal preparation and are a perfect
warm up activity for your ESL students!
3. Feedback makes learner aware of required improvements .
4. Negotiation of meaning assists in learning .

ESL/EFL Classroom Activity implementing (Behaviorism,

Behavioral Theory:
1. Memorize a
dialog and act
out.
2. Repeat after me.
3. Write new
grammatical
structure at home
100 times.

Conversation
Theories:
1. Make a dialog
based on the one
you have just
read.
2. Teacher speaks to
students in l2
3. Discuss a list of
questions
4. Ask your partner
about his
features or her
favorite place e.

Cognitive Theory
1. Read the text
silently and make
4 questions.
2. Translate the text
from LI in L2 into
L2.
3. Find in the text
words with times
the following
grammatical
features.
4.

Creative construction theory

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It is an implication of Chomsky's innatist theory of SLA .

LAD is (Language acquisition device )
LAD is inherited.
Learners are thought to construct knowledge of the target language
being learned.
5. Learning happens gradually.
6. Internal processing strategies operate on language input without
dependence on the learner e.g. they assume that L2 learners may not
need to speak or write to practice L2.
7. LAD and UG(universal grammar ) are activated when the learner is
exposed to samples of the target language.
8. L2 learning happens through the exposure to l2samples of writing
reading-listening and speaking.
9. L2 learning happens as learners read and listen to samples of L2 (similar
to habit formation)
10. Speaking and writing in English is an outcome of the learning process.
11. They don't consider them as causes of the learning process (cognitive
approach to L2)
12. Verbal and written productions of L2 help ESL/EFL learners in
communicative practices (dialogue activity in English classrooms)

Stephen Krashen Theory in SLA

1. Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and ' does not require tedious drill." Stephen
Krashen .
2. L2 learning happens as a result of excessive communication in the
target language.
3. Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language
natural communication in which speakers are concerned not with the
form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and
understanding." Stephen Krashen
4. The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible
input in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students
really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the
second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready',
recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative
and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting
production." Stephen Krashen
5. In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who
are willing to help the acquirer understand are rely helpful." Stephen
Krashen.

Krashen's theory of second language

acquisition consists of five main hypotheses

1. the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

2. the Monitor hypothesis
3. the Natural Order hypothesis
4. the input hypothesis
5. the affective filter hypothesis

A: The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

1. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second

language.
2. performance:is the acquired system and 'the learned system'.
3. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious
process .
4. It is very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their
first language.
5. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural
communication in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of
their utterances, but in the communicative act.
6. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instructaion
and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious
knowledge 'about the language, for example knowledge of grammar
rules.
7. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.

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B) The Monitor hypothesis

According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should he - minor,
being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give
speech a more 'polished' appearance.
Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language
learners with regard to 'monitor' use.
He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (overusers)
those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their
conscious knowledge (under-users)
those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users).
An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine
to what group they belong.
Usually extroverts are under users.
Introverts and perfectionists are over-users.
Lack of self-confidence is frequentlyrelated to the over-use of the
monitor.

C) The Natural Order hypothesis

The Natural Order hypothd is based on research findings which suggested
that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which
is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to
be acquired early while others late.
D) The Natural Order hypothesis:
1. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along
the 'natural order'.
2. When he/she receives second language input that is one step beyond
his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
3. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place
when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level +
1'.
4. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic
competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural
communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this
way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate
for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

E: the Affective Filter hypothesis:

1. it embodies Krashen's view that a number S of 'affective variables' play a
facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition,
2. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety.
3. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, a good self-image, and
a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language
acquisition.
4. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to
'raise' the affective filter and form a mental block that prevents
comprehensible input front being used for acquisition.
5. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition.
6. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its
own for acquisition to take place.

Interactionist view of SLA

1. The interaction hypothesis of Long and Robinson suggests that when
meaning is negotiated, input comprehensibility is usually increased and
learners tend to focus on salient linguistic features. Cognizance of these
language forms and structures is seen as beneficial to SLA.
2. They assume that modified input that learners are exposed to and the Of
r`r cs, way that NS interact with NNS in English conversation
3. Michael Long (1985) agree with Krashen that comprehensible input is
important for acquisition
4. Other interactionist theorists apply Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory , of
human mental processing to define the role of interaction in SLA L
(Lightbrown and Spada, 1999) and hypothesize that second language
learners gain proficiency when they interact with more advanced
speakers of the language, for example, teachers and peers.
5. ScaffOlding structures such as modeling, repetition, and linguistic
simplification used by more proficient speakers are believed to provide
support to learners, thus enabling them to function within their zones of
proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962).
6. In summary, interactionists elaborate upon the innatist notion of
comprehensible input explaining that interaction constructed via
exchanges of comprehensible input and output, has at least an enhancing
effect when Meaning is negotiated and support structures are used.
7. Based on this premise, distance second language learning courses should
be designed to provide interaction that includes negotiation of meaning
where comprehensible output results from input.

Terms:
NS: native speaker
NNS: non-native speaker

UG: universal grammar

ZPD: zone of proximal development