Attributes of a Profession

Author(s): ERNEST GREENWOOD

Source: Social Work, Vol. 2, No. 3 (JULY 1957), pp. 45-55
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23707630
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by ERNEST GREENWOOD

Attributesof a Profession
professions

The

occupy

on

importance

the

a position
of great
scene.1
In a

American

society such as ours, characterized by minute division of labor based upon technical
specialization, many important features of
are dependent
social organization
upon
functions.
Professional activprofessional
ity is coming to play a predominant role
in the life patterns of increasing numbers
of individuals
of both sexes, occupying
much of their waking moments, providing
life goals, determining behavior, and shapIt is no wonder, therefore,
ing personality.
that the phenomenon
of professionalism
has

an

become

of

object

observation

by

sociologists.2 The sociological approach to

professionalism is one that views a profesas

sion

an

organized

group

with

stantly interacting
forms

its

informal
Its

own

to

it

as

through

and

prerequisite
the
professional
classification
occupational
1

-,
i j
Bureau
Census
includes,

torney,

accountant,

natural
...
physician,

creates

among

its

at-

artist,

professor,
judge,

optometrist,
F
scientist,

of

States
,
,
the
others,

architect,

journalist,

scientist,
. ,
social

which

category
the United

college

clergyman,

engineer,

that

. .
,.
requiring
adjustments
for career
success.3

,
,
subculture

Within

tist,

con-

its social
performs
a network
of formal
and

relationships,
r

following:

is

which

matrix,

functions

which

the society

den-

librarian,

pharmacist,
F,
,
social
worker,

____________________
ERNEST

GREENWOOD,

at the School
of Social
_ , r
i'jornia.
The
Berkeley.7
William
A. Kornhauser,
the university,
the preparation

Ph.D.,

is associate

professor
Welfare, University
of Cal. j ta j
.4
*>
writer ts indebted
to Dr.

of
Sociology
Department
criticisms during
for his constructive
of this paper.

do

butes

teacher.4

and

surgeon,

these

What

professional

common

attri

occupations

pos

sess which distinguish them from the non

professional ones? After a careful canvass
of the sociological
literature on occupa
tions, this writer has been able to distill
five elements, upon which there appears to
be consensus among the students of the
subject, as constituting the distinguishing
attributes of a profession.5 Succinctly put,
all professions seem to possess: (1) systematic
theory, (2) authority, (3) community sanc
tion, (4) ethical codes, and (5) a culture,
The purpose of this article is to describe
attributes.

these

fully

Before launching into our description, a

preliminary word of caution is due. With

respect

to

each

of

the

above

attributes,

the

1 Talcott
3-Talcott
Professions
and
"The
Social
Parsons.
Social
Vol. 17 (May
Structure,"
Forces,
19391,
1939), PP.
pp.
457-467.
.
.

,
y

,
T .
2 Theodore
The
Sociology
of Work
Caplow,
Sociology
of Minnesota
Press, 1954).
(Minneapolis:
University
3 Oswald
2
Hall, "The
Career,"
Stages of a Medical
American
Vol.
53 (March
Journal
of Sociology,
of Medical
Careers,"
1948)< pp.
1948),
PP- 327-336;
"Types
American
Vol. 55 (November
Journal
of Sociology,

Research
in the
243-253;
m%
1949),
pp
pp.
"Sociolo|kal
"Sociological
Field of Medicine:
Ameri
Progress and Prospects,"
can Sociological
Vol.
16 (October
Review,
1951),
PP- 639-644.
pp.
4* U. S. Bureau
of the Census, 1950
7950 Census of
o/Pop
Pop
ulation:
and Indus
Classified Index of Occupations
tries (Washington,
D. C.:
c.: Government
Printing Of
fice, 1950).
s5 The writer

his debt to his former

acknowledges
students at the School of Social Welfare,
Welfare
University
st"<*en,tst
of California,
of his
who, as members
Berkeley,
.
.,
,
, , .
.
,
research
assisted
him in identifying
and
seminars,
the
literature
on
abstracting
sociological
occupa
tions.
the

Their

conscientious

formulation

presented

assistance
in

made

this paper.

JULY 1957

possible

45

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GREENWOOD:
true difference between a
professional and
a nonprofessional occupation is not a
qualitative

but

these

attributes

speaking,
sive
monopoly

of

a lesser

the

phenomena,

sionalism
clear-cut

professions;

is true

of most

social

of

profes-

be structured in terms of

classes.

in

must

we

Rather,

occupations
themselves
along

exclu-

a society
as
a continuum.6

think

end

of this continuum
are bunched
the
and
well-recognized
undisputed professions

(e.g., physician, attorney, professor, scientist); at the opposite end are bunched the
least skilled and least attractive
occupations (e.g., watchman,
farm
truckloader,
laborer,

maining

occupations,
than

prestigeful
than
the

the

the

possess

The

re-

and

less

but

more

boy).

former,

are

latter,

these two poles.

at

bus

less skilled

scrubwoman,

distributed

professional
to a maximum

pole

continuum

the

about to be described.
As we move away
front this pole, the occupations possess these
attributes to a decreasing degree. Thus, in
the less developed
professions, social work
these

them,

among

attributes

moderate

degree.
.

When

sess

attributes

so

appear

in

we reach the mid-

.
.
,
t
of the continuum,
region
the cienamong;
?
.
,
,
c
and
crafts
cal, sales,
occupations,
they occur
.
,
.,, ,
,
,
, .
,
m still lesser
while
at the unskilled
deeree;
?
,
p ,
.
,
end
of the continuum
the occupations
posare
keeps

these

virtually
this
the

mind,
pear

as

minimally
nonexistent.
If

concept

presentation
distortion
~

of

the
will

of
~

reality.

that
the

they
reader

continuum
less

likely

in
ap-

"

~~
I
classification
employed
by the
is precisely such a continuum.
The
of this classification
are: (a) profes
categories
professionals
and
technical
workers;
semiprofessional
and managers,
both farm and non
non(b) proprietors
farm, and officials; (c) clerical,
sales, and kindred
s8 The

occupational
U. S. Census Bureau

workers;

skilled

and forefore
workers,
(d) craftsmen,
and semiskilled
and
workers;
(e) operatives
and
unskilled,
laborers,
domestic
service,
(e)
workers.
of the Census, op. cit.).
(U. S. Bureau
men;

46

that the chief differ.

.
.
professional

,CC"^n

fessional

models

of a pro
involves

presumably

unusually

a
nonpro
eleent
of

Perfoance
complicated

mastery f which requires

aj^e t^ie
pianist,

hestm

The

se<*

senes

and
the

f Peri0^ sklIL.

referred

to

in

lengthy training,
this

connection

of a surgeon,

performances
or a research

operations,

physicist.

a concert
However,

some nonprofessional
occupations
actually
involve a higher order of skill than
many
For example, tool-and
professional ones.
de rnaking, diamond-cutting,
monument
engraving, or cabinet-making involve more
intricate operations
than school teaching,
or social

nursing,

work.

to focus

Therefore,

on 'be element of skill per se in

describing
'be

is

professions

'bbe
tbat

uniqueness.

crucial

to

miss

distinction

the

kernel

suPPorte<f

of

is this: the skills

a profession
flow from
of knowledge
by a fund

characterize

are

attributes

OF THEORY7

fessional

then-

bunched

the

degree

so

between

The occupations
of

,
between

of

distributing
At
one

BODY

R ^ oten contended
"nce

nonpro-

phenomenon

cannot

the

the

also possess them, but

As

degree.

Strictly

not

are

the

fessional occupations
to

one.

quantitative

SYSTEMATIC

and
that

has been organized into an internally con

called a
f theor- A
sistepnt system'
bodl
Pressions
underlying body of theory is
a
o abs*act
that de
ProPosl"ons
s7ustem
scribe
in
terms

&eneral.

the

classes

of

the Pressions

n?mena

phe

focus

of interest. comIPnsmS
serves
as a base
in terms
Theory
, . ,
I
.
,
.
P
..
,.
of which
the
rationalizes
his
professional
r
.
.
.
...
in concrete
situations.
operations
Acquisi
.r

c
r
i i -n
tion of the professional
skill requires
a prior
Qr

simultaifeous

derl

that

fession,

therefore,

occupation
virtually

mast
skiu

with
absent

of

thHe theorf

for
preparation
involves
considerable

un.
a

pro

pre
a feature
systeniatic
theory,
in ^
o the non
training

And
so treatises
are
written
professional.
on legal
musical
social
work
theory,

theory, '
,
.
V
,
,
me
f
Ot
Uie
j SO
ana
cxleory>
arama,
tneory
but
no
books
on
on
the
appear
theory
of
or
or brick
punch-pressing
pipe-fitting
laying.
t' The
discussed
relative
dictated

in which
the five attributes
are
does not reflect upon their
paper
The
order selected
has been
importance.
considerations.
by logical
sequence
in this

Social

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Work

of a Profession

Attributes
Because

of theory is so

understanding
to

skill,

professional
important
must
tion for a profession

an

be

for

becomes

for a profession.

inadequate
in

entation

occupation,

nonprofessional

be

can

theory

Oribest

achieved

through formal education in an academic

of the prosetting. Hence the appearance
fessional

more

school,
that

to

contrast
retical

of the

knowledge
to repair

learn

There

of

are,

moves

that

generalize

an

as

occupation

for

a groundwork

of

function

the

form

importance

of

activity

normally

of

in a nonprofessional
via
construction

theory

precipitates
not
encountered

occupation,

viz.,
research.

systematic

a
generate valid theory that will provide
resolid base for professional techniques
of the scientific
the application
quires
to

method
the

turn

in

Continued

profession.
scientific

the

is

method
the

reinforces
an

As

ality*

service-related

the

element

orientation,

antithesis of traditionalism.

rationality

critical,

in

the

s Parsons,

profession

a, opposed

toward

tude

op. cit.

of

problems

of

employment
nurtured
by
of

rationality

The

and

rationalis the

spirit of
a

encourages

atti-

to a reverential

theoretical

system.

It

lm-

formulation

time

The spirit
group self-criticism
Professional

controversy.

learn

and

to

evaluate

innovations

the

milieu

of

nonprofessional

evolution

of every
profession
researcher-theoretician

there
whose

role is that of scientific investigation

In

systematization.

that

and

technologi

a division of labor thereby

between

the

theory-oriented

and the practice-oriented person.

Witness
the physician who prefers to attach himself
to a medical research center rather than to
enter private practice.
This division may
also yield to cleavages with repercussions
How
upon intraprofessional relationships.
ever, if properly integrated, the division of
labor

an

produces

accelerated

expansion

1 die body of theory and a sprouting of

theoretical branches around which special
des

nucleate.

The

is

to

desirable

net

lengthen

effect
the

of such

devel

preparation

for entry into the pro

essl0n"
ate
co

theory
To

with

generates

the

emerges

deemed

ing importance.
The

the

opments

increas-

acquires

practice

as

theory

how

to be more valid.

cal professions9

professional status, apprenticeship training yields to formalized edubecause

to

evolves,

toward

cation,

to

theoretical

of free-lance professional pursuits (e.g., acting, painting, writing, composing, and the
is not
like) wherein academic preparation
in
these
even
Nevertheless,
mandatory.
fields various "schools" and "institutes" are
they may not be
although
appearing,
run along traditional academic lines. We
can

tions

In

number

matter

in theory. This produces an intellectually

stimulating milieu that is in marked con
occupation.

to learn

be,

may

any

no

system,

theoretical

trast

combustion

course,

and

to discard

readiness

members convene regularly in their associa

Theo-

than

automobile

it

uni-

to master

that

demonstrated
of rationality

is a

it is easier to

of the internal

the principles
engine.

school.

difficult

procedures;
an

not

the milieu

trade

is more

than operational

than

often

versity affiliated, wherein

of

portion
honored

preparaintellectual

On-theas well as a practical experience.

which
training
through
apprenticeship,
job
suffices

plies a perpetual

Thls
for Ae nse of In
aiccounts
on top of a basic
professional
training
e&e e ucatlon"

PROFESSIONAL

AUTHORITY

Extensive education
ory of his discipline

in the systematic the

imparts to the profes

that
a type
of knowledge
highlights
This
ignorance.
comparative
layman's
for the professional's
author
fact is the basis
features.
has some
interesting
ity, which
has
cus
A
occupation
nonprofessional
sional
the

"AA

whose
aim is to
is a profession
technology
in natural
controlled
changes
relationships.
between

technolo
makes f.
a distinction
Convention
and those who
materials
wjj0 shape nonhuman
gjsts
gists who
The
former are called
deal
with human
beings.
the latter practitioners.
engineers;
achieve

47

JULY 1957

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GREENWOOD:
has clitomers; a professional occupation
ents. What is the difference? A customer
determines what services and/or commodities he wants, and he shops around until
His freedom of decision
he finds diem.
rests upon the premise that he has the capacity to appraise his own needs and to
judge the potential of the service or of the
commodity to satisfy them. The infallibility of his decisions is epitomized in the
customer is always rightl"
"The
slogan:
In a professional relationship, however, the
professional dictates what is good or evil
for the client, who has no choice but to
accede to professional judgment.
Here the
he
is
because
lacks
the
that,
premise
requisite theoretical background, the client cannot diagnose his own needs or discriminate
among the range of possibilities for meeting them. Nor is the client considered able
to evaluate the caliber of the professional
service

receives.

he

In

nonprofessional

the customer can criticize the

occupation
of
the
commodity he has purchased,
quality
and

demand

even

refund.

client

The

lacks this same prerogative, having surrendered it to professional authority. This element of authority is one, although not the
sole, reason why a profession frowns on
a profession

If

advertising.

were

adver-

to

to

select

from

invests

authority
monopoly

of

pation
of
one

strives
its

monopoly.
The
client

the

judgment.
toward

derives

is

a sense

principal

air
source

service,
with

an

professionalization,
is
to
acquire
of security

assumption

authoritative

of

of
of

to live

vicariously.

the
the

use

the

relation

professional

In

the

case

of the

thera

peutic professions it is ideally preferred

that client-professional intercourse not over
flow the professional setting. Extraprofes
sional intercourse could be used by both
and

professional

in

manner

such

as to impair professional authority, with a

consequent diminution of the professional's
effectiveness.

Thus
a

occuthis
from

far we have

discussed

of

sional-community
we
now
turn.

SANCTION

professional
client's
faith

Every

that phase

which

authority
professional
in the client-professional
itself
Professional
however,
authority,

of authority.

that the relationship he is about to enter

contains
the potentials
for meeting his
needs.
The professional's authority, however, is not limitless; its function is confined
to those specific spheres within which the
This qualprofessional has been educated.
ity in professional authority Parsons calls

48

to

ship for the satisfaction of the sexual need,

the need to manipulate others, or the need

to professional

professional
When

aspirations

the professional's
The

forms

competing

subordination

client's

impulses

client

tise, it would, in effect, impute to the

potential client the discriminating capacity
The

Functional
functional specificity.10
speci
ficity carries the following implications for
the client-professional
relationship,
The professional cannot prescribe guides
for facets of the client's life where his theo
retical competence
does not apply.
To
venture such prescriptions is to invade a
province wherein he himself is a layman,
and, hence, to violate the authority of an
other professional group. The professional
must not use his position of authority to
exploit the client for purposes of personal
In any association of super
gratification.
of which the pro
ordination-subordination,
fessional-client
is a perfect
relationship
the
subordinate
memberhere,
specimen,
the clientcan
be maneuvered
into a de
role.
The
advan
pendent
psychological
tage which thereby accrues to the profes
sional could constitute a temptation
for
him.
The professional
must inhibit his

expresses

relationship,
has
profes

ramifications.

To

these

OF THE COMMUNITY

strives
to
profession
persuade
to
sanction
its
community
authority

the
within

certain spheres by conferring upon the pro

fession a series of powers and privileges,
Community approval of these powers and
privileges may be either informal or formal;
formal approval is that reinforced by the
community's police
lo Parsons,

cit.
parsons,op.
op. cit.

power,

Social

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Work

of a Profession

Attributes
its

Among
over

control
achieved

is

powers
its

through

the

profession's

centers.

This

training
an
accrediting

is

process

exercised by one of the associations within

the profession. By granting or withholding
accreditation, a profession can, ideally, reguits schools

late

as

to their

number,

convinces

sion

be

should
title

who

the

has

not

that

community
to

allowed

wear

been

conferred

no

one

professional
it by

an

accredited professional school. Anyone can

call himself a carpenter, locksmith, or
But a
metal-plater if he feels so qualified.
the
of
who
assumes
title
physician
person
or attorney without having earned it conan

becomes

ventionally

Secondly,

impostor.

the profession persuades the community to

institute in its behalf a licensing system
for screening

professional
receipt
granted

of

those

qualified

the

A sine qua non for the

skill.
license

the

to practice

is,

of

course,
Another

title.

professional

duly
pre-

before a
requisite may be an examination
board of inquiry whose personnel have
been
sion.

drawn
Police

from

the

power

ranks

enforces

the

of

the

profes-

licensing

system; persons practicing the professional

skill without a license are liable to punishment by public authority.12
Among the professional privileges, one
of

the

most

important

is

that

of

confiden-

"ToTo set up
up and run
no approval
ing requires
lug
but no school of social work could op
opassociation,
on Social
of the Council
erate long without approval
Work Education.
12 Many
also
have
occupations
nonprofessional
in their
in obtaining
succeeded
legislation
licensing
and
radio operators,
the plumbers,
Witness
behalf.
the sanctions
a few. However,
to mention
barbers,
practicing
person
against
applied
are much less severe
sional
occupation
occupation
when
a professional
case
occupation
involved.

nonprofesnonprofes
than is the
is

similarly

the

professional
encourages
volunteer
information
he

client

otherwise

to

would

not divulge.
The community regards this
as privileged communication,
shared solely
between client and professional, and pro
the

latter

from

legally

encroachments

To be sure,
upon such confidentiality.
only a select few of the professions, notably
medicine and law, enjoy this immunity.
Its very rarity makes it the ultimate in pro
fessionalization.
Another one of the pro
fessional privileges is a relative immunity
from

community

on
technical
judgment
for
professional
per
reached
within
by consensus

matters.

Standards

formance

are

the profession and are based on the existing

body of theory. The lay community is pre
sumed incapable
of comprehending
these
standards and, hence, of using them to
It is generally con
identify malpractice.
ceded

that

a professional's

above

constitute

the community
toward

monopoly

described
granted

to the professional

when

Therefore,

can

performance

be evaluated only by his peers,

The
powers and privileges

an

by

group,

strives
occupation
one
of its prime

status,

professional

is to acquire
this monopoly,
objectives
But this is difficult to achieve, because
counter

forces

within

strongly

the

profession's

the

community
claims
to

resist
author

ity. Through its associations the profession

wages an organized campaign to persuade
the community that it will benefit greatly
by granting the monopoly.
Specifically the
to prove:

seeks

profession

that

ance of the occupational

, ,
decorata school for floral decorat
florists'
from the national

facilitate efficient performance,

the

tects

location,

curriculum content, and caliber of instruccontrol is not to be

tion.
Comparable
found in a nonprofessional
occupation.11
The profession also acquires control over
is
into the profession.
This
admission
achieved via two routes. First, the profes-

To

tiality.

cialized
education;
.
,.
,
Als
education,
do
the

not,

.
in

perform

those

contrast

spe

who
*possess
,
to those
who

deliver

human

a superior
and
that
service,
need
is of sufficient
served
being

social
importance
1
f
performance,
REGULATIVE

to

hazards.

enjoyed
and
A

the

justify

OF

CODE

"The
monopoly
...
,f
clients
--V!S
with

that

the

skill requires

ETHICS
a

by

community

monopoly

superior

can

profession
is
be

, .
fraught

abused;

49

JULY 1957

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GREENWOOD:
powers and privileges can be used to protect vested interests against
the public
weal.13 The professional group could peg
the price of its services at an unreasonably
high level; it could restrict the numbers
entering the occupation to create a scarcity
of personnel; it could dilute the caliber of

synonymous use of the terms "professional"

and "ethical" when applied to occupational
behavior.
While the specifics of their ethical codes
vary among the professions, the essentials
are uniform.
These may be described in
and colleague
terms of client-professional

its

colleague

without

performance

aware-

community

ness; and it could frustrate forces within

the occupation
pushing for socially beneficial changes in practices.14
Were such
abuses to become conspicuous, widespread,
and permanent, the community would, of
revoke

course,

the

profession's

This

extreme measure is normally unnecesbecause

sary,
every profession has a built-in
code
which compels ethical beregulative
havior

on

The
mal

the

of

part

and

informal.

part

members.

its

The

social

formal

the

is

race, religion,

politics,

status.

sex,

nonprofessional

may

withhold his services on such grounds with

out, or with minor, censure; a professional
cannot.
Parsons calls this element in pro
fessional

ethical code is part for-

profession's

come, kinship,
and

monopoly,

relations.

Toward the client the professional must

assume an emotional neutrality.
He must
to
whoever
service
requests it, irre
provide
spective of the requesting client's age, in

tacts

universalism.

conduct

In

other

only in his extraoccupational

words,

the

can

con

to

relate

professional

others

code to which the professional

to
swears
usually
being admitted
upon
this
is
best
the
practice;
exemplified by
Oath of the medical profesHippocratic

on particularistic terms, i.e., as particular

at
with concrete personalities
individuals
tractive or unattractive to him. In his cli
ent contacts particularistic
considerations

sion.

The

which

nonetheless

written

mal

informal

prescriptions.
the

code

the

is
carries

unwritten
the

code,

are

out

of

of for-

tion

to

the

its ethical

the

professional-client

weight

Through
commitment

profession's

to

the

contrast

place.
element

to

the

also

Parsons
of

calls

atten

disinterestedness

in

relationship.18

In

the

nonprofessional,

proies

a matter of public
record, thereby insuring for itself the continued confidence of the community. With-

sional is motivated less by self-interest and

more by the impulse to perform maximally,
corollaries
of this service
The
behavior

out

such

orientation

not

retain

social

welfare

becomes

confidence

the

its

monopoly.
codes
are

regulative

occupations,
fessional.

characteristic
a

However,
more

it
ing;
overtones

certainly
and
These

more
account

all

code

professional

systematic,
more
possesses

explicit,
is

of

as well as pro-

nonprofessional

perhaps

oriented.15

could
profession
To
be sure,
self-

public
for the

and

is

bind-

altruistic
servicefrequent

13
Abraham
"Is Social
a Profes
ProfesWork
Flexner,
sion?
sion?"
m
in Proceedings
of the National
Conference
and
Corrections
of Charities
(Chicago:
1915), pp.
576-590.
576-590.
Robert

K.

Personality,"
Leadership
pp. 67-79.
"14 Merton,
is Flexner,

so

"Bureaucratic
and
Structure
Merton,
in Alvin
in
Gouldner,
ed., Studies
York:
& Brothers,
(New
Harper
1950),

"il

op. cit.
op. cit.

ss

Parsons,

op.

cit.

fessional

are
must,

maximum

sional

many.
under
all

caliber

can dilute

or service
modity
so
ent's
not
fee;

the quality

to

the

the

fit the

The

ethics

demand
.
equalitarian,
r

nonprofes

size

even

the

of

Other.

at

the

sacri

relation
colleague
that
is CO-Operative,
r
.
e
of
Members
supportive.

governing
behavior
ana

Any

in

advance

*by
racdce to colleagues
r

disseminated

is Parsons,
i

cli

Again,
to render

a profession share technical knowledge

each

pro
give

of his com

professional.
be prepared

must
professional
services
upon
request,
fice of personal
convenience.

the

one,
The

service.

his

For

circumstances,

theory

with
and

rcay

through

the

Social

Work

pro

op. cit.

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of a Profession

Attributes

associations.17

fessional

The

proprietary
toward
dis-

attitudes

and

quasi-secretive
and
invention
covery

in

prevalent

in-

the

dustrial and commercial world are out of

Also out of place
place in the professional.
is the blatant competition for clients which
is the norm in so many nonprofessional
pursuits. This is not to gainsay the existbut
ence of intraprofessional competition;
it is a highly regulated competition, diluted
with co-operative ingredients which impart
to it its characteristically restrained quality,
relations must be equalitarian;
Colleague
intraprofessional recognition should ideally
based

be

solely

in

performance

upon

prac-

tice and/or contribution to theory.18 Here,

too, particularistic considerations must not
be

allowed

sional

to

operate.
must

colleagues

Finally,
each
support

profesother

The
vis--vis clientele and community.
professional must refrain from acts which
jeopardize the authority of colleagues, and
must

sustain

those

whose

is

authority

threatened.19

code

constitute

case

in

study

social

con

trol. Self-discipline is achieved informally

and formally.
Informal
consists
of the
discipline
subtle and the not-so-subtle pressures that
exert

colleagues

example

in

nomenon

of

one

upon

consultation

An

another.

this connection

is the
and

phe-

referral.20

is the practice of inviting a

Consultation
to
colleague
participate in the appraisal of
the client's need and/or in the planning
of

the

service

the practice

to

client

colleague
"is Arlien

or

may

to

be

rendered.

Referral

of affording colleagues
an

appointment.
refer
his
client

Thus,
to

is

access
one

another,

Standards
and
"Professional
Johnson,
Are Attained,"
How
Journal
of American
They
Vol. 31 (September
Dental
Association,
1944), pp.
1181-1189.
is Flexner,
at'
op. cit.
!!
i
t.
v.
a
.
i ~u*ner'
do not
This
explains
why physicians
partly
suits.
suits,
each other in malpractice
testify against
doHall,
ao
cit.
Hall, op.
op. cit.

of

the

time

or

needed

skill

another

for

his

prevents
or he

service;

appointment

may
by

Since professional
prospective employer.
ethics precludes aggressive competition and
advertising, consultation and referral con
stitute the principal source of work to a
The
consultation-referral
professional.
custom involves professional colleagues in
a system of reciprocity which fosters mutual
facili
interdependence.
Interdependence
tates social control; chronic violation
of
arouses
re
professional etiquette
colleague
sentment, resulting in the cessation of con
sulfation

and

requests

referrals,

A more formal discipline

is exercised
by the professional associations, which pos
sess

the

and

in

to

power
extreme

criticize

or

to

cases

to

bar

censure,

recalcitrants,

Since membership in good standing in the

professional associations is a sine qua non
of professional success, the prospect of for

mal

force

The ways and means whereby a profes

sion enforces the observance of its ethical

lack

because
rendering
recommend

action

disciplinary
toward

as

operates

a potent

conformity.

THE PROFESSIONAL

CULTURE

Every profession operates through a net

work of formal and
informal groups.
the
formal
Among
groups, first there are
the organizations
through which the pro
fession

its

performs

sional

and

client

these

services;

the institutionalized
meet.

provide

setting where profes

of

Examples

such

are hospital, clinic, univer

organizations
law
office,
sity,
engineering firm, or social
Secondly, there are the organiza
agency.
tions

whose

functions

are

to

replenish

the

profession's supply of talent and to expand

its

fund

of

educational
the
among
which
tions

These
include
the
knowledge.
and
the research
centers.
Third

formal

groups
as an

emerge
consciousness-of-kind

growing
of the profession's
mote
so-called

members,
group

These

are

the

Within

and

around

tions extends

are

the

expression
on
and

interests

organiz
of the
the

which
and

part
pro
aims.

associations,
professional

j
i_
r
these
formal
organiza

a filigree of informal group

JULY 1957

51

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GREENWOOD:
ings: the multitude of small, closely knit
clusters of colleagues.
Membership in these
is
based
on
a
variety of affinities:
cliques
within
the
affiliaspecialties
profession;
tions with select professional
societies;
residential and work propinquity;
family,
and perreligious, or ethnic background;
sonality attractions.
The interactions of social roles required
by these formal and informal groups generate a social configuration unique to the
All
profession, viz., a professional culture.
occupations are characterized by formal and
informal groupings;
in this respect the
What is unique
professions are not unique.
is the culture thus begotten.
If one were
to single out the attribute that most effectively differentiates the professions from

the professional group of a service monoply

would inevitably produce social progress,
And then there is the value of rationality;
that is, the commitment to objectivity in
the realm of theory and technique.
By
virtue of this orientation,
nothing of a
theoretical or technical nature is regarded
as sacred and unchallengeable
simply be
cause it has a history of acceptance and use.
The norms of a professional group are
the guides to behavior in social situations,
an elaborate
Every profession
develops
There is
system of these role definitions.
a range of appropriate
behaviors for seek
into the profession,
for
ing admittance
gaining entry into its formal and informal
groups, and for progressing within the
There are appro
hierarchy.
occupation's

other

priate

talk
from

this
occupations,
of a professional
a
nonprofessional

is

it.

Thus

culture

we

as

can

distinct

culture.

Within

the professions as a logical class each profession develops its own subculture, a variant of the professional culture; the engineering
from
the

work.

subcultures

In the subsequent
we

ever,
fessions

will

treat

norms,
The

social

existence
which

the

the

Foremost

essential

community.
that
the service

impaired
of
cepts

of

the

proThe

group

is

welfare
by

its

absence.

professional
the
possess

service
to

extends

group
profession
social
good

would

these

among
of the

worth

professional
The

the

community

how-

discussion,

culture

fundamental
beliefs, the
premises upon which its very

rests.
is

social

of a professional

and

unquestioned
values

differs

phenonemon.
of its values,
consists

values

are its basic

also

the

as
a generic
of a profession
and
symbols.

culture

oly

for
example,
of medicine
and

subculture,

considers
and

that

be

immeasurably
The
twin
con-

authority
force
of a

and
group

monopvalue,

that in all serviceThus, the proposition

related matters the professional group is
infinitely wiser than the laity is regarded
as beyond argument.
Likewise
nonarguable is the proposition that acquisition
by

52

modes

of

securing
and

There

are

of

appointments,
of handling

referrals,

conducting
sultation.

of acquir

ways

proper

con

and dismissing
ing clients, of receiving
and treating them,
them, of questioning
of accepting and rejecting them.
There
are

correct

of

ways
a

recompensing

grooming
and

sponsor,

of
protg,
of relating

to peers, superiors, or subordinates.

are

even

ing
new

an

group-approved
outmoded
theory,

There

of challeng
ways
of introducing

and

an intra
of conducting
technique,
In
there
is
short,
professional
controversy.
a behavior
norm
standard
covering
every

situation
interpersonal
professional life.

likely

to recur

in

of a
are its mean
symbols
profession
items.
include
such
These
ing-laden
may
as:
its insignias,
and
dis
emblems,
things
The

tinctive
argot;

stereotypes
the
and

heroes
of

the

folklore,
history,
and
and
its villains;
professional,

the

and
its

client,

layman.

Comparatively
group

its

dress;
its

values,

clear
behavior

and
norms,

controlling
and
symbols,

which characterize the professions, are not

to be
encountered
in
nonprofessional
occupations.
Our discussion of the professional culture
would be incomplete
without brief men

Social

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Work

of a Profession

Attributes
of

tion
career

one

of

its

concept.

rule,

central

The
in

only

employed

of

the

reference

to

as

pro-

Thus, we do not talk

a bricklayer or of a
talk about the career
a clergyman.
At the

fessional occupation.
about the career of
mechanic; but we do
of an architect or of
heart

the

concepts,
career
is,

term

career

is

concept

certain

as

to

means

an

it

end;

the

is

the ill, educating

end

itself,

Hence

the

barking
upon
professional
to entering
lar in some
respects

order.

of

act

career

em

is simi

religious

same cannot be said of a non

The

professional occupation,
To succeed in his chosen profession, the
neophyte must make an effective adjust
to the

culture.24

professional

Mastery

underlying body of theory and

of the technical skills are in
acquisition
themselves insufficient guarantees of pro
The recruit must also
fessional success.
of

the

familiar

become

with

and

learn

to

weave

ad-

his way through the labyrinth of the pro

professional performs his services primarily for the psychic satisfactions and

formation of a neophyte into a profes

sional is essentially an acculturation process

Curing

science

vancing

are

the young,

life.23
a

ment

toward work which is peculiarly

A career is essentially
a
professional.
21
calling, a life devoted to "good works."
Professional work is never viewed solely
attitude

his

becomes

in

values

themselves,

fessional

The

for

secondarily

the

monetary

to

imparts

the

activity

professional

service

in

total

work life invades

and

the

sharp

work hours
_
To

pears.

the after-work life,

demarcation

and

,
the

involvement.

personal

The

the leisure

.
,
professional

the

between
.

hours

person

, .
his

disapwork

sumterm calling literally means a divine sum

to undertake
a course of action.
Originally,
The
it was employed
to refer to religious
activity.
to in
inReformation
widened
its meaning
Protestant
21-The

mons

didi
Henceforth
activity as well.
works"
were
to be both
"good
inspired
and sacred in nature.
then,
Presumably,
choice
be a response
to
any occupational
may
it is interest
interestIn this connection,
divine summons.
dude
clude

economic

vinely
secular

word for vocation

is
ing to note that the German
to
derived
from the verb berufen,
Beruf, a noun
call.
22
Johnson, op. cit.
22 The all-pervading
of work upon the
influence
results
in interesting
lives
of professionals
byby
tend to
of a profession
members
The
products.
the work setting
outside
with one another
associate
(Oswald
op.

cit.).

"The
Hall,
Stages of a
families
Their
mingle

Medical
socially;

Career,"
leisure

the

internalizes

trans

the

Therefore,

social

values,

the behavior norms, and the symbols of

In its frustra
the occupational
group.25
tions and rewards it is fundamentally no
different from the acculturation of an im
a

to

migrant

orientation and the element of disinterestedness.

the absorption
in
Furthermore,
the work is not partial, but complete; it
results

he

wherein

compensa-

Self-seeking motives feature miniin

the choice of a profession; of
mally
maximal importance is affinity for the work,
It is this devotion to the work itself which
tions.22

culture.

relatively

culture,

strange

Every profession entertains a stereotype of

'Ee ideal colleague;
and, of course, it is
who
is
one
thoroughly adjusted to
always
^

culture.26

professional

culturated

colleague
as

regarded

'

peculiar,

The

is a

poorly

deviant;

unorthodox,

ac

he

is
an

talk
social
is spent together:
together;
shop talk"

"shop
permeates
The
and a consensus
discours
discourse;
develops.
profes
nur
sion thus becomes a whole social environment,
social
and political
attitudes,
turing characteristic
do
and recreation,
and deco
of consumption
patterns
lime

rum

and

William

H.

op. cit.; and

(Caplow,
Social
an Occupational
Vol. 24,
of Social
Psychology,

Weltanschauung
Form, "Toward

Journal
Psychology,"
1946, pp. 85-99).
February
22 Oswald
2-
Career"
Hall, "The
Stages of a Medical
of Medical
and "Types
Careers,"
op. cit.
25 R. Clyde White, " 'Social
2
in Society':
'Sodal
Workers
Society":
Social
Work Journal, Vol.
Some Further Evidence,"

34 (October
1953), pp. 161-164.
26
28 The laity also entertain
a stereotypic
image of
to say, the lay
Needless
the professional
group.
and the professional's
man's conception
self-concep
because
tion diverge
they are fabricated
widely,
The
out of very different experiences.
layman's
of reality, be
a distortion
is frequently
stereotype
or a caricature
of the
ing either an idealization
professional

type.

53

JULY 1957

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

GREENWOOD:
and in extreme cases a "troubleWhereas the professional group
encourages innovation in theory and technique, it tends to discourage deviation from
noying,"
maker."

its social

values

and

In

norms.

this

internal

contradiction, however, the professional culture is no different from the larger culture
of

of the principal
functions of the
professional schools is to identify and screen
individuals
who are prospective deviants
from the professional culture. That is why
the admission of candidates to professional
education
must be judged on grounds in
addition to and other than their academic
qualifications.27
Psychic factors presaging
favorable
to the professional
adjustment
culture are granted an importance equivalent to mental abilities.
The professional
school
test
situations
provides
through
initial and graduated
of the
exposures
novice to the professional culture.
By his
behavior in these social situations involving colleagues, clients, and community, the
potential deviant soon reveals himself and
is immediately weeded out.
Comparable
with the psychic prerequipreoccupation
sites of occupational
adjustment is not characteristic of nonprofessional
occupations,
1MPLICATIONS

FOR

SOCIAL

WORK

The picture of the professions just unveiled

is an ideal type. In the construction of an
ideal type some exaggeration
of reality is
since the intent is to achieve
unavoidable,
coherent

internally

tion of the ideal

in

such

and

ized,

manner

dissimilar

that

discrete,

phenomena

thereby

One

picture.

func-

type is to structure reality

bringing

disparate,

become

order

out

organ-

of ap

is

the

utility

of

this

model

for

social

work?
n
27 Oswald
Field
54

Hall,
of Medicine:

"Sociological
and

Progress

Research

in

the

Prospects,"

op.

cit.

and

others

have

written

on

the

subject, proposing criteria which must be

met if social work is to acquire professional
Whenever

social

workers

convene,

there is the constant reaffirmation of the

from
urgency to achieve the recognition
the community befitting a profession. The
union of the seven separate organizations
into the National
Association
of Social
Workers is generally regarded as an im
portant milestone in social work history,
precisely because of its potential stimulus
toward professionalization.
In view of all this, it is
proper for social
workers to possess clear conceptions of that
which they so fervently seek.
The model
of the professions portrayed above should
contribute to such clarification; it should
illuminate the goal for which social workers
are striving.
It is often contended
that
social work is still far from
having attained
professional status.31 But this is a miscon
When we hold up social work
ception.
against the model of the professions pre
sented above, it does not take long to decide
whether to classify it within the profes
sionaJ or ^
nonpyrofessional occup?tions.
Social work is already a profession; it has
too many points of congruence
with the
model to be classifiable otherwise.
Social
work is, however, seeking to rise within
the

professional
monopoly

ew

which

that

it,

too,

prestige, authority,
presently

belong

to

professions,

28 Flexner,
op. cit.
"
20
at.
Johnson, op. cit.
30 Ernest
so
V. Hollis
Work

so

hierarchy,

might enjoy maximum

ancj

disorder.
We
now
a model
parent
possess
of a
that
is much
and
profession
sharper
clearer
than
the actuality
that confronts
us
,
,
i_
.i
when
we
observe
the
scene.
occupational
What

Taylor,30

status.

society.

One

an

The preoccupation
of social workers with
been a character
has
professionalization
istic feature of the social work scene for
and
Flexner,28 Johnson,29 Hollis
years.

Education

in

and
the

Alice

United

L. Taylor,
States (New

Social

York:
Columbia
Press, 1951).
University
31 Flexner
3i
considered
that the social work of his
Hollis and Taylor
day was not a profession.
regard
social
work as stillil in its early ado
present-day
lescence.

Social

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Work

Attributes
The
serve
pate

of a Profession

model
to

presented
sensitize
social

some

of

the

problems

above
workers
that

should
to

also
antici-

continued

professionalization must inevitably precipitate. The model indicates that progressive

professionalization will involve social workers in novel relationships with clients, colleagues, agency, community, and other professions. In concluding this paper we refer
It is no secret
briefly to one such problem.
that social workers are not all uniformly
enthusiastic about the professionalization
of social work. Bisno 32 has given verbalization to a prevailing apprehension
that
social workers might have to scuttle their
i ,.r-ii o - , t.7 .
..tj
c
32 Herbert . t>How Social
Soaal
Will Social
Work
Bisno, "How
Be?" Social
Work, Vol. 1, No. 2 (April
1956), pp.
12-18.
12-18.

social-action
the
sion.

public

heritage
acceptance

as a price
accorded
from

Extrapolation

the

of

achieving
a profes

sociologists'

model of the professions suggests a reality

basis for these fears. It suggests that the
attainment of professional prestige, author
ity, and monopoly by social workers will
undoubtedly
carry disturbing implications
for the social action and social reform com
The
ponents of social work philosophy.
anticipated developments will compel social
workers to rethink and redefine the societal
role of their profession,
These and other dilemmas flowing from
are bound to tax the
professionalization
best minds among social workers for their
resolution.
understanding

sion would

In

this
of

the

connection
attributes

a proper
^
r
of a
profes

seem to be indispensable.

55

JULY 1957

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