A longer loop of henle indicates that that organism is better at concentrating urine

Sensible water loss (uncontrollable)- sweating

Insensible water loss- from respiration or directly from skin (water evaporates from
breathing)
Both are important for temperature regulation
Desert rodents survive without drinking water because they are very good at
concentrating urine, nocturnal (avoid hottest times of the day), create microclimate
with cooler more moist temperatures, dry feces
Water balance: gain =( oxidative +preformed)
+evaporative water loss)

loss=( urine +feces

THE KIDNEY DOES NOT JUST MAKE URINE! It partakes in homeostasis through
removing waste products, water and salts homeostasis, pH homeostasis, blood
pressure homeostasis, stimulate bone marrow to make RBCs, activating vitamin D
Urinary water loss is regulated by ADH and can be reduced through urine
concentration.
In order to determine urine concentration, you need to compare the osmolarity of
blood and compare it to that of the urine.
Mass Balance in Kidney:
Arterial Output= Venous Output + Urine Output
PX,A x RPFA

PX,V x RPFV

UX x V

Amount = Concentration x Volume

Vascuar Component of Nephron( Aorta, Artery(renal), Afferent Arteriole,
Glomerular Capillaries, Efferent Arteriole, Pertibular Capillaries, Vein, Vena
Cava)
Amount Fitered- Amount Reabsorbed + Amount Secreted = Amount Excreted in
Urine
Renal Function filtration, reabsorption secretion, excretion in urine
Inulin can be used to measure GFR because it is neither absorbed nor secreted
GFR = (amount of x[inulin or creatinine] /PX)
Once you have GFR you can find the mass balance of any substance
GFR is amount plasmafiltered per unit time and is an indicator of kidney function

Application to Clearance
If amount filtered = amount in urine
reabsorption nor secretion

If C s = GFR

If amount filtered > amount in urine

Secretion

If C s > GFR

If amount filtered < amount in urine

Reabsorption

If C s < GFR

No
Tubular
Tubular

Clearance of s = Cs = (Amount Excreted/ Ps) = (Us x UF)/Ps

UF= Urine collected

Us= Inulin conc. urine

P in = Plasma inulin

Substance is filtered only: Amount filtered = Amount excreted

Substance is filtered + reabsorbed = Amount filtered > Amount excreted
Substance is filtered + secreted = Amount Filtered < Amount Excreted
Ability to concentrate urine depends on countercurrent + ADH
Cold Temperatures Inhibit ADH Create More Diluted Urine

No ADH Dilute Urine

Decrease in urine volume Increase blood volume
Purpose of circulatory systems- gas transfer, energy transfer, heat transfer,
transport of nutrients/wastes/hormones/antibodies/salt/cells(immune functions),
transmittal of force for movement
Open circulatory systemsame low pressure everywhere in circuit fish and
mammals
Closed circulatory system same flow everywhere in circuit octopus, squid
All circulatory systems have a pump, a distribution of arteries, transfer by diffusion,
venous system to return blood
Amount of blood flow can be adjusted to meet demands by modifying the
pump(heart) frequency, force of contraction, and pressure and blood flowing
through the tube can be altered by modifying the tube.
Cardiac Output- the amount of blood pumped out from a ventricle in 1
minute(L/min)
Stroke Volume- the amount of blood pumped out in a single heart beat

Heart Rate- the number of ties in a minute the heart contracts

CO = SV x HR
Stroke Volume is the difference between the volume of blood in the ventricle just
before contraction (EDV) and the volume in the ventricle at the end if a contraction
(ESV)
SV = EDV ESV
Ventilation- the process by which Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are transported to
and from the lungs//the volue of air which is transported to and from the lungs per
minute
Ventilation = volume/ minute
(Respiratory rate/min)

Ventilation = (volume/breath)

Aquatic Environment vs. Air- low concentration of water oxygen makes it difficult to
sustain activities that create high oxygen demand. Also, a higher water viscosity
makes it more energetically costly to breath
Temperature, Salinity, and Altitude are determinants of dissolved oxygen in H 2O
Steps in Respiration:
AtmosphereVentilationLungDiffusionBloodTransportTissue
Dead Space- space between mouth and lungs that is not used for gas exchange
Lung surface are is increased by branching sacs of alveoli
LEARN SIGMOID OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVE
Myoglobin has a greater affinity than hemoglobin
Curve is shifted to the right because of increased H +, Increased CO2, Increased
Temperature, and/or Increased DPG.
Flow Rate Through Vessel :
V= flow rate
length r=radius

V =(P1P2)

r 4
8L

P1-P2= pressure drop or difference

=viscosity

I88j
Without light reactions, you cant have dark reactions.
Photorespiration- respiration that takes oxygen instead of carbon dioxide
NADPH is needed to reduceCO2 o C6H1206
Less oxygen higher rate of photosynthesis
Photosystem 2 makes ATP

L=

Photosystem 1 makes NADPH

Q10 = (R2/R1)10/T2-T1
Ejection fraction: The proportion of blood that leaves the ventricle per beat.
Depends upon the force of the contraction.
Hematocrit: Is proportion of the blood that consist of packed red blood cells.
Hematocrit is expressed in percentage of RBCs per volume RBCs per volume.
Tidal volume: The volume of air moved in or out of the lungs with each breath.
Glomerular filtration rate: The total amount of glomerular filtrate produced per
minute by all nephrons of both kidneys.
The end diastolic volume depends on the time available for the ventricles to be
filled time available for the ventricles to be filled with blood.
Changes that may occur with exercising is an increase cardiac output, increased
ejection fraction, and decreased resistance due to dilation blood vessels.
Ventilation is an air going in and out of lung per unit time.
Contraction of the diaphragm causes the thoracic volume Contraction of the
diaphragm causes the thoracic volume to increase, reducing alveolar pressure. This
reduction in pressure allows air to flow into the lungs along the pressure gradient.
Relaxation of the diaphragm causes the thoracic volume to decrease, increasing
alveolar pressure and forcing air out of the lungs along the pressure gradient.
Renal ArteryAfferent arteriole Glomerulus Efferent arteriole vasa recta
vein (passage taken by erythrocyte through kidney)
Autotrophs- plants that make their own food
In the Light reaction, light energy is captured by chlorophyll and converted to
chemical energy to synthesize carbohydrates. Water is split in this process and
oxygen is evolved as an end product.
In the Dark reaction also referred to as the Calvin cycle, carbon from carbon dioxide
is taken up by the leaf and reacts with ribulose bisphosphate(RuBP- Rubisco) to
synthesize carbohydrates.
Light reaction (theoretically, minimal of 8 photons necessary for each molecule of
O2)
2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2o
Dark reaction (using the energy transferred from Dark reaction (using the energy
transferred from the light reaction to NADPH and ATP)

CO2 + 4H+ + 4e- [CH2O] + H2O

Photorespiration(form of adaptation- found in highly developed plants) is the

opposite of Photosynthesis
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase(Rubisco) is an enzyme that fixes carbon form
carbon dioxide. It produces two molecules of G3P, which produces one molecule of
glucose in the Calvin cycle. Rubisco is important because carbon fixation is
necessary for the production of glucose.
Plant pigment is a biotic factor because it comes from the plant and affects the
plant which is living
CAM plant has the highest rate of photosynthesis between CAM, C3, and C4
FOREST CALCULATIONS
To find CO2 Exchange Rate of big number forests, you need to multiply the number
given by the calculated photosynthetic rate. Then you add up all the
(upper,middle,lower) of the same forest to get the total. Calculate the
photosynthetic rate by first finding the Co2 Exchange by finding the difference
between the reference CO2 and the Stable CO2. Then, use this number in the
equation: