English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Words causing confusion

Less and fewer
Less refers to a quantity that cannot be counted. Fewer refers to a number that can be counted.
I am eating less butter.
We caught fewer fish.
There were fewer children in the class than expected.
We did less work today than yesterday.
The use of seat belts in cars has led to fewer fatalities.
Lie and lay
The verbs lie and lay are often confused.
To lie means to rest. Examples are:
I lie on the bed. (simple present)
I am lying on the bed. (present progressive)
I was lying on the bed. (past progressive)
I lay on the bed. (simple past)
I have lain on the bed. (present perfect)
To lie also means to not tell the truth. Examples are:
I lie. (simple present)
I am lying. (present progressive)
I was lying. (past progressive)
I lied. (simple past)
I have lied. (present perfect)
To lay means to put something down. Examples are:
I lay the book on the table. (simple present)
I am laying the book on the table. (present progressive)
I laid the book on the table. (past progressive)
I was laying the book on the table. (simple past)
I have laid the book on the table. (present perfect)
More examples are given below.
Alice says she has already laid the table.
The book was laid on the chest of drawers.
While lying in bed, I had an idea.
I would like to lie in the sun this morning.
Kind and kinds
The word kind is singular. It should be used with this or that to modify a singular noun. The word
kinds is plural. It should be used with these or those to modify plural nouns.
I like these kinds of apples. (NOT these kind of apples.)
That kind of coffee is not sold here. (NOT that kind of coffees)
Those are the kinds of days I like. (NOT Those are the kind of days )
This class of animal is rare.
Note that the same rule applies to other words sort, type and class.
Do you prefer this sort of meat pie? (NOT this sort of meat pies?)
These types of cars are very fast. (NOT These type of cars )

Words causing confusion

Compliment (noun) expression of approval, admiration etc.
Complement (noun) that which makes something complete
1/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

My compliments to your husband.

The party must consist of fifty people. Here are forty. We need ten more to reach our
complement.
Medal (noun) flat piece of metal given as an award or made to commemorate an event
Meddle (verb) interfere with others things
He won the gold medal.
Do not meddle with other peoples affairs.
Affect (verb) have an effect on
Effect (noun) result
Effect (verb) - bring about, cause to happen
The climate affected his health.
He was deeply affected by the sad news.
Mongooses are not so much affected by cobra-bites as men are.
The effect of cobra-bite on a man is often deadly.
The new principal effected many changes in the college.
Prophesy (verb) say what will happen in the future
Prophecy (noun) power of telling what will happen in the future
I prophesy that it will rain tomorrow.
Did you hear my prophecy that it would rain tomorrow?
Stationary (adjective) not moving or changing
Stationery (noun) - writing-materials
When an object isnt moving, it is stationary.
Articles like writing paper, pencils and pens are called stationery.
Dependant (noun) somebody who depends upon another for a home, food etc.
Dependent (adjective) depending
I have many dependants.
Kids are usually dependent on their parents till they can earn enough to support themselves.
Licence (noun) permission to do something
License (verb) give permission to
You must get a driving licence.
This shop is licensed to sell tobacco.
Disease (noun) illness of body, mind
Decease (noun) death
Cholera is a terrible disease.
The deceased means the dead people.
Difference (noun)
Deference (noun) respect
There is no difference between this and that.
He is very polite to his parents and treats them with great deference.
Assent (noun) give ones agreement to
Ascent (noun) way up
He gave his assent to the proposal.
The temple is at the top of the hill and the ascent is very steep.
Illicit (adjective) unlawful
Elicit (verb) get an answer from somebody
Liquor made without a licence is illicit.
I asked him many questions to elicit what had really happened.

2/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Words causing confusion

Eminent (adjective) distinguished
Imminent (adjective) likely to come or happen soon
People whose names are familiar to everyone are not necessarily eminent.
He is an eminent scholar.
The sky is heavily clouded, so rain seems imminent.
Illusion (noun) - false idea or belief
Allusion (noun) hint
It is an illusion to think that the sun moves across the sky.
He did not make a single allusion to the examination results in his speech.
W B Yeats makes several allusions to Indian mythology in his poems.
President (noun) head of a state or organization
Precedent (noun) taken as an example of or as a rule for what comes later
He is the President of the United States.
I will let you do this now, but dont take it as a precedent. I will not let you do this again.
Adverse (adjective) hostile
Averse (adjective) harbouring dislike to
The officer was not promoted because there was an adverse report against him.
He is not averse to violent methods.
Which cat is averse to fish?
Accelerate (verb) increase the speed
Expedite (verb) assist and hasten the progress of
He suddenly accelerated the car; it shot forward and soon disappeared from view.
All steps have been taken to expedite the formation of the new state.
Application (noun) the process of applying, enforcement
Implication (noun) meaning implied but not explicitly stated
The application of the tax measures will cause hardship to the middle class.
The implications of his statement are far-reaching.
Ancient (adjective) very old
Antique (adjective) old-fashioned
Some people harp on the ancient glory of Indian culture.
In the museum we have some remarkable relics of antique sculpture.
Apprehend (verb) grasp, get a hold on the meaning of a thing
Comprehend (verb) understand fully
I can apprehend the bare principles of the Theory of Relativity but I cannot comprehend the full
implications of that theory.
Amiable (adjective) lovable
Amicable (adjective) friendly
His amiable qualities endear him to everybody.
We have arrived at an amicable settlement of the dispute.
Adapt (verb) make something suitable to or for a purpose
Adopt (verb)
Success often depends on your ability to adapt yourself to changing circumstances.
The merchant who had no children of his own adopted John as his heir.
Avert (verb) turn away, ward off
Invert (verb) turn upside down
We must make every effort to avert a Third World War.
He inverted the bottle to show that there was not a drop left.
3/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Advise (verb)
Advice (noun)
I advised him to study law.
His advice was helpful.
Affection (noun) love
Affectation (noun) pretence
He has great affection for his mother.
I hate affectation in speech and manner.

Words causing confusion

Canvas (noun)
Canvass (verb) request votes
This tent is made of canvas.
The candidates have been vigorously canvassing the support of the voters.
Childlike (adjective) like a child
Childish (adjective) immature
He has a childlike simplicity about him.
His conduct is extremely immature.
Congenial (adjective) suitable, agreeable
Congenital (adjective) from birth
In congenial surroundings a childs mind develops very well.
His blindness is congenital.
Capture (verb) seize
Captivate (verb) fascinate
He was captured by his enemies.
He was captivated by her beauty.
Compliment (noun) expression of regard
Complement (adjective) that which completes
Please, convey my compliments to your brother.
The ship has its full complement of sailors.
Confident (adjective) sure
Confidential (adjective) - trusted, secret
I am confident of success this time.
I shall tell you something, but keep it confidential.
Comprehensive (adjective) exhaustive
Comprehensible (adjective) understandable
This book gives a comprehensive account of the whole of English grammar.
You must present your ideas in a lucid and comprehensible manner.
Confirm (verb) ratify
Conform (adjective) comply with
The decisions of the board were later confirmed by the minister.
This practice does not conform to the rules laid down by the committee.
Eligible (adjective) qualified
legible (adjective) readable
You are not eligible for the post.
Write legibly.
Facilitate (verb) make easy
Felicitate (verb) congratulate
Audio-visual aids will facilitate the teaching of science subjects.
4/32

English Vocabulary
We held a meeting

Hasham Raza

to felicitate the winners.

Graceful (adjective) full of grace
Gracious (adjective) full of kindness
She looked graceful.
The princess was very gracious and readily agreed to preside over the womens conference.
Industrial (adjective) pertaining to industry
Industrious (adjective) hard-working
Indias industrial development in recent years has been remarkable.
Industrious students should be encouraged and rewarded.
Ingenuous (adjective) - frank, open
Ingenious (adjective) clever
His ingenuous nature has made him popular.
He has made an ingenious device that can make sugar out of coal.

5/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Words confused owing to similar sound

Allowed (Verb): let somebody do something
Aloud (adverb): audibly
He allowed me to go.
She cried aloud for mercy.
Alter (verb): change, make or become different
Altar (noun): holy table in a church
You must alter the order of the words.
The priest bowed before the altar.
Bare (Adjective): not covered
Bear (Verb): tolerate
Bear (noun): an omnivorous four legged animal that has thick fur
As he had no shirt the sun burnt his bare skin.
I can't bear this pain.
A bear has thick fur
Birth (noun): event of being born
Berth (noun): bed on ship or train
What is your date of birth?
Can I reserve a berth in the train?
Bore (noun) something that bores
Bore (verb): make somebody uninterested
Boar (noun): a wild animal
He bored me with his silly jokes.
The boar is a brave wild animal.
Brake (noun): device that slows or stops a machine
Break (verb): separate something into pieces
See if you can break this stick?
You stop a car by applying the brake.
Counsel (noun): counsel means advice.
Council (noun): an assembly of people meeting regularly to advise or organize something.
People who give advice are called counsellors.
A council is a group of people met together on some business.
Current (noun): flow of water or air
Current (adjective): existing now
Currant (noun): small dried grapes
This river has strong current.
You must be aware of current events.
Fair (noun): gathering of stalls and amusements for public entertainment. An exhibition to promote
particular products.
Fair (adjective): light complexion
Fare (noun): the money a passenger on public transport has to pay
Her skin is fair, not dark.
How much is the railway fare?
Herd (noun): a large group of animals that live or are kept together.
Heard (verb): perceive with the ear
A herd of cattle
I heard him talking.
Hole (noun): cavity, aperture
Whole (adjective): entire, complete
6/32

English Vocabulary
There is a hole in my socks.
Rabbits live in holes.
She spent the whole night reading.
You have eaten a whole loaf.

Hasham Raza

Piece (noun): a portion separated from the whole

Peace (noun): freedom from war
Please give me a piece of paper.
Do you want war or peace?
Plane (noun): aircraft
Plain (noun): flat expanse of land
Plain (adjective): simple and ordinary
She had a plain face.
The Gangetic plain is very fertile.
Practice (noun): the doing of something repeatedly to improve one's skills
Practise (verb): do something repeatedly so as to become skilful
Practice makes man perfect.
You need to practise cricket regularly.
Prey (noun): animals hunted by other animals
Pray (verb): speak to God
What a tiger kills is its prey.
I pray that no tiger will ever catch me.
Principal (noun): the head of a school or college
Principal (adjective): the most important
Principle (noun): rules or beliefs governing one's personal behaviour
He is the principal of the college.
He is the principal player in the team.
To gamble is against my principle.
Sight (noun): faculty of seeing
Site (noun): place where something stands
A blind man has no sight.
I will build my house on this site.
Whether (conjunction): expresses a doubt or choice between alternatives
Weather (noun): the state of the atmosphere at a place and time
You are going to take this medicine whether you like it or not.
We had to cancel the trip because of bad weather.
In May the weather is hot.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Words confused owing to faulty pronunciation

Certain words cause confusion due to faulty pronunciation. A few of them are given below. Note that the
correct pronunciation is indicated by adding a well-known word in brackets which rhymes with the word
whose pronunciation is often confused.
Floor (noun) [door] - part of the building on which one walks
Flour (noun) [shower] - finely ground cereal grains
Flower (noun) [shower] - coloured part of plants
She sat on the floor.
Biscuit is made of wheat flour.
Weak (adjective) [leak] - not strong or fit
Week (noun) [leak] - a period of seven days
Wick (noun) [sick] - a string or piece of fabric that draws fuel to the flame in a candle or oil lamp
A candle needs a wick.
He was too weak to stand up.
There are fifty-two weeks in a year.
Heir (noun) [air] - legal inheritor of something
Hair (noun) [care] - fine flexible strands growing on the head or body
Hare (noun) [care] - a fast running animal that resembles a rabbit
He is the heir to the throne.
Hair grows on our heads
A hare looks like a big rabbit.
Wonder (noun) [plunder] - amazed admiration, something marvelous
Wander (verb) [yonder] - travel without destination, leave a fixed path
Gypsies wander over the country.
I wonder why I failed to pass.
Advice (noun) [nice] - recommendation about action
Advise (verb) [eyes] - offer advice
I am tired of listening to advice.
The doctor advised him to quit smoking.
Leave (verb) [deceive] - depart
Live (verb) [give] - reside in a particular place
I leave home for work at 9 o'clock.
My parents live abroad.
Quite (adverb) [white] - entirely
Quiet (adjective or noun) [diet] - peaceful, making little noise, free from trouble
You are quite right.
I would like to lead a quiet life.
A sick man needs a quiet room.
Price (noun) [nice] - cost of something bought or sold
Prize (noun) [eyes] - award for winner
What is the price of that bag?
She got this bag as a prize.
Lose (verb) [choose] - fail to win, have something taken away
Loose (verb) [goose] - free, not fastened
Loose (adjective) [goose] - not tight or fitting
You will lose your dog, if you don't tie it up.
When he loosed his dog it ran away.
This knot is loose and it will soon come undone.
8/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Taste (verb) [waste]

Test (verb) [nest]
The fish tasted awful.
He tested the food in the science laboratory.
Pore (noun) [door] - tiny openings in the skin through which sweat passes.
Pour (verb) [door]
Poor (adjective) [tour] - not rich
Many people in Africa are very poor.
He poured oil into the fire.
Holes in your skin are called pores.
Latter (adjective) [matter] - the second of two already named
Later (adverb) [waiter] - after a particular period of time
Letter (noun) [better]
A is tall, and B is short but the latter is stronger.
I will see you later.
The Post Office handles letters.
Bath (noun) [path]
Bathe (verb) [lathe]
We have a bath to clean our bodies.
We bathe to enjoy ourselves with no thought of cleanliness.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
9/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

English Vocabulary
List of irregular verbs
This is a list of the common irregular verbs in English. For a complete list of English irregular verbs, see
a good dictionary.
Infinitive
Simple past
Past participle
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awoke
awoken
be
was, were
been
bet
bet, betted
bet/betted
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten
bleed
bled
bled
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
build
built
built
burn
burnt/burned
burnt/burned
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamt/dreamed
dreamt/dreamed
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forget
forgot
forgotten
forgive
forgave
forgiven
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got
give
gave
given
go
went
gone/been
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung
hung
10/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

have
hear
hide
hit
hold
hurt
keep
know
lay
lead
lean
learn
leave
lend
let
lie
light
lose
make
mean
meet
pay
put
read
ride
ring
rise
run
say
see
sell
send
set
shake
shine
shoot
show
shut
sing
sink
sit
sleep
smell
speak
speed
spell
spend
spill
spin
spit

had
heard
hid
hit
held
hurt
kept
knew
laid
led
leant/leaned
learnt/learned
left
lent
let
lay
lit/lighted
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
read
rode
rang
rose
ran
said
saw
sold
sent
set
shook
shone
shot
showed
shut
sang
sank
sat
slept
smelt/smelled
spoke
sped
spelt/spelled
spent
spilt/spilled
span/spun
spat

had
heard
hidden
hit
held
hurt
kept
known
laid
led
leant/leaned
learnt/learned
left
lent
let
lain
lit/lighted
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
read
ridden
rung
risen
run
said
seen
sold
sent
set
shaken
shone
shot
shown
shut
sung
sunk
sat
slept
smelt/smelled
spoken
sped
spelt/spelled
spent
spilt/spilled
spun
spat
11/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

split
spoil
stand
steal
stick
strike
swing
swim
take
teach
tear
tell
think
throw
understand
wake
wear
win
wind
write

split
spoilt/spoiled
stood
stole
stuck
struck
swung
swam
took
taught
tore
told
thought
threw
understood
woke
wore
won
wound
wrote

split
spoilt/spoiled
stood
stolen
stuck
struck
swung
swum
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrown
understood
woken
worn
won
wound
written

Note the following differences between British and American English.

1. burn, dream, lean, learn, smell, spell, spill and spoil are all regular in American English. In British
English, irregular past tenses and participles with t are more common.
2. wake can be regular in American English.
3. quit and wet are regular in British English, but irregular in American English; fit is also usually
irregular in American English.
GB: quit, quitted, quitted
US: quit, quit, quit
GB: wet, wetted, wetted
US: wet, wet, wet
US: fit, fit, fit
4. dive is regular in British English, but can be irregular in American English.
GB: dive, dived, dived
US: dive, dove, dived
5. In American English, the past participle of get is got or gotten.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
12/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Verbs that are easily confused

Infinitive
fall
feel
fill
find
found
flow
fly
lay
lie
lie
leave
live
raise
rise
strike
stroke
wind
wound

Simple past
fell
felt
filled
found
founded
flowed
flew
laid
lay
lied
left
lived
raised
rose
struck
stroked
wound
wounded

Past participle
fallen
felt
filled
found
founded
flowed
flown
laid
lain
lied
left
lived
raised
risen
struck
stroked
wound
wounded

Notes
find get back something
found start up an organization or institution
flow (of a liquid) move
fly move in the air
lay put down flat
lie be down
lie say things that are not true
raise put up
rise go/get up
strike hit
stroke pass the hand gently over
wind turn, tighten a spring etc.
wound injure in a battle
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
13/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

One word substitutes

Egoist (also Egotist): a person who is selfish, self absorbed and self centered
Epitaph: inscription on a tombstone
Fatalist: one who believes in the philosophical doctrine of fatalism
Aristocracy: people of noble families or the highest social class. Also, government of a country by a
small group of people, especially hereditary nobility
Atheist: a person who does not believe in God or deities
Amphibian: a land animal that breeds in water
Ambiguity: an expression or statement that has more than one meaning
Autobiography: an account of somebody's life written by that person
Biography: an account of somebody's life written by another person
Cannibal: somebody who eats human flesh
Mercenary: somebody who works or serves only for personal profit. Also, a professional soldier paid to
fight for an army other than that of his or her country
Misogynist: a person who hates women
Misogamist: a person who does not believe in the institution of marriage
Soporific: a drug or other substance that induces sleep
Omniscient: a person who knows everything
Omnivorous: an animal or a human being that eats any kind of food
Omnipotent: a person who has power over all
Panacea: a supposed cure for all diseases or problems
Parasite: a person supported by another and giving him/her nothing in return
Impervious: a person who remains unmoved and unaffected by other people's opinions, arguments or
suggestions
Illiterate: a person who cannot read or write
Infallible: incapable of making a mistake
Infanticide: the killing of an infant
Honorary: holding an office awarded as an honour and receiving no payment for services provided in
that office
Idolatry: the worship of idols or false gods
Inflammable: something that is quickly and easily set on fire and burned

One word substitutes

Epicure: somebody who is dedicated to sensual pleasure and luxury
Epidemic: an outbreak of a disease that spreads among a group of people quickly and extensively
Fanatic: somebody who has extreme and sometimes irrational enthusiasms or beliefs, especially in
religion or politics
Feminist: a believer in women's rights
Herbivorous: an animal that eats only grass or other plants
Fratricide: the crime in which somebody kills his or her own brother
Matricide: the act of murdering one's own mother
Patricide: the act of murdering one's own father
Convalescence: the gradual return to good health after a period or illness or medical treatment
Endemic: a disease that occurs within a specified area, region or locale
Anarchist: a person who rejects the need for a system of government in society and proposes its
abolition
Ambidextrous: a person who is able to use both hands with equal skill
Alimony: financial support to ex-wife
Amateur: a person who does something for pleasure rather than for pay
14/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Aborigines: original inhabitants of a place

Circumlocution: the indirect way of saying something
Arbitrator: somebody designated to hear both sides of a dispute and make a judgment
Autocracy: rule by one person who holds unlimited power
Edible: fit for eating
Potable: fit for drinking
Belligerents: nations engaged in war
Fastidious: a person who is concerned that even the smallest details should be just right
Somnambulism: sleepwalking
Stoic: a person who is unaffected by emotions
Theist: a person who believes in the existence of God
Transparent: a substance that allows light to pass through with little or no interruption so that objects
on the other side can be clearly seen
Verbatim: corresponding word for word translation
Prosecute: take legal action against somebody
Pugnacity: inclined to fight or be aggressive
Valetudinarian: somebody who is excessively concerned with his or her own health
Widower: a man whose wife has died
Widow: a woman whose husband has died
Polygamy: the custom of having more than one spouse at the same time
Polyandry: the custom of having more than one husband at the same time
Triennial: taking place once every three years
Usurer: somebody who loans money to other people and charges them exorbitant or unlawful interest
on it
Usurper: a person who seize something without the right to do so
Philanthropist: a person who helps others, especially those who are poor and in trouble
Plutocracy: the rule of a society by its wealthiest people
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
15/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Synonyms
Synonyms are words of the same grammatical class (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) that have similar
meaning. No word means exactly the same as any other word and, therefore, there are no exact
synonyms in English.
Certain words may convey the same general notion, e.g. slay, kill, murder, execute and slaughter.
Though they are used in different senses and in different contexts, they may be treated as synonyms.
Read the examples given below.
He was slain on the battlefield.
He was killed in action.
The robbers killed him and looted his property.
He was murdered in cold blood.
The criminal was executed.
The sheep were all slaughtered.
A list of synonyms is given below. No such list, of course, can be comprehensive. Students
may refer to Rogerts Thesaurus for a further list of synonyms.
abbreviate abridge, shorten
abstain refrain
absurd ridiculous
accomplish achieve, perform
adversity calamity, misfortune
adversary opponent, enemy
alteration change
amusement diversion, recreation
anger ire, wrath, rage
ascend rise, soar, climb
authentic genuine
autocrat despot, tyrant
avaricious greedy
aversion dislike, antipathy
bias prejudice
blend mix, mingle
bondage slavery
brave courageous, bold
brief concise, short
brisk vigorous
cause reason
check restrain, stop, curb
command order
compel coerce, force
competition rivalry
comprehend understand, grasp
confer grant
confess admit
confuse confound, perplex
conscious aware
contemplate meditate
contrary opposite
couple pair, brace

courteous polite, civil

degeneration deterioration
deplorable regrettable, lamentable
despise scorn, disdain
deny refuse
dexterous clever, skilful
dismal gloomy
divide part, separate
dizzy giddy, dazed, unsteady
eccentric peculiar, odd
efficient able, competent
emphasise stress
endure suffer, tolerate
energy force, vigour
enormous huge, immense
error mistake, blunder
eternal timeless, perpetual
famous celebrated, renowned
feeble weak, infirm
felicity happiness, bliss
ferocious fierce, savage
flashy showy, gaudy
foolish silly, stupid
frailty weakness, failing, foible
frank candid, open
List of Synonyms
general universal
gentle tender, mild, kind
gigantic huge, stupendous
giggle laugh, titter
grave sober, serious
grief sorrow, pain, agony
16/32

English Vocabulary

guard- defend, protect

habit custom, practice
hasty rash
hazardous risky
heave lift, raise
hideous repulsive, ugly
hinder obstruct, prevent
holy sacred
humble meek
idle lazy, indolent
illegal unlawful, lawless
impudent impertinent, insolent
incite instigate, provoke
include comprise
increase enlarge, augment
irritation vexation, annoyance
jealous envious
jeer mock, sneer
just fair, impartial
juvenile youthful
keen sharp
keeper custodian
kind benevolent
king monarch, ruler
labour work, toil

Hasham Raza

laconic brief, concise

latent dormant, hidden
lax loose, negligent, careless
learning knowledge, scholarship
lenient tolerant, gentle, mild
liberal generous
liberty freedom, independence
lie falsehood
loyal faithful, true
mad insane
magnificent splendid, stately
magnify exaggerate, glorify
malady illness, disease
marvel miracle, wonder
miserly stingy, closefisted, niggardly
misery suffering, tribulation
modest bashful, unassuming
mourn lament
nave artless, simple
nasty filthy, dirty
need necessity
noble lofty, illustrious
norm standard
novice beginner

List of Synonyms
obscene filthy, indecent
observe watch, remark
obstacle hindrance
obstinate stubborn
obvious clear, evident
occurrence event, happening
odd strange, peculiar
opportunity occasion
option choice
pardon forgive, excuse
permit allow
pious devout, godly, religious
precise exact
premature hasty
proficient adept, expert
profuse lavish, extravagant
progeny offspring, descendants
project plan, scheme
prudent discreet, wise, sagacious
quake shake
queer strange, eccentric

quest search
quit leave, depart
quiver tremble, shiver
rare scarce, infrequent
recover regain, retrieve
remember recollect, recall
reserved reticent
respect esteem, regard
restraint restriction, curb
revenge vengeance, retribution
reverence veneration
rude impolite, discourteous
savage barbarous, cruel
scold rebuke, reprove, reprimand, censure
secret hidden
sense meaning, import
severe stern, strict
shy bashful, coy
slander defamation
sly crafty, cunning
solitary lonely
17/32

English Vocabulary

superfluous unnecessary, needless

sympathy compassion, fellow-feeling
tacit silent, unspoken
teach instruct, educate
tedious tiresome
tender soft, delicate
thin slender, lean
thrifty frugal, economical
thrive prosper, flourish
timid shy, diffident
tradition custom, convention

Hasham Raza

transparent clear, lucid

ubiquitous omnipotent
ultimate final, last
usual common, ordinary
vacant empty, void
vanquish conquer, defeat
venom poison
vulgar coarse, indecent
winsome charming, attractive
wizard magician
zeal enthusiasm

18/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same grammatical class that have opposite meanings.
A list of antonyms is given below. For a comprehensive list, consult a good thesaurus.
above below, beneath
abstract concrete
accept reject
acquit condemn
advance retreat
affirm deny
affluence poverty
aggravate alleviate, lessen
agree differ
allow forbid
analysis synthesis
ancestor descendant
ancient modern
aristocrat commoner
arrive depart
ascent descent
assent dissent
asset liability
attract repel
awake asleep
barren fertile
base noble
beautiful ugly
belief doubt
benediction malediction
benevolent malevolent
bold timid
boom slump
bravery cowardice

bright dim, dull

carnal spiritual
centrifugal centripetal
cheap dear, costly
cheerful gloomy
clean dirty
clever stupid
common rare
compulsory optional
concord discord
confident diffident
create destroy
dark light
dawn dusk
debtor creditor
deep shallow
defensive offensive
deliberate unintentional, accidental
diligent crazy
dilute concentrated
dwarf giant
elevation depression
exclude include
exit entrance
exotic indigenous
expand contract
explicit implicit
external internal
extravagant frugal, thrifty

List of Antonyms
famous obscure
fast loose, slow
fat lean, thin
fictitious real
forget remember
frequent rare
fresh stale
friendly hostile
full empty
gain loss
gather scatter
general particular, special
generous mean

gradual abrupt, sudden

guilty innocent
harsh gentle
hasty leisurely
hate love
haughty meek
heavy light
high low
hit miss
hollow solid
honour shame
hope despair
host- guest
19/32

English Vocabulary

hurt heal
ideal actual
idle busy
imagination reality
increase decrease
industrious indolent, lazy
inferior superior
inhale exhale
input output
joy sorrow
junior senior
kind cruel
kindle extinguish
knowledge ignorance
lament rejoice
later earlier
latter former

Hasham Raza

lead follow
lend borrow
let hire
liberate enslave
literal figurative
loose tight
lose find
major minor
many few
masculine feminine
material spiritual
maximum minimum
memory oblivion
mild severe, stern
miser spendthrift
monogamy polygamy
monotony variety, diversity

List of Antonyms
nave sophisticated
narrow broad
native foreign
natural artificial
negative positive
neutral partial
observe reverse
odd even
offer refuse
often seldom
omission commission
optimistic pessimistic
oral written
oriental occidental
original duplicate, copy
ostensible actual
partly wholly
permanent temporary
permit prohibit
pleasure pain
practice theory
pragmatic idealistic
praise blame
precede succeed
pride humility
profit loss
progress regress
progressive retrograde
promote demote
public private

quiet noisy
queer normal
rash cautious, careful
rapid slow, leisurely
recede advance
relative absolute
reluctant ready, willing
reserved sociable
resist submit
retail wholesale
reward punish
rigid flexible
ripe raw
rise fall, set
rough smooth
rude polite
List of Antonyms
sacred secular, profane
safe risky, dangerous
saint sinner
servant master
sharp blunt
simple complex, complicated
sink - swim, float
smile frown
sober drunk, rash
solid liquid
straight crooked, curved
strait broad
strange familiar
20/32

English Vocabulary

subjective objective
succeed fail
sure doubtful
sweet bitter, sour
sympathy antipathy
tall short
tense relaxed
terrestrial celestial
thick thin
tight loose, slack
top bottom
tranquil disturbed, agitated
transparent opaque
triumph defeat
trivial important
true false
unite separate
.

Hasham Raza

upper lower
upright dishonest
urban rural
urbane rude, uncultured
vacant occupied
vague clear, definite
vertical horizontal
victory defeat
virtue vice
voluntary compulsory
wake sleep
wax wane
wealth poverty
wide narrow
win lose
wise foolish
zenith nadir

.
.
.
.
21/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Vocabulary
Euphemisms
Euphemisms are often used in speech to gloss over unpleasant facts. When writing it is better to be more
direct.
In the examples given below, euphemisms are written in bold letters. All these sentences can be
rewritten using another word instead of the euphemism.
Old Tom is pushing up the daisies. (Old Tom is dead.)
The boy next door is a little careless of the truth. (The boy next door is a liar.)
Aunt Martha has become hard of hearing lately. (Aunt Martha has become deaf lately.)
The boys like to bend the elbow after playing rugby. (The boys like to drink after playing
rugby.)
My uncle was under the weather when he came home. (My uncle was drunk when he came
home.)
My grandmother passed away last week. (My grandmother died last week.)
My father is becoming thin on top. (My father is becoming bald.)
The woman next door has just had a visit from the stork. (The woman next door has just had a
baby.)
Linda has become overweight because she eats too much. (Linda has become fat because she
eats too much.)

Singular nouns with plural verbs

Groups of people
In British English, singular nouns like family, government, jury, team, committee, which refer to groups
of people, can be used with either singular or plural verbs and pronouns.
The team is/are going to win.
Plural forms are common when the group is being regarded as a collection of people doing personal
things; and in these cases we use who, not which, as a relative pronoun. Singular forms are common
when the whole group is being thought of as an impersonal unit. Note that in these cases, we use which
as a relative pronoun.
The committee has announced its decision. (The committee is regarded as an impersonal unit.)
The committee are divided on this issue. (The committee is regarded as a group of individuals.)
The average Indian family has 4.2 members. It is small and richer than 20 years ago.
My family have decided to move to Mumbai.
When a collective noun is used with a singular determiner (e.g. a/an, each, every, this, that),
singular verbs and pronouns are common.
The team are full of enthusiasm.
A team which is full of enthusiasm has a better chance of winning. (More natural than A team
who are full of )
Examples of collective nouns which can be used with both singular and plural verbs in British English
are: bank, family, party, mob, crowd, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, nation, committee, government,
firm, public, choir, school, class, jury, staff, club, ministry, union etc.
In American English, a collective noun is almost always treated as singular. Note that family is an
exception to this rule. It can have a plural verb. Americans often use plural pronouns to refer to
collective nouns.
The team is full of confidence. They are going to win.
Plural expressions with singular verbs
When we talk about amounts and quantities we usually use singular determiners, verbs and pronouns,
even if the noun is plural.
22/32

English Vocabulary
Where is that ten pounds I lent you? (NOT Where are
Twenty miles is a long way to walk.
Six months was a long time to be away.
Fifty dollars is too much to lose.

Hasham Raza

those ten pounds I lent you?)

Two singular nouns joined by or takes a singular verb.

Petrol or kerosene is used.
Jam or butter was not available to the prisoners.
When a singular noun and a plural noun is joined by or, the verb agrees with the nearest noun. Note that
in these cases, it would be better to use the plural noun second; then a plural verb must be used.
Bullets or a bomb is not allowed on the plane.
A melon or grapes are suitable.

Singular indefinite person

They/them/their is often used to refer to a singular indefinite person who has already been mentioned.
This is common after each, every, either, neither, someone/somebody, anyone/anybody, nobody/none,
whoever, and no.
If any of your friends is interested, tell them to contact me.
If anybody calls, take their name and address.
Somebody left their umbrella behind yesterday.
Nobody came, did they?
This use of they/them/their is convenient when the sex of the person referred to is unknown.

Prepositional phrases
Following is a list of idiomatic prepositional phrases and examples. Always use these prepositional
phrases as units; don't substitute other prepositions.
accuse somebody of something
She accused me of stealing her purse.
acquainted with
Peter is acquainted with my cousin John.
afraid of
I am afraid of cockroaches.
agree on (a plan)
They finally agreed on a plan.
agree to (someone else's proposal)
Did Betty agree to their demands?
angry with (sometimes at) a person for doing something
She was angry with him for lying to her.
angry at/about (a thing)
The commuters are angry about the fare hike.
anxious about (=worried about)
I am getting anxious about money.
anxious for (=eager to have)
We are all anxious for an end to this misunderstanding.
approve of
Did she approve of the vacation plan?
arrive at/in
What time do we arrive at Tokyo?
23/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

bad at
She is very bad at cooking.
belong on/in (= go, fit, have its place in/on)
Those glasses belong on the top shelf.
belong to (= be a member of)
I belong to a local athletics club.
congratulate/congratulations on something
I must congratulate you on your exam results.
contrast with
The red shirt contrasts with the pink pants.
convenient for
Is Monday convenient for you?
.

Meals
People use different names for meals.
British usage
Midday meal: dinner or lunch
The midday meal is called dinner by most people. This is especially common if it is the main meal of
the day. Middle and upper class people usually call it lunch.
Afternoon: tea
Some people usually have a light meal of tea and biscuits or cakes at four or five in the afternoon. This
meal is usually called tea.
Early evening: high tea or supper
Many people have a cooked meal around five or six o clock. This is often called tea or high tea. Some
people call it supper.
Later evening: supper or dinner
A meal later in the evening is often called supper. Some people use dinner for the evening meal if it is
the main meal of the day.
American usage
Americans use lunch for the midday meal and dinner for the evening meals.

Nouns and adjectives referring to nations and people

In order to refer to a nation and its affairs it is usually necessary to know four words:
1. the name of the country or the region (e.g. France, England, America, India)
2. the adjective (e.g. French, English, American, Indian)
3. the singular noun used for a person from the country (e.g. a Frenchman/woman, an
Englishman/woman, an American, an Indian)
4. the plural expression used for the population as a whole (e.g. the French, the English, the Americans,
the Indians)
See the following table for details.
Country/region
Adjective
Person
Population
America
American
an American
the Americans
Belgium
Belgian
a Belgian
the Belgians
Brazil
Brazilian
a Brazilian
the Brazilians
Europe
European
a European
the Europeans
Italy
Italian
an Italian
the Italians
India
Indian
an Indian
the Indians
Kenya
Kenyan
a Kenyan
the Kenyans
Morocco
Moroccan
a Moroccan
the Moroccans
24/32

English Vocabulary

Norway
Greece
Iraq
Israel
Thailand
China
Japan
Portugal
Switzerland
Britain
England
France
Ireland
Spain
The Holland
Wales
Denmark
Finland
Poland
Scotland
Sweden
Turkey

Hasham Raza

Norwegian
Greek
Iraqi
Israeli
Thai
Chinese
Japanese
Portuguese
Swiss
British
English
French
Irish
Spanish
Dutch
Welsh
Danish
Finnish
Polish
Scottish, Scotch
Swedish
Turkish

a Norwegian
a Greek
an Iraqi
an Israeli
a Thai
a Chinese
a Japanese
a Portuguese
a Swiss
a British person (Briton)
an Englishman/woman
a Frenchman/woman
an Irishman/woman
a Spaniard
a Dutchman/woman
a Welshman/woman
a Dane
a Finn
a Pole
a Scot
a Swede
a Turk

the Norwegians
the Greeks
the Iraqis
the Israelis
the Thais
the Chinese
the Japanese
the Portuguese
the Swiss
the British
the English
the French
the Irish
the Spanish
the Dutch
the Welsh
the Danes
the Finns
the Poles
the Scots
the Swedes
the Turks

Notes
The Scots prefer the adjective Scottish, but other people often use Scotch.
Most British people call themselves Scottish, Welsh, Irish or English. The word Briton is common in
newspaper headlines. Brit is also sometimes used to refer to British people.

25/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part I

Idioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of
idioms derived from the parts of the body.
Arm
Keep at arms length (If you keep somebody at arms length, you avoid being too friendly with that
person.)
He is very quarrelsome, so I keep him at arms length.
With open arms (with great affection and enthusiasm)
He welcomed his friends with open arms.
Back
Break the back of something (finish the hardest part of a work)
Since my colleagues had already broken the back of it, I could finish the work easily.
Put ones back into something (work at something with all ones energy)
You have to finish this work by tomorrow, so put your back into it.
Put someones back up (make a person angry)
His offensive manner put my back up.
With ones back against/to the wall (be forced to defend oneself in a difficult situation)
Since there was no one to help him, he had to fight alone with his back against/to the wall.
Be on somebodys back (keep asking someone to do something, or keep criticizing someone in a way
that annoys them)
He's still on my back about those ten pounds he lent me.
Behind somebody's back (if you do something behind someone's back, you do it without them
knowing)
I don't want to talk about it behind his back.
Stab somebody in the back (do something harmful to someone who trusted you)
He was stabbed in the back by people he thought were his friends.
Turn your back on somebody (refuse to help someone)
I appealed for help, but they turned their back on me.
Back to square one (If you are back to square one, you have to start working on something from the
beginning because your previous attempt failed.)
We thought everything was settled, but now they say they're not happy with the deal, so we're
back to square one again.

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part II

Idioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of
idioms derived from the parts of the body.
Brain
Be out of your brain (be very drunk)
When he reached home last night, he was out of his brain.
Get your brain in gear (make yourself start thinking clearly and effectively)
I have got an important meeting today, so I have to get my brain in gear.
Rack your brain/brains (think very hard, usually in order to remember something or to find a solution
to a problem)
I've been racking my brains but I still can't find a solution to this vexed problem.
Breast
Make a clean breast of it (confess a wrong doing)
At first he denied the offence, but later he decided to make a clean breast of it.
Cheek
26/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Cheek by jowl (very close together)

The children sat cheek by bowl in the packed hall.
Turn the other cheek (if you turn the other cheek, you dont get angry when someone attacks or insults
you)
Non-violence policy requires that you turn the other cheek, when someone hits you.
Tongue in cheek (if you say something tongue in cheek, what you have said is a joke, although it might
seem to be serious)
This book is a very engaging and at times tongue-in-cheek account of her brush with stardom.
Chest
Keep/play your cards close to your chest (not tell anyone what you plan to do)
You will never know what he is going to do next. He plays his cards close to his chest.
Get it off your chest (tell someone about something that has been worrying you)
If you have a problem, get it off your chest and you will feel better.
Chin
Keep your chin up (stay cheerful)
I was delighted to know that he was keeping his chin up despite all his difficulties.
Take it on the chin (be brave and not complain when bad things happen to you or people criticize you)
John took it all on the chin, though he was severely criticized by his boss.

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part III

Idioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of
idioms derived from the parts of the body.
Ear
Turn a deaf ear (refuse to listen to somebody or something)
He turned a deaf ear to our warning and thus got into trouble.
Grin/smile from ear to ear (look extremely happy)
His latest book is selling well and he is grinning from ear to ear.
Up to ones ears in (deeply involved in)
He is up to his ears in work/debt/trouble.
Elbow
Elbow ones way through (force ones way by using ones elbow)
The conference room was so crowded that I had to elbow my way through the crowd to reach my
seat.
Eye
Not bat an eye/eyelash/eyelid (not show any shock or surprise)
'So what did she say when you told her you were leaving?' 'She didn't bat an eyelid.'
Turn a blind eye (choose to ignore behaviour that you know is wrong)
I knew Peter was taking the money but I turned a blind eye because he was my nephew.
Keep an eye on (keep a watch on)
I decided to keep an eye on him because I found his way of working suspicious.
In the eyes of somebody (in somebodys judgment)
In my eyes he is a good and honest man.
Before/under ones very eyes (in ones presence)
These evil practices are happening before your own eyes and you are keeping silent.
Doesnt see eye to eye (If two people dont see eye to eye, they dont agree with each other.)
He's asked for a transfer because he doesn't see eye to eye with the new manager.
.
.
27/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part IV

Idioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of
idioms derived from the parts of the body.
Face
Put a brave face/front on something (behave in a way that makes people think you are happy when
you are not)
She's very ill but she's putting a brave front on it. (= She makes people believe that her illness
does not worry her.)
Put on a brave face/front
I was not feeling well. Nevertheless, I decided to put on a brave face/front.
In-your-face (shocking or annoying in a way that is difficult to ignore)
They ran an in-your-face campaign to promote the magazine.
Face up to (meet or accept challenges boldly)
I never thought that he would be able to face up to the difficult situation.
In the face of (in spite of)
He could achieve his goal in the face of great difficulties.
Lose face (do something that may affect your reputation)
He refused to admit his involvement in the scandal because he didn't want to lose face.
Face the music (accept criticism or punishment for something that you have done)
When it was discovered that he was the culprit, he chose to disappear rather than face the music.
Feet
Get cold feet (suddenly become too frightened to do something you had planned to do)
They were to get married last Sunday, but unfortunately John got cold feet at the last moment.
Drag your feet/heels (act in a slow and hesitant manner)
Peter wants to purchase a new car, but his father is dragging his feet.
I wonder why the government is dragging its feet over the abolition of job reservation based on
caste.
Keep your/both feet on the ground (not have your character spoilt by becoming famous or successful)
Success hasnt changed him he has kept his feet firmly on the ground.
Stand on ones own feet (become independent)
She has finally got a good job she can now stand on her own feet.
Think on your feet (think and react quickly)
You must be able to think on your feet if you are doing live stage shows.
Not let the grass grow under your feet (not waste time by delaying doing something)
Students, your exams are fast approaching you can hardly afford to let the grass grow under
your feet.
Have the world at your feet (become extremely successful and popular)
Her first film has just released, but the young actress already has the world at her feet.

28/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Words ending in ise and ize

Many English verbs can be spelt with either ise or ize. In American English ize is preferred in these
cases.
realize/realise (GB)
realize (US)
mechanize/mechanise (GB)
mechanize (US)
baptize/baptise (GB)
baptize (US)
Most words of two syllables, and some longer ones have ise in both British and American English.
Examples are:
surprise
exercise
advise
comprise
despise
compromise
improvise
supervise
televise
advertise
Notes
Capsize has ize in both British and American English.

Words ending in e
When a suffix beginning with a vowel (e.g. ing, -able, -ous) is added to a word that ends in e, we
usually drop the e.
make making
hope hoping
fame famous
note notable
Some words have two possible forms before able and age. Note that the form without e is more
common in most cases.
love loveable or lovable
like likeable or likable
move moveable or movable
When final e is not dropped
Final e is not dropped from words ending in ee, -oe, or ye.
agree agreeable
see seeing
dye dyeing
Final e is not dropped from words ending in a consonant + e.
definite definitely
complete completely
excite excitedly
excite excitement
Exceptions
Final e is dropped from words ending in ue.
29/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

true truly
argue argument
argue arguably
In words that end with ce and ge, we do not drop e before a or o.
replace replaceable
courage courageous
Judg(e)ment and acknowledg(e)ment can be spelt with or without the e after g.
.

Words ending in y
When we add a suffix to a word that ends in y, we usually change the
y to i.
hurry hurried
fury furious
merry merrily, merriment
marry marriage
easy easily, easier
busy business
happy happily, happiness
Generally nouns that end in y have plural forms in ies.
story stories
spy - spies
Verbs that end in y usually have third person singular forms in ies.
worry worries
hurry hurries
try tries
When we add a suffix beginning with i to a word ending in y, we do not change the y to i.
try - trying
baby babyish
The final y is not changed to i after a vowel letter.
buy buying
play playing, played
enjoy enjoyment
Exceptions
say said
pay paid
lay laid
We change ie to y before ing.
die dying
lie lying

Doubling final consonants

The final consonant of a word is sometimes doubled before adding
ed, -er, -est, -ing, -able, -y (or any ending that begins with a vowel).
stop stopped
sit sitting
big bigger

30/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

Which consonants are doubled?

We double the following letters.
b: rub rubbing
d: sad saddened, sadder, saddening
g: big bigger
l: travel travelling
m: slim slimming
n: win winning
p: stop stopped
r: prefer preferred
t: sit sitting
Notes
We only double consonants that come at the end of the word.
Compare:
hop hopping
hope hoping
fat fatter
late later
We only double the final consonant when the word ends in a vowel + consonant.
fat fatter
fast faster
bet betting
beat beating
We only double final consonants in stressed syllables. We do not double final consonants in longer
words that end in unstressed syllables.
up set up setting
visit visiting
be gin be ginning
open opening
In British English, we double l at the end of a word after one vowel letter, even in unstressed syllables.
travel travelling
equal equalled
In American English, words like this are normally spelt with one l: traveling

Spelling and pronunciation

In many English words, the spelling is different from the pronunciation. Here is a list of some difficult
words with their pronunciations. The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced.
Asp(i)rin
ev(e)ning
om(e)lette
bus(i)ness
ev(e)ry
rest(au)rant
choc(o)late
marri(a)ge
sev(e)ral
diff(e)rent
med(i)cine
comf(or)table
31/32

English Vocabulary

Hasham Raza

temp(e)rature
int(e)resting
us(u)ally
secret(a)ry
veg(e)table

Silent letters
The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced.
clim(b), com(b), dum(b)
mus(c)le
han(d)kerchief, san(d)wich, We(d)nesday
champa(g)ne, forei(g)n, si(g)n
bou(gh)t, cau(gh)t, ou(gh)t, thou(gh)t
dau(gh)ter, hei(gh)t, hi(gh), li(gh)t, mi(gh)t, nei(gh)bour, ni(gh)t, ri(gh)t, strai(gh)t, throu(gh), ti(gh)t,
wei(gh)
w(h)at, w(h)en, w(h)ere, w(h)ether, w(h)ich, w(h)ip, w(h)y
(h)onest, (h)onour, (h)our
(k)nee, (k)nife, (k)nob, (k)now
ca(l)m, cou(l)d, ha(l)f, sa(l)mon, shou(l)d, ta(l)k, wa(l)k, wou(l)d
autum(n), hym(n)
(p)neumatic, (p)sychiatrist, (p)sychology, (p)sychotherapy
cu(p)board
i(r)on
i(s)land, i(s)le
cas(t)le, Chris(t)mas, fas(t)en, lis(t)en, of(t)en, whis(t)le
g(u)ess, g(u)ide, g(u)itar
(w)rap, (w)rite, (w)rong
(w)ho, (w)hose, (w)hole

32/32