353 OxygeninSteelmaking

VOEST-ALPINE Industrieanlagenbau
Steelmaking
VAI TECHNOLOGY NEWS

Issue No. 31/Aug. 1999
1999
Oxygen in
Steelmaking
Technologies
Technology is Our Trademark
VAI Steelmaking Technology
Table of Contents
Dear Reader,
lities, such as oxy/fuel burner or oxy/gas burner, superso-
Page
nic water-cooled oxy/carbon lances and postcombustion

We are highly pleased to present this issue of Technology
systems gave the electric-arc-furnace processes a signifi-
News to you which will give you a survey of oxygen
cant impetus.
technologies in the iron and steelmaking sector.

Preface
Moser Herbert *
The Use of Oxygen in Metallurgical Processes
Dimitrov Stefan *
The supply of great amounts of fossil energy essentially

The history of VAI is closely linked with the development of
increases the productivity of the unit. Moreover, quicker
the LD or basic oxygen steelmaking process. The LD con-
response to changed process conditions is ensured in this
verter was developed in Linz, where the first LD plant was
way. Advantageously lower demands are placed on the
started up in 1952. This was the place from where steel-
oxygen quality (95.5% purity).
making was totally revolutionized.

VAOX Gas Generation Plants
Wawrina Rainer **
Hausleitner Hannes **
Basic Oxygen Processes
ble until tonnage oxygen was commercially produced and
is supplied to the iron and steelmaking industry worldwide.
oxygen was used in vacuum processes. This allowed char-
A large number of steelmaking processes became econo-
ging higher-carbon scrap and lower-cost ferroalloys (which
mically efficient only after oxygen was used more intensi-
resulted in a more general acceptance as well as the crea-
vely.
tion of new stainless steel applications worldwide).
During traditional converter operation oxygen with a purity
The increased use of oxygen in steelmaking was accompa-
of 99% plays a decisive role. A multitude of different con-
nied by a generation of new oxygen-generating plants
verter processes guarantee high adaptability to the specific
which are capable of separating oxygen from the air by
outline conditions and requirements. With supportive dyna-
means of pressure and vacuum swing absorption. These
mic process control the operational production process
generating plants will increasingly gain acceptance particu-
Kerschbaumer Helmut *
can be optimized via converter off-gas analysis while avoi-
larly in the electric-steelmaking sector.
Forsthuber Markus ****
ding overblowing of the heat.
Pirklbauer W. *
Gaugl S.*
The Dynamic Process ModelDYNACON
New Tasks of the LD Lance
The low-cost production of high-alloy steels was not possiToday, about half the industrially generated oxygen volume
Mller Johannes *
Enkner Bernhard *
10
12
VAI and its subsidiaries provide the entire scope of technoOxygen Management for Electric Steelmaking
Berger Harald *
16
Mittag Peter *
The latest developments in LD lance technology allow
logies relating to oxygen, from oxygen generation and con-
additional injecting of dusts accumulated in the process
sumers up to off-gas management. Moreover, VAI is conti-
together with oxygen used as a carrier gas.
nuously investigating new solutions to allow even more
Zhai Yuyou *
effective use of oxygen as well as improvements in the proThe development and integration of oxygen-operated faci-
Economic Effect of Oxygen Input in the EAF
Berger Harald *
duction process.
18
Mittag Peter *
Zhai Yuyou *
The Use of Oxygen in Stainless-Steel Production
Steins Johannes *
22
Schnell Gnther ***

Schrade Christian ***
VAI Technology News
VAI Steel Production Technologies
**
VAIS
***
VAI-Technometal
****
VOEST-ALPINE STAHL Donawitz
Issue No. 31/August 1999
The original LD patent

and the first LD heat (Linz/Austria, October 1949)
VAI Technology News
Work on the EAF in the late 50s
The Use of Oxygen in Metallurgical Processes
M E T A L L U R G I C A L
A S P E C T S
Oxygen is employed in several different ways in steelma-
Adding of solid/bonded oxygen in the form of ore (i.e.,
king and occurs in more or less all of the process steps.
hematite ore with 85% Fe2O3 and chromium ore in
Oxygen especially plays a key role in the production of
case of stainless steel), scale ( 80% Fe2O3) or waste
crude steel, such as in hot metal pretreatment for desilico-
materials from the metallurgical plant (i.e., dust with
nization, dephosphorization, devanadization, etc. as a preli-
3070% FeO + Fe2O3) which takes place in the pretre-
minary stage in the production route (Figure 1).
atment of hot metal (deSi, deP, deV etc.), in the production of converter steel with ore cooling, and in metallurgical recycling of waste materials in electric arc furnaces
Oxygen serves as an oxidizing agent for
Optimized conditions for metallurgical reactions
The extent of the cost reduction depends on
(i.e., foamy slag in EAF)

Improvement of crude steel quality
The charge mix (including availability and price situation)
(i.e., low N content in the EAF melt).
World region and existing infrastructure
Process and plant status
Therefore using a suitable technology and plant design, a
Operational experience.
reduction in the operating costs of US $520 per ton of
The energetic advantages in the use of oxygen is summa-
crude steel is therefore possible.
rized in Figure 2.
and converters.
The removal of tramp and trace elements from the iron

melt during the refining process
Generally, the required purity of gaseous oxygen is as
(predominantly C, Si, Mn, P, etc.)
follows:
Reaction enthalpy
Direct energy generation by means of oxidation andcombustion of primary energies such as carbon, natural
For refining the metal bath 99.5% O2
gas, oil and other hydrocarbons
For combustion and postcombustion by burners and

tuyeres 93% O2.
Indirect energy recovery through postcombustion of primary process gases like CO and H2 to CO2 and H2O.
25C
1600C
The most important advantages of the increased use of
Fe(l)
1/2 O2(g)
FeO(l)
oxygen are
C(Fe,%)
1/2 O2(g)
CO(g)
+5.75
Si(Fe,%)
1/2 O2(g)
SiO2(s)
+2.82
Mn(Fe,%)
1/2 O2(g)
MnO(s)
+9.43
5/2 O2(g)
P2O5(l)
+9.53
Blowing gaseous oxygen through top lances, burners,
Increase in productivity by process intensification
tuyeres including submerged tuyeres in the metallurgical
Flexibility in the supply of energy sources
vessel
Oxidation of tramp elements dissolved in liquid iron with gaseous oxygen (typical for steelmaking)
1600C
The supply of the necessary amount of oxygen occurs by
kWh/Nm3O2
2 P(Fe,%)
(especially important for EAF technology)
Blowing air or oxygen-enriched air (up to 40% O2) pre-
Improvement in heat utilization

(i.e., foamy slag in EAF)
dominantly for off-gas postcombustion
Oxidation of tramp elements dissolved in liquid iron with solid/bonded oxygen from ore,
scale, waste materials (typical for hot-metal pretreatment)
1600C
25C
1600C
1600C
3 Si(Fe,%)
2 Fe2O3(s)
3 SiO2(s)
4 Fe(l)
+1.32
3 Mn(Fe,%)
Fe2O3(s)
3 MnO(s)
2 Fe(l)
+1.42
6 P(Fe,%)
5 Fe2O3(s)
3 P2O3(l)
10 Fe(l)
-2.50
Oxidation and combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons with gaseous oxygen

25C
25C
1600C
1600C
C(s)
+ 1/2 O2(g) = CO(g)
partial oxidation (submerged carbon type)
+1.46
C(s)
+ 1/2 O2(g) = CO2(g)
full oxidation (carbon burner)
+3.86
full oxidation (natural-gas burner)
+3.29
CH4(g) + 1/2 O2(g) = CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
Postcombustion reactions (reaction takes place only within slag and gas phases)
1600C
25C
1600C
CO(g)
1/2 O2(g)
CO2(g)
+6.25
H2(g)
1/2 O2(g)
H2O(g)
+5.60
> 0 exothermic reactions
< 0 endothermic reactions
Fig. 1: Usage of oxygen in iron and steelmaking process
VAI Technology News
Fig. 2: Reaction enthalpy for important metallurgical reactions at given temperatures
VAI Technology News
P L A N T S
VAOX Gas Gen eration Plants
Technical Data of
VAOX Gas Generation Plant Modules
The VAOX gas generators work on the adsorption principle
The regeneration gas is blown off to the atmosphere. By
adsorber 2 is pressurized with oxygen from adsorber 1. The
and offer important advantages:
switching from one to the next adsorber and back again,
pressure increases from pe to p2.
VAOX Oxygen Generators

Capacity range
oxygen production is sufficient to allow continuous supply
Low investment costs and power consumption
Stop-and-go operation for lower energy costs
Process Step 2
to the oxygen consumers.
Oxygen purity
To save energy, the pressure in adsorber 1 must be further
93%
during maintenance shifts of the steel mill
Feeding the oxygen first from the buffer vessel through an
reduced by expanding into adsorber 2. The pressure
No operation personnel are needed
oxygen compressor ensures the required delivery pressure.
decreases from p1 to p3. Adsorber 2 is pressurized with
Power consumption
High availability/low maintenance.
The system allows peak demands of up to 4 times the
oxygen from adsorber 1 and with ambient air. The pressu-
Generation
0.42 kWh/Nm3
design capacity at a constant, adjustable pressure ob-
re increases from p2 to p4. From the oxygen buffer vessel
Compression to 35 bar
0.20 kWh/Nm3
tained by passing a pressure reducing station immediately
oxygen is supplied to the oxygen compressor or to the
downstream of the high-pressure vessel. For backup and
consumer.
Plant Description
Cooling water consumption

per 1,000 Nm3/h capacity
cylinder filling purposes, a gas liquefier can be installed.

VAOX oxygen generators use pressure-swing adsorption
Process Step 3
Generation
Compression
technology and produce oxygen with a purity of 93%. The
In case of failure of the VAOX generator, the pressure in the
The vacuum pump evacuates adsorber 1. The molecular
impurities consist of argon (4.5%) and nitrogen (balance).
oxygen line to the steel mill decreases. As soon as it drops
sieve will be regenerated for the next production step. The
Ambient air is sucked in via a filter, compressed by an air
below a certain level, a sufficient quantity of liquid oxygen
pressure decreases from p3 to pe.
blower and fed into one of the two adsorbers (Figure 3).
is vaporized in an air-heated heat exchanger and automati-
First, adsorber 2 is pressurized with oxygen from the oxy-
cally fed into the oxygen line to the steel mill. The storage
gen buffer vessel and with ambient air. Near atmospheric
The adsorption part of the VAOX oxygen generator consists
capacity of the backup plant is usually designed to supply
pressure, a pressure equilibrium between adsorber 2 and
of two adsorber vessels filled with a special molecular sieve
the steel mill for approx. one day.
the oxygen buffer is found. From then on until the end of
In the first adsorber, the molecular sieve granulate mainly
25100 Nm3/h
Nitrogen purity (normally required)
99%
and fed to adsorber 2. Hydrocarbons, CO2, moisture and
explained in Figure 4.
nitrogen are adsorbed by the granulate. The pressure
Power consumption
increases from p4 to pa. Vessel oxygen is supplied to the
(purity 99%)
At the top of the adsorber, oxygen with a purity of 93% vol.
Process Step 1
oxygen compressor or to the final consumer from the oxy-
is produced and fed into the oxygen buffer vessel located
For desorption, which means regeneration of the molecular
gen buffer. Until pressure equilibrium is established bet-
downstream.
sieve, the pressure in adsorber 1 must be reduced. To avoid
ween adsorber 2 and the oxygen buffer, oxygen is supplied
losing the oxygen at the top, adsorber 1 expands into
from the buffer to adsorber 2. After pressure equilibrium,
In the meantime, the second adsorber is regenerated (eva-
adsorber 2. The pressure decreases from pa to p1. The
the buffer vessel receives and stores the produced oxygen
cuated) with a vacuum pump.
vacuum pump evacuates adsorber 2. At the same time,
from adsorber 2.
Adsorber
Vessel 1
20 m3/h
Capacity range (normally required)
The VAOX process is comprised of three process steps

adsorbs the nitrogen and the moisture from the process air.
2 m3/h (to be drained)
VAIS Nitrogen Generators
the sub-cycle, ambient air is pressurized by the air blower
granulate.
G A S
G E N E R A T I O N
1,0005,000 Nm3/h
Generation
0.55 kWh/Nm3
(delivery at 5 bar)
Compression to
0.07 kWh/Nm3
12 bar
--
Oxygen and Nitrogen Liquefiers

100
Oxygen Buffer
Vessel
Oxygen
High Pressure
Vessel
Pressure Reducing
Station
Adsorber Vessel 1
pa
Adsorber Vessel 2
90
Capacity range
80
Modules of 10 or
50 Nm3/h
Oxygen Buffer
Atmosphere
Oxygen Product
to Consumers
V A O X
Filter
Oxygen
Compressor
Vacuum
Pump
Air
Blower
Adsorber
Vessel 2
Liquid Oxygen
Tank
Vaporizer
Pressure [%]
PICA
70
p1
Flow Description
60
p3
Process Air
50
40
Product Oxygen
p4
30
90
3
Subcycle 1
3
Subcycle 2
Duration of One Cycle
VAOX oxygen generator adsorber vessels at

Delta Steel Mill Co./Egypt
VAI Technology News
Fig. 3: Process flow diagram of a

VAOX oxygen generator
10 kWh/h
Capacity 50 Nm3/h
35 kWh/h
Oxygen Refill
Product Oxygen
pe
0
Step
Capacity 10 Nm3/h
p2
10
Process Air/Waste Gas
Oxygen (gaseous)
Oxygen (liquid)
Purging Oxygen
20
Oxygen
Liquefier
Power consumption
Wast Gas
Capacity 10 Nm3/h
0.5 m3/h
Capacity 50 Nm3/h
2.5 m3/h
Fig. 4: VAOX process steps
VAI Technology News
Blowing oxygen into the melt oxidizes iron to iron oxide
Favorable mixing conditions enable rapid smelting of the
at the steelmaking works in Linz/Austria in order to replace
and carbon to CO. The iron oxide immediately transfers
scrap and ensure very low carbon-content values. Oxygen
the open-hearth process by an oxygen blowing process
oxygen to the iron tramp elements. Temperatures at the
blown through the bottom constitutes a substantially more
with high hot-metal input. In November 1952 the first LD
impingement range from 2500C to 3000C.
favorable method of mixing (Figure 7).
150
Total Mixing Time [s]
In the late fourties a great number of tests were carried out
plant worldwide was erected in Linz. The LD process turned out to be a great success and set out to conquer the
The circulation flow in the bath continuously conveys non-
Short mixing times due to increased bath agitation
world. The converter has been subjected to continuous
oxidized portions of the bath to the site of oxydation.
decrease iron losses in the slag and avoid overoxidation of
evolutionary improvements and has been shown to be sui-
Continuous production of CO promotes the formation of a
the melt (Figure 8).
table for the production of large quantities of steel. Today
foamy slag emulsion. The oxidation process is completed
approx. 60% of the worldwide liquid steel production is
as soon as the desired tapping conditions are achieved.
100
LD-S
50
K-OBM
While the iron losses remain the same, the extent to which
0.01
phosphorus is slagged in bottom blowing converters is
produced with the oxygen-blowing process (BOF).

Today there is a large variety of different converter methods
Figure 6 schematically shows the refining conditions over
higher than in top blowing converters with inert gas stirring
the blowing time.
as a result of the more intensive reaction between metal
0.05
0.10
0.50
1.00
Submerged Bottom-Blown Gas Rate [Nm3/min t]
5.00
10.0
Fig. 7: Bath agitation (mixing time) as a function

of submerged blowing from the bottom
and slag. This can be compensated extensively by post-
as follows (Figure 5):
stirring with inert gases in the LD-S process (Figure 9).
Oxygen top blowing (LD, LD-S)
The K-OBM-converter, result of further developments com-
Oxygen bottom blowing (OBM)
bines the good properties of the bottom and top blowing
Combined oxygen blowing (K-OBM)
process with pure oxygen.

30
The advantages of the K-OBM process versus the
through the development of various technologies, such as
LD/LD-S process can be summarized as follows:
Bottom stirring with inert gas
More intensive bath agitation
Slag cutting
Shorter tap-to-tap times
Process automation
Higher yield
Considerable increase in scrap input
Suitable for the production of stainless steel
LD steel plant
Linz/Austria
Total Fe Content in Slag [%]
The converter process has been substantially improved
20
LD
15
LD-S
10
K-OBM
5
0
Process with O2 Bottom Blowing
Process with O2 Top Blowing
Basic Thomas/
Acid Bessemer
1880
O2
1952
LD: Linz/
Donawitz
0.08
0.12
0.16
Carbon Content [%]
must be balanced with higher cost for equipment and
Fig. 8: Relation between Fe content in slag and carbon at blow end for different converter processes
maintenance.
O2
OBM
100
K-OBM
O2 CaO/C3H8
O2
1970
O2
LD +
BottomStirring
[C]+(FeO)=CO + Fe
O2+N2(Ar)
160
K-OBM
CLU
O2+CaO
CH4
4
75
KMS
O2+CaO
CH4
N2/Ar
1980
AOD
K-OBM
LD-HC
LD-OB
K-OBM-S
O2/CH4
1990
K-ES
O2+N2(Ar)/
C3H8
O2/CH4
O2/N2(Ar)/
CH4/Coal
KMS-S
3
50
Slag Weight
2
25
LD-S
80
LD
[C]+O or [O]=CO
1
40
O2+N2(Ar)/
CH4, Coal
120
(P)/[P]
LD: USA
Relative Slag Weight
1960
Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel
Air
0.04
The metallurgical advantages of oxygen bottom blowing
Decarburization [%]
C O N V E R T E R
T E C H N O L O G Y
Basic Oxygen Processes
25
50
Blowing Time [%]
75
100
10
15
20
25
Total Fe Content [%]
1998
85.5%
12.0%
0.5%
2.0%
Fig. 6: Relation between gas and emulsion

refinings and slag weight
Fig. 9: Relation between phosphorus partition

and total Fe content of slag
Fig. 5: Share of various converter processes in worldwide BOF steel production

VAI Technology News
VAI Technology News
The Dynamic Process ModelDYNACON

D Y N A C O N
Figure 10 shows a typical off-gas development during
Metallurgy and Cost-Saving Perspectives
Cost savings of approx. US$ 0.5/t of steel can be achieved
blowing for a 240-ton LD converter. The changes in the
LOMAS off-gas sampling and analyzing
The Dynamic Process Model-DYNACON features
only as a result of lower Al consumption and lower Fe
ascent of the N2 and O2 curves or in the drop of the CO and
Improving the Hitting Rate
CO2 curves at the end of blowing relative to a reference
Based on the endpoint determined by DYNACON, a carb-
heat in which the achieved carbon content is known are
on-hitting rate of approximately 80% within a window
Lowest Investment Costs
separately evaluated in the last minutes of the blowing pro-
range of +/- 0.005% (for a target carbon of < 0.05%) is
With respect to precision, reproducibility and economic
cess. The individual evaluations are weighted and provide
achieved under normal but standardized production
aspects (investment costs), DYNACON thus allows a com-
a basis for determining the residual blowing time.
conditions.
plete dynamic process control which by far surpasses the
Depending on the degree of standardization (lance/blowing
process-control performance of, for example, a sublance.
content in converter slag.
In addition to the above off-gas curves, calculated values
pattern, bottom stirring, addition pattern etc.) higher hitting
such as the postcombustion degree are included in the
rates of approximately 95% are possible. As a consequen-
evaluation. In the last three minutes, a seconds countdown
ce, the standard deviation between predicted and actual
to the blowing end is calculated. As the axis in Figure 11,
endpoint temperature decreases by about 10 C.
the calculated end-blow time versus the actual end-blow

Quality-Standard Improvement
time for a target carbon of 0.03% is shown.
High carbon-hitting rates within such a tight carbon win-
Calculation of the decarburization rate
Calculation of the actual steel and slag analysis
The dynamic process model is embedded in the applicati-
dow also means avoiding overblowing the heat; the result
Calculation of the steel-bath temperature
on functions necessary for process control beginning with
of which is not only improved steel cleanliness but also a
End-blow determination.
start of blow until end of blow. These functions are
means of lowering the production costs.
The DYNACON calculation principle is based on the reac-
Process monitoring
Decreased Production Costs
tion kinetics between steel and slag components, the trend
Process tracking
Decreased production costs because of decreased oxygen
behavior prediction of the off-gas composition in the last
Process information acquisition and storage
activity in the steel by approx. 150 ppm can be reached
minutes of blowing and on heat and material balances.
Report system.
(Figure 12). This leads to
The DYNACON process model is based on the assumption

that the steel bath and the slag are in equilibrium in the last
The application functions and DYNACON process model
Lower consumption of Al for deoxidation
few minutes of the LD process so that the behavior of the
are installed on a conventional personal computer with
Lower Fe content in converter slag
gases measured by the LOMAS system in the off-gas is
interfaces to the level-1 and level-2 automation systems
Higher lining life due to decreased temperature standard
similar in all heats, irrespective of the quality and amount of
already installed. In this manner DYNACON serves as an
the hot metal charged and of the charging materials.
upgrade utility for existing automation systems.
deviation and lower Fe content in converter slag
Dialog window for DYNACON
25
25
CO2
100
40
20
Time until Blow End [s]
Process Time [min]
VAI Technology News
Fig. 11: Cyclic blow end indication during the

last two minutes of blowing process
10
Fig. 12: Operational results of the 240t LD converter at EKO Stahl, Germany
VAI Technology News
>551
Aluminium Addition During Tapping [kg]
Oxygen Activity Prior to Tapping [ppm]
Fig. 10: Off-gas composition recorded

during blowing
531-551
60
511-531
80
491-511
100
471-491
120
450-471
12
430-450
10
410-430
390-410
370-390
305-370
0
<350
10
20
>1366
10
5
1278-1366
10
15
1189-1278
Operator
30
100-1189
20
40
10
1011-1100
30
50
923-1011
10
60
834-922
40
70
745-834
15
50
15
656-745
60
80
567-656
H2
90
479-567
20
O2
Target
20
Operator
20
<479
80
70
Time until Blow End [s]
N2
DYNACON Prediction
Frequency [%]
110
Off-gas Composition O2, H2 [%]
Off-gas Composition CO, CO2, N2 [%]
90
CO
Frequency [%]
25
100
Model
Model
120
11
New Tasks of the LD Lance

L A N C E
Since 1952, oxygen-blowing lances have been used in the

LD converter for steel production. In the course of the past
45 years, the lance has undergone a number of design
modifications until it has reached its present functional and
lasting form. The findings in the field of thermodynamics,
1
p N TN
+
R
p 1 TN
=
p N T1 VN
VN =
the flow patterns of the water cooling system and the heat
transmission processes have played a decisive role in
aL = k
extending the lifetime of approx. 50 to today's lifetime of
p1
1
approx. 350 heats.
Cross section of the 5-hole lance tip
The concept of injecting the dust accumulating in the off-
gas cleaning system during converter operation through
pN normal pressure
the oxygen lance, which is tantamount to a new type of
TN normal temperature
recycling in the steelmaking plant, involved a modification
r1
of the lance design. Accordingly, the well-known 4-hole
p1 current pressure upstream
[J/(kg*K)]
[N/m3]
Fig. 14: Typical design of a 1-hole LD lance (1954)
[K]
current density of the carrier gas
[kg/m3]
[N/m3]
of Laval nozzle
lance is now equipped with a fifth central Laval nozzle, and

the carrier gas for dust injection is fed with the dust through
general gas constant
[m3/kg]
T1 current temperature upstream
[K]
of Laval nozzle
a central tube in the lance.
16
aL Laval velocity
[m/s]
In the following, the positive process results are first
adiabatic exponent
ignored, and the findings regarding the calculation of a
load in kg dust/Nm3 carrier gas
Nozzle Diameter 22 mm
[%]
[kg/m3]
Laval nozzle for dust-laden media are dealt with instead.

The original design was based on the laws of thermodyna-
This method of calculation only considers the influence of
mics for the Laval nozzle:
the specific volume of the carrier gas and disregards the

changed thermodynamic values for the mixture consisting
VN =
5-hole and 6-hole lance tips
R
p N TN
p 1 TN
p N T1 VN
p
aL = k 1
1
Nozzle Diameter 26 mm
14
of the carrier gas and the material to be conveyed.
Inlet Pressure at Laval Nozzle [bar]

Sonic Speed of Dust-Laden Media [m/s]
L D
where VN volume under standard conditions
Sonic Speed
12
10
Surprisingly, the results of the theoretical effective area that
method of calculation suffices to determine the delivery
15
20
25
Dust Load in Media [kg/Nm3]
was calculated in a simplified manner were perfectly corroborated in the course of testing. Therefore, this simplified
10
Fig. 15: Influence of dust load on laval nozzle
volumes and is fairly realistic. On the basis of these findings

it has become easy to apply this design to other dimensions as well.
As the project went on, it gradually turned out that this formula failed to meet the actual prevailing conditions. The
In the following, the required effective areas for a test lance
dust freight of the carrier gas was highly influential. In order
in the VOEST-ALPINE STAHL Donawitz steelmaking plant
to maintain the planned delivery volume, the area had to be
are recomputed.
increased by approx. 40%.

Strikingly, the Laval velocity or the sonic speed, respectiveThe required size of the area was theoretically investigated
ly, is highly dependent on the dust freight of the carrier gas
after having detected this influencing variable before modi-
as shown in Figure 15. Non-dust-laden gas features a
fying the design. In an initial attempt, the load condition
sonic speed of approx. 330 m/s, which is reduced to
was simulated by correcting the specific values for the gas:
approx. 80 m/s at a dust freight of 20 kg/Nm3.
Dust recycling lance tip

after 100 tons of dust injection
Fig. 16: Design of a dust-recycling lance (1998)
VAI Technology News
12
VAI Technology News
13
30
L A N C E
VOEST-ALPINE STAHL Donawitz runs two blast furnaces
with a production capacity of 1.25 million tons of hot metal
50 to DN 100 in order to reduce pressure losses owing
per year. This hot metal is blown to 1.37 million tons of
to friction
crude steel in the steelmaking plant. Three 60 t LD conver-
dure. Each converter is equipped with a 4-hole lance. The
Increase of the diameter of the Laval nozzle from 22 mm

to 26 mm
ters are installed for operation in a 2/3 LD converter proce
Increase of the design pressure in the bin from approx.

7 bar to approx. 8 bar
converter off-gas accumulating during refining is combuDust recycling plant at

Increase of the diameter of the piping system from DN
sted in a downstream vessel and dedusted in a dry elec-
Injection volume approx. 1400 kg/heat
trostatic precipitator with dust volumes of 13 to 15 kg per
Injection of approx. 100 tons of dust during a long-time

test.
ton of steel. The dusts accumulating in the steelmaking
L D
process are considered to be hazardous waste, so it is

absolutely essential to process these wastes by way of
Apart from confirming the applicability of the method of cal-
recirculation.
culation, the tests yielded valuable findings concerning the

advantages of the recirculation process:
Fig. 17: Plant configuration at

VOEST-ALPINE STAHL Donawitz and VAI had the idea of

charging the LD dust by means of an oxygen lance into the
dustone kg of dust accounts for 2.7 kg of scrap.
therefore equipped with a further central hole for dust blowing as shown in Figure 16.
The required scrap for operation was partly substituted

for the excellent cooling properties of the charged
area of the hot spot. The 4-hole lance normally used was
The operating time was reduced by approx. one minute.
The operating oxygen was partly compensated by the

iron oxide content of the charged dust.
To achieve the defined goals, an injection device with a bin,

the required lines to the lance equipment and a 5-hole
The bath temperature is reduced by approx. 25 C.
lance were installed. The plant (Figures 17 and 18) was
Chemistry of steel is not influenced, no changing in lead,

zinc and phosphorus content.
installed for testing on an industrial scale. The conveying

system is comprised of the following elements:
Chemistry of slag is not influenced, no change in iron

oxide analysis.
Loading station
Over-size screen
Dispenser with a fluidizing unit
Flow-control valve
The development of the LD lance of the 1950s reveals a
Transport line
tendency towards increasing the number of nozzles on
Discharge via central blowing-lance nozzle
account of the tasks of metallurgy and additional tasks ari-
Processing procedure is not influenced because feeding

is carried out during blowing.
Dust container
was not until the flow patterns in the cooling ducts were
meter of gas at a gas volume of 10 standard cubic meters
identified and appropriate geometrical adaptations were
per minute. The effective diameter of the central nozzle was
made that it was possible to satisfy the requirements of the
originally 22 mm.
operators of steelmaking plants.
According to thermodynamic calculations of the gas flow
The application of thermodynamic methods of calculation
rate without dust load, these values were to be easily achie-
allows predetermining the required oxygen flow rates
ved at a bin pressure of approx. 8 bar and with regard to
through proper nozzle geometry, the actual volumes corre-
the pressure losses occurring in the piping system. As
sponding very well to the theoretically calculated ones. In
described above, the influence of the dust load is so signi-
the case described, i.e. injection of dusts, this calculation
ficant that these values were only reached after appropria-
modelafter minor adaptationswas also implemented in
te corrections had been made:
practical operation.
Filter
unit
Ladder
and with a view to cooling problems and skull formation. It
ded according to design with 20 kg dust per standard cubic
Dedusting
sing, for example, from the recycling of metallurgical dusts

The carrier medium used was oxygen, which was to be loa-
Oversize particles
Dispenser unit
14
7.5 m3
17 bar
0-80 C
1.8 m
Container for
oversize particle
Fig. 18: Layout of equipment
Fluidization equipment and dispenser
VAI Technology News
Pressure
vessel
VAI Technology News
15
Dust container
2 m3
2 m3
E A F / K - E S
Oxygen Management for Electric Steelmaking
Watercooled supersonic oxygen/carbon lance

manipulator FUCHS MARK IV
applicablestating that 1 Nm3 oxygen corresponds to
and based on the knowledge of water-cooled LD oxygen
Since it does not make sense to gain energy through the
approx. 3 kWh of energy. Although the metallurgical effect
lances, water-cooled oxygen lances were developed for the
oxidation of iron (scrap), it is necessary to charge fuel in an
of oxygen and the equipment for injection oxygen into the
electric arc furnace. These lances are translationally moved
appropriate manner. In most cases carbon is used as fuel.
electric arc furnace are described in detail in a number of
(Figure 19) or slewed and entered into the electric arc fur-
In view of the large number of problems occurring during
publications, there are only few reliable investigations of the
nace laterally of or through the slag door (Figure 20).
lump coke charged with regard to efficiency and unfore-
economic aspects of oxygen input and oxygen manage-
Oxygen at supersonic speed and carbon powder are injec-
seeable impacts on off-gas cleaning, reliable and automat-
ment in the electric arc furnace which can be reconstructed
ted onto the heat and metallurgically utilized to a great
able carbon charging into the electric arc furnace is a pre-
in the user's own plant.
extent.
condition for intensive oxygen application.
Equipment and Technology of Oxygen

Application
Burner Postcombustion Lances
Submerged Carbon Tuyeres
Three to eight of these lances are located along the furnace
This precondition is fullfilled by the installation of submerged carbon tuyeres (Figure 22), where carbon powder in
Apart from oxidizing with iron ore, which is employed parti-
circumference (Figure 21). The burner serves to open a
As with any other steelmaking process, electric steel-
cularly in the special steel industry, gaseous oxygen is
clearance by combusting gaseous, liquid or solid fuel for
a quantity of up to 25 kg/min is laterally injected through
making is an oxidizing process where oxygen is used in
injected into the heat through consumable lances.
the subsequent postcombustion of the CO which has
natural-gas-cooled tuyeres under the bath level. This gua-
meanwhile formed to CO2.
rantees excellent slag foaming and all of the well-known
varying forms. As the facilities for gaseous oxygen and its

commercial supply were continually perfected, oxidizing
with iron orewhich is advantageous with a view to
energy-related advantages.
Oxygen Lances
dephosphorizationwas superseded by oxidizing by and

injection of gaseous oxygen to an ever increasing extent.
The correct arrangement of the burner postcombustion

lances in relation to the direction of the burner effect (radi-
Moreover, appropriate CO formation is ensured, which
For a long time no appropriate manipulators were available
al and/or tangential) and considering hot spots or cold
benefits the postcombustion process described above.
so that a lot of manual work and considerable manipulation
spots along the furnace circumference are essential.
Submerged carbon tuyeres are successfully employed in
Gaseous oxygen moreover offered the advantage of having
efforts were required for the resetting of consumable
a high exothermic impact on the electric steelmaking pro-
lances. The costs of consumable lances also had to be
The position on an appropriate level at the furnace is deter-
melting and have a lifetime of several hundred heats.
cess in contrast to iron ore, which has a strong endother-
taken into account; but it was possible to reduce these
mined by the necessity of preventing the burner openings
Carbon injection, for example, by means of a lance, is to be
mic influence on the process.
costs by using pipes with a ceramic coating. The hard and
from being closed by splashes as well as of reliably trans-
adapted accordingly. All these facilities and procedures for
Therefore it was practical to utilize the gaseous oxygen not
troublesome manual work was reduced by using manipula-
mitting the additional energy to the melting scrap pile and
oxygen charging and/or conversion in the electric arc fur-
only metallurgically but also for energy generation accor-
tors for inserting consumable oxygen and carbon pipes.
preventing the additional heat from being removed by the
nace are highly promising from an economical point of
ding to the general rulewhich is often but not always
In view of the disadvantages of consumable oxygen lances
cooling water of the furnace roof.
view.
Fig. 19: Translationally moved water-cooled

supersonic oxygen/carbon lance
VAI Technology News
Fig. 20: Water-cooled supersonic oxygen/carbon

lance manipulator FUCHS MARK IV Type
16
furnaces for scrap melting as well as those for sponge iron
Fig. 21: Burner postcombustion lance
Fig. 22: Installation of a submerged carbon

tuyere in an electric arc furnace
VAI Technology News
17
Economic Effect of Oxygen Input in the EAF

E A F / K - E S
The economic effect of oxygen input in the electric arc fur-
Figure 26 shows the carbon powder input and natural gas

(Nm3
nace is basically determined by the amount of oxygen
consumption
injected.
input (Nm3 O2/ton of liquid steel).
CH4/ton of liquid steel) versus oxygen
It should also be pointed out that the savings potential for

variable costs considerably grows particularly between 15
and 30 Nm3 O2/t, whereas it diminishes above 30 Nm3 O2/t.
The economic effects are

This is attributable to the strongly increasing energy losses
through off-gas and the limited utilization of the high oxy-
Variable cost savings
Fixed cost savings
The benefit derived from the additional products which
Variable Costs
gen input for energy recovery for the melt.
The calculation of variable costs is based on the costs of
can be profitably sold.
Fixed Costs
This benefit can be determined by defining several specific
Oxygen
dependencies. In the following an example of a 100-ton
Electric energy
electric arc furnace with an electrical power of 60 MW and
Carbon powder
a 100% scrap charge is presented (Figure 23).
Natural gas
Personnel
The basis for the cost calculation is shown in Figure 24.
The variable costs of increasing oxygen input and the pos-
Departmental services for investment in equipment
sible savings of these costs are essentially determined by
Fixed share of maintenance expenditure
the ratio between oxygen costs (constant) and electric
Overhead costs
Figure 25 illustrates how increasing oxygen input
(Nm3/t
liquid steel) leads to the following results:

Decrease in electric power consumption (kWh/ton of
energy costs (not constant). Of course, the higher the electric energy costs, the higher the variable cost savings
On the basis of empirical values, a fixed cost figure of
achieved through O2 applications at higher kWh costs.
US$ 40 million per year was assumed for a single-furnace
liquid steel)
With regard to variable cost savings, it would not make
Increase in productivity in tons of liquid steel per hour
sense in terms of economy to apply oxygen when the costs
Increases in the annual output in 1000 tons of liquid
for electric energy are low. Benefits regarding savings are
steel per year
only derived at higher kWh costs.
Oxygen costs
Charge mix
100% scrap, 2 baskets
Variable electrical kWh costs 0.020.12 US$/t
Power-off time
Carbon input
Burner power
60 MW
Carbon powder costs
15 min
Natural gas costs
carbon powder only
Billet sales price
3 MW
Profit (rel. to liquid steel)
0.17 US$/kg
0.15 US$/Nm3
200 US$/t
25 US$/t
175
800
Energy Consumption
700
Production
Tap-to-Tap Time
Productivity
30
Carbon by Lance
CH4 by Burners
150
125
600
100
500
400
75
300
50
Tap-to-Tap Time [min]

Productivity [tliq/h]
100 t
Electric power input
800,000 tons of liquid steel per year (Case 1: Figure 27).
0.06 US$/Nm3
EAF tapping weight
Energy Consumption [kWh/tliq]

Production [1000t/year]
Oxygen lancing with consumable pipes
steelmaking plant with an output of approx. 600,000 to
Shorter tap-to-tap time
Carbon and CH4 Consumption

[kg/tliq.,Nm3/tliq]
Calculation of fixed costs is based on the costs for
25
Postcombustion of CO
Carbon by Submerged Tuyeres
20
15
10
Carbon
CH4
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
10
7200 h/year
Fixed costs
20
25
40.047.0 million US$/year

(based on reference values)
Fig. 23: Technical data of the EAF
Fig. 24: Costs per unit
VAI Technology News
18
30
Oxygen Consumption [Nm3/tliq]
Production time
15
Fig. 25: Impact of oxygen utilization

on EAF operating parameters
Fig. 26: Operating parameters
VAI Technology News
19
35
40
45
increase caused by a additional oxygen input (case 2), the
As displayed in Figure 29, the additional profit in
additional fixed-cost savings may be close to zero and may
US$/ton of liquid steel constantly increases as the
even decrease in extreme case of higher oxgen input,
oxygen input increases.
depending on the value of the increase in fixed costs

(Figure 28).
This high impact (higher than the increase in fixed costs) is
Economic Effect of Increased

Oxygen Input
attributable to the fact that the increase in fixed costs is

fully represented by the fixed-cost savings as the differen-
The economic effects of increased oxygen input in
ce value to the basic figure. This, of course, can have a
the electric arc furnace are
Fixed Costs/Year Case 1

50
Fixed Costs per Year [US$ million]
E A F / K - E S
55
Fixed Costs/Year Case 2
45
40
35
30
10
15
Consumable lances for the DRI EAF
20
25
30
35
40
45
35
40
45
35
40
45
powerful effect.
Variable cost savings
This is why it should be carefully checked when the oxygen
Fixed cost savings
input is considerably increased whether the increase in
Additional profit from increased production.
Fig. 27: Fixed costs
fixed costs resulting from additional investments will essentially reduce the savings potential since fixed costs from
Under the conditions prevailing, a substantial econo-
investments have a sustained and long-term effect on eco-
mic effect can be achieved through increased oxy-
nomy.
gen input if boundary conditions such as cost relati-
20
Savings with Constant Fixed Costs (Case 1)
ons and decisions on investment are fully taken into
Savings with Increasing Fixed Costs (Case 2)
account.
Furthermore, the economic advantages are expected to increase most at oxygen values between 15
Oxygen lancing with water-cooled supersonic lance
As already explained, it is assumed that every ton of liquid
and 30 Nm3 O2/ton of liquid steel because at higher
steel produced can be sold at a profit of US$ 25/ton of
values the disadvantages described above may take
liquid steel. As the annual output increases, the annual pro-
effect.
Saving Fixed Costs [US$/tliq]
Additional Profit From Increased Production owing to Increased Oxygen Input
15
10
fit in absolute terms also increases.

0
10
15
increased production (increased O2 input) referred to in the

reference production figure (= 10 Nm3 O2/ton of liquid
input, the fixed costs per year were assumed to increase up
steel), the following relationship is defined:
to US$ 47 million per year at an oxygen input higher than
Additional profit from increased production can be summa-
This study shows that oxygen management must not
rized as follows:
be limited to technical matters and direct consump-
O2/ton of liquid steel in another case (Case 2:
demand (e.g., casting equipment, off-gas cleaning, cooling

water supply, etc.) resulting from higher production figures.
tion figures.
AP =
In practical operation, this relationship will greatly vary

AP
according to the specific plant conditions.

In case 1, the fixed cost savings will continuously increase
PIP
with constant fixed costs and increasing production caused by increasing oxygen input (Figure 28).
However, if the fixed costs increase, e.g., because additio-
PIP PPR
PRI
The following essential factors can also be taken into
additional profit from increased production

[US$/ton of liquid steel]
Cost relations of energies and utilities
profit from increased production at
Investment expense
increased O2 input [US$]
Profitably salable output
(= 10 Nm3 O2/ton of liquid steel) [US$]
If these parameters are correctly correlated with one
production at reference O2 input
another, increased oxygen input in the electric arc
(= 10
nal investments are required as a result of production
Nm3
O2/ton of liquid steel) [t of liquid steel]
account:
PPR from production at reference oxygen input

PRI
30
10
Additional Profit [US$/tliq]
20
Figure 27). This is due to an additional investment
25
Fig. 28: Savings fixed costs
Summary
However, since production increases with higher oxygen
Nm3
20
To represent the specific additional profit resulting from
furnace will lead to commercial success.
10
15
20
25
30
Fig. 29: Additional profit by increased

production, related to reference value
VAI Technology News
20
VAI Technology News
21
As has been the case in carbon steelmaking, the large-
The metallurgical O2 is injected into the EAF by means of
scale industrial production of technical gases especially of
self-consumable pipes or water-cooled lances.
oxygen has revolutionized stainless-steel metallurgy since

the early fifties. Without the availability of low-cost gaseous
Some operators also use gaseous O2 for the operation with
oxygen, the increase in production and demand for stain-
door and wall burners or charge-excess Si as FeSi and use
less steel products would not have been possible. Only the
the Si oxidation energy to accelerate the melting process.
2.20
1st samples
AISI S04
AISI S16
AISI S30
1.80
2nd samples
AISI S04
1.40
1.00
oxygen makes the economic recycling of stainless steel

scrap from different sources from within as well as without
These techniques aim at speeding up the EAF, mainly in
the plant possible for the mass production of high-
case this facility is the bottleneck in the production chain.
chromium steel grades with low-carbon contents. Without
However, the use of O2 for the EAF stainless steelmaking
the availability of gaseous oxygen until the late forties the
production is restricted compared to the carbon-steel fur-
production of stainless steel was only possible with the use
nace to avoid an excessive Cr-oxidation.
0.60
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
(Cr2O3%)/[Cr%]
Fig. 30: Cr distribution as a function of the

[C] content of the bath in the EAF
of low-carbon internal scrap and high-cost low-carbon
85 t UHP EAF at Posco, Pohang

during tapping
C (wt%)
2.60
EAFs producing stainless steel are generally characterized
ferroalloys.
by strong transformers and a high share of electrical power

SiO2
input into the overall energy balance.
ding flat and long products were produced worldwide . A
false air infiltration through the slag door, other furnace

ss
Ma
C3S2
steelmaking plant are the primary and secondary metallur-
process. Despite the high carbon input from the charge
gical facilities:
materials, especially from the Ferro alloys and the high [C]
Converter plant up to 30 Nm3/t
content of the premelt in the EAF, a certain amount of Cr
EAF plant 515 Nm3/t
oxidation cannot be avoided during melting.
C3S
80
40
SIO
not easy to establish a precise oxygen balance for the EAF
The largest consumers in a typical integrated stainless
Cr2O3
00
C2S
1514
1407
1430
60
Therefore, compared with the converter and the VOD it is
Charging of a 90 t AOD-converter at Posco,

Pohang/Korea
1418
ss
plant.
VOD plant, if any
2 Liq.
40
CS
openings and the refractory material.
Ma
depending on the energy situation in the
80
2100
more than 50
20
0
oxygen consumption per ton of flat products amounts to
SiO2
180
rent sources, such as from oxides in the charge material,
2000
450,000 and 800,000 tons per year. The overall specific
Additional oxygen for the EAF, however, comes from diffe-
before reduction
after reduction
Ca
typical stainless-steel plant for flats produces between
Nm3,
100
1900
In 1997, more than 16 million tons of stainless steel inclu-
16
S T A I N L E S S
S T E E L
Oxygen Usage in Stainless Steel Production
C2KS3
1566
00
17
Ca7Cr2Si2O16
1450
CaO
100
0
CaO
20
Ca5Cr2SiO12
20
1060
1061
Ca3(Cr2O4)2
CaCrO4
Ca3Cr2O8
CK
80
Mass % Cr2O3
up to 10 Nm3/t
The oxidized Cr in the slags is normally reduced by the
Other consumers are of minor importance, such as raw
addition of FeSi at the end of the EAF process or during
material handling and preparation areas, rolling mills and
tapping. To minimize Cr oxidation some operators inject
power generation plants, provided that electric energy is
powdered carbon through a consumable lance during mel-
available on large scale. Special process routes based on
ting and desiliconization to maintain a defined [C] content
liquid hot metal usage and smelting reduction of Cr ore,
in the bath. Figure 30 shows the distribution of Cr bet-
require much more gaseous oxygen for stainless steel pro-
ween slag and metal bath depending on the [C] content of
duction in the range of 400
Nm3
or even more.
Fig. 31: Slag composition of EAF slags

before and after reduction
the melt.
The typical EAF slags before and after reduction are shown
Oxygen Used for Stainless Steel

Production by an EAF
in the slag ternary diagram in Figure 31.

In order to achieve Cr2O3 contents in the final slags of
Inside view of Posco Stainless

Steelplant N2 Pohang, Korea
VAI Technology News
Owing to the high affinity of Cr to O2, the use of O2 for the
below 5 %, the Cr oxidation in the furnace must be im-
EAF is far lower when producing stainless steel. The EAF
proved which causes a higher consumption of expensive
normally produces a high-carbon, low-silicon premelt for
FeSi for reduction. In general the main metallurgical tasks
the subsequent converter plant. Nevertheless, the Si con-
of the EAF for stainless steel are restricted to melting the
tent of the premelt has to be reduced to a level of 0.2 % by
charge material, desiliconization, superheating to the tap-
injecting O2 into the liquid bath in the EAF due to metallur-
ping temperature and reducing oxidized Cr to an economi-
gical requirements for the subsequent converter process.
cal extent.
22
CLU converter main control room at Columbus

Stainless Steelmaking Plant/South Africa
VAI Technology News
23
0
100
Cr2O3
Zone 1:
The largest consumer of O2 in a stainless steel production

plant is the converter refining plant. In contrast to the
The peaks in the CRE curve indicate the switchover points
gaseous O2 reacts with [C] and alloys [Me],
to a lower O2/inert-gas ratio where the CO partial pressure
especially with [Cr] in the bath.
is lowered.
The generated Cr oxides and the Me oxides
carbon steel production, the converter process normally
surround the gas bubbles of CO and inert gas,
The course of the CRE shows that the Cr oxidation is rela-
includes decarburization and reduction period. The decar-
rise through the bath and are in equilibrium
tively high at the beginning and the end of the converter
burization of the premelt from the EAF is performed by blo-
with the [C] of the bath.
process. Low temperatures and high CO partial pressure at
The metal/slag interface where slag/metal and
the beginning and low [C] activity in the bath at the end are
top blown O2/metal reactions take place.
beneficial to C oxidation. The Cr oxide content of the slag,
The gas-reaction sphere where mainly the
however, is no significant figure for comparison because
bath and the slag are complex and take place in different
partial postcombustion of the off-gas takes
different additions of lime and other fluxes influence the
reaction spheres of the vessel.
place.
slag composition.
wing varying mixtures of O2 and inert gas through special-
Zone 3:
ly designed submerged tuyeres and a top lance into the

vessel. The metallurgical reactions between O2, the metal
S T A I N L E S S
Zone 2:
In the area in front of the tuyeres the injected
Zone 4:
Fig. 32: Reaction zones in a stainless steel

converter
For comparison the specific amount of oxidized Cr per ton

The reaction equations are well known:
In zones 1, 2 and 3 the [C], [Cr] and [Me] oxidations each
of steel can be considered for process performance as
3
O2 (g ) = 3 CO(g)
2
take place to an extent which is determined by the process
shown in Figure 34.
3 [C] +
CRE TC %C
conditions. The driving forces for the oxidation of the
3
O2 + 2 [Cr] = Cr2O2 (s )
2
various dissolved alloy components are different. In our
It is generally not the task to run the converter process with
converter process model the general metal oxidation is
a CRE as high as possible to save reduction agents, but the
expressed as follows :
CRE is a result of an overall compromise in terms of Cr oxi-
3 [C] + Cr2O3 (s ) = 3 CO(g) + 2 [Cr]
2,2
[Me ] + [O] = (MeO)
1700
dation, inert gas consumption, process temperature and

100
productivity.
CRE
The equilibrium is kept constant:

The equilibrium condition is given by the equation
a2 p 3
40358
log k 3 = log 3Cr CO =
+ 25.77
T
a C a Cr2O 3
by means of reduction agents, mostly low-carbon FeSi,
G0 = R T ln k Me = R T ln
From the equation above it can be seen that
After the decarburization period, the oxidized Cr is reduced
a MeO
a Me a O
during a short reduction period. Different slag practices

quasiternary diagram. The course of two different possible
High process temperatures, high Cr2O3 activity of the

slag and low CO partial pressure are beneficial to decar-
where kMe is the equilibrium constant for the oxidation
slag paths during the converter process is schematically
burization
reaction.
shown in Figure 35.
High Cr activity and low C activity are beneficial to

Cr oxidation
applied in the plant result in different slag paths in the
Fig. 33: CRE, T and [C] during converter

refining of Cr-containing heats
The driving force for oxidation at the metal/gas interphase
[Cr] and [C] activities cannot be influenced substantially
with a certain oxygen partial pressure is given by the
and are determined by the steel grade to be produced and
change in Gibbs free enthalphy according to:
the process step. The other parametersespecially pro0

GMe = GMe
+ R T ln
cess temperature and CO partial pressurecan be influenced to a certain extent by adequate converter process con-
Time
a MeO
40
1
2
k Me p O 2
(AISI 409 grade)
35
trol.
30
The relationship between O2 for decarburization and Me

The CO partial pressure is lowered during the different con-
oxidation is expressed as the so called Carbon Removal
verter process steps by mixing defined amounts of inert
Efficiency or CRE as follows:
gas to the refining O2. The process temperature is as high
CRE = 100
as it allows the refractory consumption to remain at an economical level. The slag shall be solid during decarburizati-
O2 [C]
(O2 tot O2 [Si] )
Chromium Oxidation Loss

(kg/t)
S T E E L
Oxygen for the Converter Process
[%]
on where the Cr-oxide activity is equal or nearly

aCr2O3 =1. In the VOD the CO partial pressure is lowered by
operating the process under vacuum.
The average CRE for the refining of regular grades of type
25
Cr
20
15
10
5
Cr
0 2 4
12
16
20
[C] (x10-2%)
304 is approx. 70% from the start to the end of the decarburization. The instantaneous CRE, however, considerably
In the VAI converter process model the reaction spheres
changes during the refining process according to the chan-
are defined as shown in Figure 32.
ging process conditions, as shown in Figure 33.
VAI Technology News
24
50 t AOD converter at
Acciaierie Bolzano, Italy
Fig. 34: Cr oxidation during refining

of Cr steel 409 type 4
VAI Technology News
25
24
28
32
SiO2
100
0
resional slag from EAf
combined reduction/De-S slag
20
80
VAI has supplied various types of converters and process
2000
Ma
ss
%
1900
Ca
Cr2O3
40
00
17
1450
CaO
100
20
CaO
Reduction
FeSi + Line
addition
20
2
Ca5Cr2SiO12
Ca7Cr2Si2O16
C2KS3
1
1566
80
SIO
C3S
1514
1407
1430
60
%
ss
00
16
C2S
1418
Ma
C3S2
1060
1061
Ca3(Cr2O4)2
CaCrO4
Ca3Cr2O8
CK
and has gained comprehensive experience with AOD, CLU
Ladle metallurgy in a vacuum tank is one of the oldest
and K-OBM-S. AOD and K-OBM-S are identical from a
degassing techniques in use in the steel industry for impro-
metallurgical point of view, whereas CLU shows a higher Cr
ving steel quality. It is also certainly the most flexible one. A
oxidation and a lower average CRE during decarburization
teeming ladle is placed in a vacuum tank which is connec-
due to its particular process technology with steam injec-
ted to a vacuum pump system. The decarburization pro-
tion.
cesses with (VOD Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization) and

without oxygen blowing (VCD Vacuum Carbon Deoxidation)
0
100
80
Cr2O3
Mass % Cr2O3
As a consequence, the CLU converter requires more reduc-
are carried out in the ladle requiring a freeboard of at least
tion agents and fluxes, but consumes considerably less Ar.
1,200 mm. For decarburization under vacuum conditions,

one can take advantage of the fact that decarburization
Fig. 35: Different slag paths during

the AOD process
Oxygen is injected into the converter vessel by means of a
with oxygen occurs before oxidation of chromium. Thus,
number of submerged tuyeres and a top lance. The usage
low carbon contents with a slight loss of chromium can be
of top lances to speed up the converter process became
achieved.
DETEM-VOD at MICROSTEEL,
Durban/South Africa
more common after the output of the EAFs were increased,

100
CRE (%)
80
60
Bottom blowing
40
mainly by the installation of larger transformers in the stain-
The VOD plant has been designed in such a way that only
less steel melting shops. As a consequence, the tap-to-tap
melting and maybe certain refining with simultaneous des-
3. The reduction mix mainly consisting of FeSi and lime will
time of the converters was reduced by up to 20% and the
lagging take place in the melting furnace or other primary
be charged to the melt where chromium recovery and
refractory consumption reduced to a great extent.
facilities, while
desulfurization take place.
Some operators realize the metallurgical benefits of
Decarburization
combined blowing and explain the higher CRE by higher
Deoxidation
achieve the final analysis required. As a result of carbon
metal temperatures in the flame point and improved mixing
Desulfurization
content in the alloys added, the carbon levels in the melt
of bath and slag mixture and bath agitation (Figure 36).
Precise adjustment of temperature and analysis are exe-
increase slightly. The control of inclusion shapes will be
cuted during the vacuum treatment. The primary facili-
carried out by CaSi wire feeding.
Top lances for stainless steel refining mainly aim at a rapid
20
20
40
60
80
100
4. Necessary alloys and chill material are added to
ties can be relieved considerably in this way.
decarburization. They are normally designed as relatively
Top Blowing Ratio (%)
Fig. 36: CRE depending on top blowing rate
After treatment, the slag can remain on the ladle, thus, per-
hard-blowing lances compared with LD lances for carbon
The process steps for the production of a 304L grade in a
steel. The standard lance for converter units up to 120 t are
VOD plant can be summed up as follows (Figure 37):
normally of 1-hole design.
1. The required quantity of oxygen will be blown by a

water-cooled oxygen lance with a flow rate of approx.
Vacuum Oxygen
Decarburization
Vacuum Carbon
Degassing
Reduction
Periode
Alloying
0.45
1,000
Carbon Level
Oxygen Supply
100
offers the following process advantages:
.4 l/t min, starting from a vacuum pressure level of < 200
down to a [C] content of approx. 0.50.3%. The lance
mbar. During this decarburization phase, a preset oxy-
Increase of productivity of the furnace
height above the bath is between 1.82 m for a 100-t ves-
gen quantity, according to the existing analysis data, will
Utilisation of cheaper materials with high carbon content
sel and therefore higher than during the main decarburiza-
be supplied to the melt until a carbon level of approx.
tion of the LD process.
.05 % is achieved. Especially for this final phase, the
Decrease of production costs
(charge chromium)
end of the decarburization treatment is exactly indicated
Increase of quality
0.30
Some operators perform mixed-gas top blowing with O2
by control of the exhaust gas analysis and by further
Possibility of production of ELC grades with a minimum
0.25
and inert gas through the lance to lower the CO partial
lowering the vacuum. As soon as the CO gas reading
pressure even in the impingement range, in which the top-
drops off, the oxygen supply will be shut off and the next
Attaining of tight analysis tolerances
blown O2 hits the bath surface.
process step will begin.
Better yield chromium
0.20
10
In summary, stainless steelmaking by means of a VOD plant
0.35
0.15
0.10
Carbon Level [%]
Pressure
mitting the desired insulation effect during casting.
The lance is only used during the first decarburization steps
0.40
Pressure [mbar]
S T A I N L E S S
Oxygen for VOD-Plants
technologies currently in use in the stainless steel industry
2 Liq.
40
CS
2100
S T E E L
180
SiO2
of chromium loss
0.05
1
0
10
20
30
40
0.00
60
50
Time [min]
Fig. 37: Typical VOD treatment pattern
VAI Technology News
VAI reference installationsthe AOD of POSCO and the
2. Final decarburization is continued by the natural forma-
Depending on the steel grades to be produced, stainless
K-OBM-S at ISCOR Pretoriaare also designed for mixed-
tion of CO developing from carbon and oxygen dissol-
steelmaking can be carried out in two different process
gas top blowing. The Picture below shows the 90-t AOD
ved in the melt. After termination of this natural decar-
routes. The DUPLEX process route (EAFConverterCCM)
during charging which was supplied by VAI to POSCO,
burization, an exact indication of the carbon level can be
will be used for the production of conventional stainless
Pohang, Korea.
given by the exhaust gas control and the desired carb-
steel. Requiring extremely low levels of carbon and nitrogen
on content of approx. .01 % can be reliably adjusted.
the Triplex route (EAF-Converter-VOD-CCM) is applied.
26
VAI Technology News
27
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Publication Date: August 1999
Spain

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VOEST-ALPINE Industrieanlagenbau

VAI TECHNOLOGY NEWS

VAI Steelmaking Technology

lities, such as oxy/fuel burner or oxy/gas burner, superso-

nic water-cooled oxy/carbon lances and postcombustion

systems gave the electric-arc-furnace processes a signifi-

News to you which will give you a survey of oxygen

technologies in the iron and steelmaking sector.

The Use of Oxygen in Metallurgical Processes

The supply of great amounts of fossil energy essentially

increases the productivity of the unit. Moreover, quicker

the LD or basic oxygen steelmaking process. The LD con-

response to changed process conditions is ensured in this

verter was developed in Linz, where the first LD plant was

way. Advantageously lower demands are placed on the

started up in 1952. This was the place from where steel-

oxygen quality (95.5% purity).

making was totally revolutionized.

Basic Oxygen Processes

ble until tonnage oxygen was commercially produced and

is supplied to the iron and steelmaking industry worldwide.

oxygen was used in vacuum processes. This allowed char-

A large number of steelmaking processes became econo-

ging higher-carbon scrap and lower-cost ferroalloys (which

mically efficient only after oxygen was used more intensi-

resulted in a more general acceptance as well as the crea-

tion of new stainless steel applications worldwide).

During traditional converter operation oxygen with a purity

The increased use of oxygen in steelmaking was accompa-

of 99% plays a decisive role. A multitude of different con-

nied by a generation of new oxygen-generating plants

verter processes guarantee high adaptability to the specific

which are capable of separating oxygen from the air by

outline conditions and requirements. With supportive dyna-

means of pressure and vacuum swing absorption. These

mic process control the operational production process

generating plants will increasingly gain acceptance particu-

can be optimized via converter off-gas analysis while avoi-

larly in the electric-steelmaking sector.

Forsthuber Markus ****

ding overblowing of the heat.

The Dynamic Process ModelDYNACON

New Tasks of the LD Lance

The latest developments in LD lance technology allow

logies relating to oxygen, from oxygen generation and con-

additional injecting of dusts accumulated in the process

sumers up to off-gas management. Moreover, VAI is conti-

together with oxygen used as a carrier gas.

nuously investigating new solutions to allow even more

Economic Effect of Oxygen Input in the EAF

The Use of Oxygen in Stainless-Steel Production

Schnell Gnther ***

VAI Technology News

VAI Steel Production Technologies

VOEST-ALPINE STAHL Donawitz

Issue No. 31/August 1999

The original LD patent

VAI Technology News

Work on the EAF in the late 50s

Issue No. 31/August 1999

VAI Steelmaking Technology

The Use of Oxygen in Metallurgical Processes

Oxygen is employed in several different ways in steelma-